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13-3
(continued)
Isothermal Flow
Gas flow in long constant-area ducts, such as natural gas pipelines, is essentially isothermal. Mach numbers in such flows are generally low, but significant pressure
changes can occur as a result of frictional effects acting over long duct lengths.
Hence, such flows cannot be treated as incompressible. The assumption of isothermal
flow is much more appropriate.
For isothermal flow with friction (as opposed to the adiabatic flow with friction
we previously discussed), the heat transfer dQ/dm is not zero. On the other hand,
we have the simplification that the temperature is constant everywhere. As for adiabatic flow, we can start with our set of basic equations (Eqs. 13.1), describing onedimensional flow that is affected by area change, friction, heat transfer, and normal
shocks,
constant
r V1 A1 r V2 A2 rVA m
13:1a
1
2 mV
1
Rx p1 A1 p2 A2 mV
V2
V2
dQ
h1 1 h2 2
dm
2
2
:
Z
1 Q
2 s1
dA
ms
CS T A
13:1b
13:1c
13:1d
p rRT
13:1e
Dh h2 h1 cp DT cp T2 T1
13:1f
Ds s2 s1 cp ln
T2
p2
R ln
T1
p1
13:1g
p rRT
Ds s2 s1 R ln
13:22b
13:22c
13:22d
13:22e
p2
p1
13:22f
Equations 13.22 can be used to analyze frictional isothermal flow in a channel of constant area. For example, if we know conditions at section 1 (i.e., p1, r1, T1, s1, h1,
and V1) we can use these equations to find conditions at some new section 2 after
the fluid has experienced a total friction force Rx. We have five equations (not including the constraint of Eq. 13.22d) and five unknowns ( p2, r2, s2, V2, and the heat
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transfer q that was necessary to maintain isothermal conditions). As we have seen before, in practice this procedure is unwieldywe once again have a set of nonlinear,
coupled algebraic equations to solve.
Before doing any calculations, we can see that the Ts diagram for this process
will be simply a horizontal line passing through state 1 . To see in detail what happens to the flow, in addition to Eqs. 13.22, we can develop property relations as functions of the Mach number. For isothermal flow, c constant, so V2/V1 M2 /M1, and
from Eq. 13.22a we have
r2
V1
M1
r1
V2
M2
Combining with the ideal gas equation, Eq. 13.22e, we obtain
r
p2
V1
M1
2
p1
r1
V2
M2
13:23
At each state we can relate the local temperature to its stagnation temperature using
Eq. 12.21b,
T0
k1 2
M
1
2
T
12:21b
Applying this to states 1 and 2 , with the fact that T1 T2, we obtain
k1 2
M2
1
T02
2
k1 2
T01
M1
1
2
13:24
To determine the variation in Mach number along the duct length, it is necessary
to consider the differential momentum equation for flow with friction. The analysis
leading to Eq. 13.18 is valid for isothermal flow. Since T constant for isothermal
flow, then from Eq. 13.18, with dT 0,
f kM 2
1 kM 2 dM 2
dx
M2
Dh 2
2
and
1 kM 2 dM 2
f
dx
kM 4
Dh
13:25
M 1/ k at x Lmax, where Lmax is the distance beyond which the isothermal flow
may not proceed, gives
fLmax
1 kM 2
ln kM 2
Dh
kM 2
13:26
The duct length, L, required for the flow Mach number to change from M1 to M2
can be obtained from
f
Lmax1 Lmax2
L
f
Dh
Dh
1 kM12
1 kM22
M2
L
ln 12
2
2
Dh
kM1
kM2
M2
13:27
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The distribution of heat exchange along the duct required to maintain isothermal
flow can be determined from the differential form of Eq. 13.22c as
k1 2
M
dq dh0 cp dT0 cp d T 1
2
or, since T constant,
cp T0 k 1
k1
dM 2
dM 2
dq cp T
k1 2
2
2 1
M
2
13-6
r
p2
V1
M1
2
p1
r1
V2
M2
13:29a
k1 2
M2
1
T02
2
k1 2
T01
M1
1
2
13:29b
1 kM12
1 kM22
M12
fL
ln
Dh
kM12
kM22
M22
13:29c
Boundary layers develop rapidly in adverse pressure gradients, so viscous effects may be important or
even dominant. In the presence of thick boundary layers, supersonic flows in diffusers may form complicated systems of oblique and normal shocks.
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5
Flow
1
T
p04
p01
T0 = constant
4
p1*
T* = constant
p1
T1
1
s
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G. Cooling Tower
H. Flow Diversion Valve
I. Aftercooler
J. 11-Stage Axial Flow Compressor
K. 9- by 7-Foot Supersonic Test Section
L. 11- by 11-Foot Transonic Test Section
Fig. 13.23 Schematic view of NASA-Ames closed-circut, high-speed wind tunnel with supporting
facilities [9]. (Photo courtesy of NASA.)
Consider the process of accelerating flow from rest to supersonic speed in the
test section. Soon after flow at the nozzle throat becomes sonic, a shock wave forms
in the divergence. The shock attains its maximum strength when it reaches the nozzle
exit plane. Consequently, to start the tunnel and achieve steady supersonic flow in
the test section, the shock must move through the second throat and into the subsonic
diffuser. When this occurs, we say the shock has been swallowed by the second
throat. Consequently, to start the tunnel, the supersonic diffuser throat must be larger
than the nozzle throat. The second throat must be large enough to exceed the critical
area for flow downstream from the strongest possible shock.
Blocking occurs when the second throat is not large enough to swallow the
shock. When the channel is blocked, flow is sonic at both throats and flow in the test
section is subsonic; flow in the test section cannot be controlled by varying conditions downstream from the supersonic diffuser.
When the tunnel is running there is no shock in the nozzle or test section, so the energy dissipation is much reduced. The second throat area may be reduced slightly
during running to improve the diffuser efficiency. The compressor pressure ratio may
be adjusted to move the shock in the subsonic diffuser to a lower Mach number. A combination of adjustable second throat and pressure ratio control may be used to achieve
optimum running conditions for the tunnel. Small differences in efficiency are important when the tunnel drive system may consume more than half a million kilowatts [10]!
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La
T0
p0
T0
p0
1
*
T
p 0*
p01
Shock
*
p0*
p01
T0 = constant
T0 = constant
M<1
p*
Shock
p*
T* = constant
T* = constant
M=1
M>1
Process path
1
p1
p1
T1
T1
s
(a) Choked supersonic flow in channel.
Ld
Lc
La
La
T0
p0
T0
p0
Shock
1
T
*
p0*
p01
T0 = constant
M<1
*
p0
p*
p01
p1
p0*
T0 = constant
T1
T* = constant
T* = constant
M=1
p*
p1
T1
s
s
(c) Choked flow with shock in nozzle exit
plane.
Fig. 13.24 Schematic Ts diagrams for supersonic Fanno-line flows with normal shocks.
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p01
T01
M>1
1200
p01
T01
M>1
Mt = 1
M1 = 2
Me = 1
M<1
Mt = 1
1200
Me = 1
p0e
T0e
pe
p0e
p01
T01
T0e
p01
T01
Temperature, (K)
Te
800
T1
p1
400
M>1
800
400
p1
0
1
2
3
Nondimensional entropy, (s* s)/R
M<1
p01
T01
p01
T01
M<1
M<1
M<1
7
Mt < 1 M7 = 0.35
M6 = 1
Mt = 1 M4 = 0.701
M3 = 1.5 M5 = 0.407
2000
Te
T
p2 2
M>1
pe
p02
T1
0
1
2
3
Nondimensional entropy, (s* s)/R
8
M8 = 1
p08
2000
T08
p8
p06
1600
1600
T06
T8
p6
T6
1200
p02
T01
p01
T04
T5
T4
Tt
800
Temperature, (K)
GGS
Temperature, (K)
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Temperature, (K)
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1200
T01
800
p01
T7
Tt
T3
p3
400
400
1
2
3
0
Nondimensional entropy, (s* s)/R
(c) Choked flow with shock in nozzle; same
mass flow rate, but flow shifts to a new
Rayleigh line.
0
1
2
3
Nondimensional entropy, (s* s)/R
(d) Subsonic flow throughout; decreased mass flow
rate and flow shifted to another new Rayleigh
line.
Fig. 13.25 Schematic Ts diagrams for supersonic Rayleigh-line flows with normal shocks.
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nozzle and flow is subsonic in the constant-area channel, but the exit flow remains
sonic. If the shock position is specified, the heat addition along the Rayleigh line can
be calculated directly. If the heat addition is specified but the shock position or mass
flow rate are unknown, iteration is required to obtain a solution.
Additional consideration of flow with shock waves is given in [11].