Measurement is the assignment of a

number to a characteristic of an object or

event, which can be compared with other
objects or events.[1][2] The scope and
application of a measurement is
dependent on the context and discipline.
In the natural sciences and engineering,
measurements do not apply to nominal
properties of objects or events, which is
consistent with the guidelines of
the International vocabulary of
metrology published by the International
Bureau of Weights and Measures.[2] However,
in other fields such as statistics as well as
the social and behavioral sciences,
measurements can have multiple levels,
which would include nominal, ordinal,
interval, and ratio scales.[1][3]
Measurement is a cornerstone
of trade, science, technology, and quantitative
research in many disciplines. Historically,
many measurement systems existed for the
varied fields of human existence to
facilitate comparisons in these fields.
Often these were achieved by local
agreements between trading partners or
collaborators. Since the 18th century,
developments progressed towards
unifying, widely accepted standards that
resulted in the modern International System
of Units (SI). This system reduces all
physical measurements to a mathematical
combination of seven base units. The
science of measurement is pursued in the
field of metrology.
Scientific Method Step 1: Make Observations
A lot of people think that the scientific method
starts with forming a hypothesis. The reason for
this misconception may be because many
observations are made informally. After all, when
you are looking for a project idea, you think
through all of the things you have experienced
(observations you have made) and try to find
one that would be suitable for an experiment.
Although the informal variation of Step 1 works,
you will have a richer source of ideas if you pick
a subject and write down observations until a
test-able idea comes up. For example, let's say
you want to do an experiment, but you need an
idea. Take what is around you and start writing
down observations. Write down everything!

Include colors, timing, sounds, temperatures,

light levels... you get the idea.
Scientific Method Step 2: Formulate a
Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a statement that can be used to
predict the outcome of future observations.
Thenull hypothesis, or no-difference hypothesis,
is a good type of hypothesis to test. This type of
hypothesis assumes no difference between two
states. Here is an example of a null hypothesis:
'the rate at which grass grows is not dependent
on the amount of light it receives'. Even if I think
that light affects the rate at which my grass
grows (probably not as much as rain, but that's a
different hypothesis), it is easier to disprove that
light has no effect than to get into complicated
details about 'how much light', or 'wavelength of
light', etc. However, these details can become
their own hypotheses (stated in null form) for
further experimentation. It is easiest to test
separatevariables in separate experiments. In
other words, don't test the effects of light and
water at the same time until after you have
tested each separately.
Scientific Method Step 3: Design an
Experiment
There are many different ways to test a single
hypothesis. If I wanted to test the null
hypothesis, 'the rate of grass growth is not
dependent on quantity of light', I would have
grass exposed to no light (a control group...
identical in every way to the other experimental
groups except for the variable being tested), and
grass with light. I could complicate the
experiment by having differing levels of light,
different types of grasses, etc. Let me stress that
the control group can only differ from any
experimental groups with respect to
the one variable. For example, in all fairness I
could not compare grass in my yard in the shade
and grass in the sun... there are other variables
between the two groups besides light, such as
moisture and probably pH of the soil (where I am
it is more acidic near the trees and buildings,

which is also where it is shady). Keep your

experiment simple.
Scientific Method Step 4: Test the Hypothesis
In other words, perform an experiment! Your
data might take the form of numbers, yes/no,
present/absent, or other observations. It is
important to keep data that 'looks bad'. Many
experiments have been sabotaged by
researchers throwing out data that didn't agree
with preconceptions. Keep all of the data! You
can make notes if something exceptional
occurred when a particular data point was taken.
Also, it is a good idea to write down observations
related to your experiment that aren't directly
related to the hypothesis. These observations
could include variables over which you have no
control, such as humidity, temperature,
vibrations, etc., or any noteworthy happenings.
Step 5: Accept or Reject the Hypothesis
For many experiments, conclusions are formed
based on informal analysis of the data. Simply
asking, 'Does the data fit the hypothesis', is one
way to accept or reject a hypothesis. However, it
is better to apply a statistical analysis to data, to
establish a degree of 'acceptance' or 'rejection'.
Mathematics is also useful in assessing the
effects of measurement errors and other
uncertainties in an experiment.
Hypothesis Accepted? Things to Keep in
Mind
Accepting a hypothesis does not guarantee that
it is the correct hypothesis! This only means that
the results of your experiment support the
hypothesis. It is still possible to duplicate the
experiment and get different results next time. It
is also possible to have a hypothesis that
explains the observations, yet is the incorrect
explanation. Remember, a hypothesis can be
disproven, but never proven!
Hypothesis Rejected? Back to Step 2
If the null hypothesis was rejected, that may be
as far as your experiment needs to go. If any
other hypothesis was rejected, then it is time to
reconsider your explanation for your
observations. At least you won't be starting from

scratch... you have more observations and data

than ever before!
The scientific method is a method for conducting
an objective investigation. The scientific method
involves making observations and conducting an
experiment to test a hypothesis. The number of
steps of the scientific method isn't standard.
Some texts and instructors break up the
scientific method into more or fewer steps. Some
people start listing steps with the hypothesis, but
since a hypothesis is based on observations
(even if they aren't formal), the hypothesis
usually is considered to be the
Importance of the Scientific Method
PREV NEXT
The scientific method attempts to minimize the
influence of bias or prejudice in the
experimenter. Even the best-intentioned
scientists can't escape bias. It results from
personal beliefs, as well as cultural beliefs,
which means any human filters information
based on his or her own experience.
Unfortunately, this filtering process can cause a
scientist to prefer one outcome over another. For
someone trying to solve a problem around the
house, succumbing to these kinds of biases is
not such a big deal. But in the scientific
community, where results have to be reviewed
and duplicated, bias must be avoided at all
costs.
That's the job of the scientific method. It provides
an objective, standardized approach to
conducting experiments and, in doing so,
improves their results. By using a standardized
approach in their investigations, scientists can
feel confident that they will stick to the facts and
limit the influence of personal, preconceived
notions. Even with such a rigorous methodology
in place, some scientists still make mistakes. For
example, they can mistake a hypothesis for an
explanation of a phenomenon without
performing experiments. Or they can fail to
accurately account for errors, such as

measurement errors. Or they can ignore data

that does not support the hypothesis.
second step. Here

Chiefs of State and Cabinet Members of

Foreign Governments
Date of Information: 6/11/2012

Pres.

Benigno AQUINO
III

Vice Pres.

Jejomar Cabaiatam
BINAY

Executive Sec.

Paquito
OCHOA, Jr.

Chief of Staff

Julia ABAD

Sec. of Agrarian Reform

Virgilio DE LOS
REYES

Sec. of Agriculture

Proceso ALCALA

other local governments. The constitution limits

Sec. of the Budget &

Management

Florencio ABAD

the creation of autonomous regions to Muslim

Sec. of Education, Culture, Armin

& Sports
LUISTRO, Rev.

Levels of local government[edit]

Main article: Administrative divisions of the
Philippines
Autonomous regions[edit]
Main article: Regions of the Philippines
Autonomous regions have more powers than

Mindanao and the Cordilleras but only one

autonomous region exists: the Autonomous

Jose Rene D.
ALMENDRAS

Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM). In 2001, a

Sec. of Environment &

Natural Resources

Ramon PAJE

composition of the autonomous region and

Sec. of Finance

Cesar PURISIMA

added Basilan (except for the city of Isabela)

Sec. of Foreign Affairs

Albert DEL
ROSARIO

and Marawi City in Lanao del Sur. Isabela City

Sec. of Health

Enrique ONA, Dr.

rejecting inclusion in the ARMM. A Cordillera

Sec. of Interior & Local

Govt.

Jesse ROBREDO

Autonomous Region has never been formed

Sec. of Justice

Leila DE LIMA

Sec. of Labor &

Employment

Rosalinda BALDOZ

Sec. of National Defense

Voltaire GAZMIN

Sec. of Public Works &

Highways

Rogelio L.
SINGSON

Sec. of Science &

Technology

Mario MONTEJO

Sec. of Social Welfare &

Development

Corazon SOLIMAN

Outside the lone autonomous region, the

Sec. of Socioeconomic
Planning

Cayetano
PADERANGA

provinces are the highest-level local

Sec. of Tourism

Alberto LIM

component cities and municipalities. A province

Sec. of Trade & Industry

Gregory DOMINGO

Sec. of Transportation &

Communications

Manuel ROXAS II

known as the Sangguniang Panlalawigan.

National Security Adviser

Cesar P.
GARCIA, Jr.

Cities and municipalities[edit]

Sec. of Energy

Governor, Central Bank of Amando

the Philippines
TETANGCO, Jr.
Ambassador to the US

Jose CUISIA, Jr.

Permanent Representative Libran N.

to the UN, New York
CABACTULAN

plebiscite in the ARMM confirmed the previous

remains a part of the province of Basilan despite

because no plebiscite has received the required

support.
An autonomous region is governed by the
regional governor and a legislature such as
the ARMM Regional Legislative Assembly.
Provinces[edit]
Main article: Provinces of the Philippines

government. The provinces are organized into

is governed by the governor and a legislature

Main articles: Cities of the

Local governments have two

Philippines and Municipalities of the Philippines

branches: executive and legislative. All courts in

Municipal government in the Philippines is

divided into three independent cities,
component cities, and municipalities (sometimes
referred to as towns). Several cities across the
country are "independent cities" which means
that they are not governed by a province, even
though like Iloilo City the provincial capitol might

the Philippines are under the Supreme Court of

the Philippines and therefore there are no localgovernment controlled judicial branches. Nor do
local governments have
any prosecutors or public defenders, as those
are under the jurisdiction of the national
government.

be in the city. Independent city residents do not

The executive branch is composed of the

vote for nor hold provincial offices. Far more

regional governor for the Autonomous Region in

cities are component cities and are a part of a

Muslim Mindanao, governor for the provinces,

province. Municipalities are always a part of a

mayor for the cities and municipalities, and the

province except for Pateros which was

barangay captain for the barangays. [2]

separated from Rizal to form Metro Manila.

Cities and municipalities are governed mayors
and legislatures, which are called
the Sangguniang Panlungsod in cities and
the Sangguniang Bayan in municipalities.
Barangays[edit]
Main article: Barangay

Legislatures[edit]
The legislatures review
the ordinances and resolutions enacted by the
legislatures below. Aside from regular and exofficio members, the legislatures above the
barangay level also have three sectoral

Every city and municipality in the Philippines is

representatives, one each from women,

divided into barangays, the smallest of the Local

agricultural or industrial workers, and other

Government Units. Barangays can be further

sectors.[2]

divided into sitiosand puroks but those divisions

Below are the current Senators of the

Philippines.

do not have leaders elected in formal elections

supervised by the national government.
A barangay's executive is the Punong
Barangay or barangay captain and its legislature
is the Sangguniang Barangay, composed of
barangay captain, theBarangay
Kagawads (barangay councilors) and the SK
chairman. The SK chairman also leads a
separate assembly for youth, the Sangguniang
Kabataan or SK.
Offices[edit]

The following senators are elected on May 2010

and will serve until June 30, 2016.
Sen. Pilar Juliana S. Cayetano
Sen. Miriam Defensor-Santiago
Sen. Franklin M. Drilon (Senate President)
Sen. Juan Ponce Enrile (Minority Floor
Leader)
Sen. Jinggoy E. Estrada
Sen. Teofisto Guingona III
Sen. Manuel M. Lapid
Sen. Ferdinand R. Marcos Jr.
Sen. Sergio R. Osmena III
Sen. Ralph G. Recto (President Pro-Tempore)
Sen. Ramon B. Revilla Jr.

Sen. Vicente C. Sotto III

ValeraBernos

The following senators are elected on May 2013

and will serve until June 30, 2019.

Agusan del Norte

Sen. Juan Edgardo M. Angara

1st

Jose
Aquino
II

2nd

Angelic
a
Amante

1st

Maria
Valentin
a Plaza

2nd

Evelyn
Mellana

Lone

Florenci
o
Miraflor
es

1st

Edcel
Lagman

2nd

Al
Francis
Bichara

3rd

Fernand
o
Gonzale
z2

1st

Roberto
Puno

2nd

Romeo
Acop

Lone

Paolo
Javier

Sen. Paolo Benigno Aquino IV

Sen. Maria Lourdes Nancy S. Binay
Sen. Allan Peter S. Cayetano (Majority
Floor Leader)
Sen. Joseph Victor G. Ejercito

Agusan del Sur

Sen. Francis G. Escudero

Sen. Gregorio B. Honasan II
Sen. Loren B. Legarda
Sen. Aquilino Pimentel III
Aklan

Sen. Grace L. Poe

Sen. Antonio F. Trillanes IV

Albay

Sen. Cynthia A. Villar

Representatives elected from
legislative districts[edit]
See also: Legislative districts of the
Philippines

Antipolo

Province/City

Distri
ct

Represent
ative

Abra

Lone

Ma.
Jocelyn

Antique

Apayao

Aurora

Bacolod

Baguio

Basilan

Lone

Lone

Lone

Lone

Lone

Bataan
1st

2nd

Batanes

Lone

Batangas

Eleanor
Begtang

4th

Mark L.
Mendoz
a

Benguet

Lone

Ronald
Cosalan

Biliran

Lone

Rogelio
Espina

1st

Rene
Relamp
agos

2nd

Erico B.
Aument
ado (un
til
Decem
ber 26,
2012)3

3rd

Arthur
Yap

1st

Jesus
Emman
uel
Paras

2nd

Florenci
o
Flores,
Jr.

3rd

Jose
Zubiri III

Juan
Edgardo
Angara
Anthony
Golez,
Jr.

Bernard
Bohol
o
Vergara
Hadjima
n
Hatama
nSallima
n
Hermini
a
Roman
Albert
S.
Garcia

Bukidnon

Henedin
a Abad

1st

Tomas
Apacibl
e

2nd

Hermila
ndo
Mandan
Bulacan
as

3rd

Nelson
Collante

1st

Ma.
Victoria
SyAlvarad

ez

2nd

Pedro
Pancho

3rd

Jonjon
Mendoz
a

4th

Linabell Camarines Norte

e
Villarica

1st

Juan
Ponce
Enrile,
Jr.

Cagayan

Caloocan
1st

Oscar
Malapit
an

2nd

Mitzi
Cajayon

1st

Renato
Unico,
Jr.

2nd

Elmer
Panotes

1st

Rolando
Andaya,
Jr.

2nd

Dato
Arroyo

3rd

Luis
Villafuer
te, Sr.

4th

Arnulfo
Fuenteb
ella

5th

Salvio
Fortuno

Camiguin

Lone

Pedro
Romual
do(until
April
24,
2013)16

Capiz

1st

Camarines Sur

Florenci
o
Vargas (
until
July 22,
2010)4
2nd

Baby
Aline
VargasAlfonso(
since
March
16,
2011)5

3rd

Randolp
h Ting

1st

Jose
Benjami
n
Benaldo

Cagayan de Oro

2nd

Rufus
Rodrigu

Antonio
Del

Rosario
2nd

Catanduanes

5th

Ramon
Durano
VI

6th

Gabriel
Luis
Quisum
bing

1st

Rachel
del Mar

2nd

Tomas
Osmea

1st

Maria
Carmen
Zamora

2nd

Rommel
Amaton
g

1st

Jesus
Sacdala
n

2nd

Nancy
Catamc
o

Pablo P. Dasmarias City

Garcia

Lone

Elpidio
Barzaga
, Jr.

Pablo
John
Garcia

1st

Jane
Castro

Lone

Cesar
Sarmien
to

1st

Joseph
Emilio
Abaya (
until
October Cebu City
18,
2012)

Cavite

2nd

Cebu

4th

Benhur
Salimba
ngon

Lani
Mercad
o

Compostela Valley

3rd

Erineo
Maliksi

5th

Roy
Loyola

6th

Antonio Cotabato (North)

Ferrer

7th

Crispin
Remulla

1st

2nd
3rd

Eduardo
Gullas

Davao City

Karlo
Nograle
s

2nd

Mylene
GarciaAlbano

Nava

Ifugao
3rd
Davao del Norte
1st

Dinagat Islands6

Eastern Samar

Antonio Iligan City

Rafael
del
Rosario Ilocos Norte

2nd

1st

Ilocos Sur
Marc
Douglas
Cagas
IV

2nd

Franklin
Bautista

1st

Nelson
Dayang
hirang

2nd

Thelma
Almario

Davao Oriental

Lone

Vicente
Belmont
e, Jr.

1st

Rodolfo
Farias

2nd

Imelda
Marcos

Isidro
Ungab

Antonio
Lagdam
eo, Jr.

Davao del Sur

Lone

Teodoro
Baguilat
, Jr.

Lone

Ruben
Ecleo,
Jr. (until Iloilo
May 31,
2012)7

Lone

Ben
Evardon
e

1st

Ryan
Singson
(since
May 30,
2011)9

2nd

Eric
Singson
, Jr.

1st

Janette
Garin

2nd

Augusto
Syjuco,
Jr.

3rd
Guimaras

Lone

Joaquin
Carlos
Rahman

Ronald
Singson
(until
March
7,
2011)8

Arthur
Defenso
r, Jr.

4th

Ferjenel
Biron

5th

Niel
Tupas,
Jr.

3rd

Evita
Arago

4th

Edgar
San Luis

1st

Imelda
Dimapo
ro

2nd

Fatima
Aliah
Dimapo
ro

1st

Moham
med
Hussein
Pacasu
m
Pangan
daman

2nd

Pangalia
n
Balindo
ng

Lone

Arturo
Radaza

Lone

Mark
Villar
Ferdina
nd
Martin
Romual
dez

Lanao del Norte

Iloilo City

Lone

Jerry
Treas

1st

Rodolfo
Albano,
Jr.

2nd

Anna
Cristina Lanao del Sur
Go

3rd

Napoleo
n Dy

4th

Giorgidi
Aggaba
o

Isabela

Kalinga

Lone

Manuel
Agyao

1st

Victor
Francisc Lapu-Lapu City
o
Ortega
Las Pias

La Union

2nd

Eufranio
Eriguel Leyte

1st

Danilo
Fernand
ez

1st

Timmy
Chipeco

2nd

Laguna

2nd

Sergio
Apostol

3rd

Andres
Salvacio
n, Jr.

4th

Lucy
Torres

5th

Jose
Carlos
Cari

1st

Bai
Sandra
Sema

2nd

Simeon Marikina
Datuma
nong

1st

Moniqu
e
Lagdam
eo

Maguindanao

Makati

Malabon

Mandaluyong

Manila

Marinduque

2nd

Abigail
Binay

Lone

Josephin Masbate
e
LacsonNoel

Lone

Neptali
M.
Gonzale
s, Jr.

1st
2nd

Benjami
n Asilo Misamis Occidental
Carlo
Lopez

3rd

Zenaida
Angping

4th

Trisha
BonoanDavid

5th

Amado
Bagatsi
ng

6th

Rosend
a
Ocampo

1st

Marcelin
o
Teodoro

2nd

Miro
Quimbo

Lone

Lord
Allan
Jay
Velasco

1st

Narciso
Bravo,
Jr.

2nd

Antonio
Kho

3rd

Scott
Davies
Lanete

1st

Jorge
Almonte

2nd

Loreto
Ocampo

s
Misamis Oriental

1st

2nd

Mountain Province

Muntinlupa

Navotas

Lone

June 4,
2012)11

Peter
Unabia
Yevgeny
Vincent
e
Negros Oriental
Emano
Maximo
Dalog

Lone

Rodolfo
Biazon

Lone

Toby
Tiangco

1st

Jules
Ledesm
a

Northern Samar
Negros Occidental

2nd

Alfredo
Marao Nueva Ecija
n III

3rd

Alfredo
Benitez

4th

Jeffrey
Ferrer

5th

Iggy
Arroyo (
until
January
26,
2012)10
Nueva Vizcaya
Alejandr
o
Mirasol Occidental Mindoro
(since

6th

Merced
es
Alvarez

1st

Jocelyn
Limkaic
hong

2nd

George
Arnaiz

3rd

Pryde
Henry
Teves

1st

Raul
Daza

2nd

Emil
Ong

1st

Josefina
Joson

2nd

Joseph
Gilbert
Violago

3rd

Czarina
Umali

4th

Rodolfo
Antonin
o

Lone

Carlos
M.
Padilla

Lone

Ma.
Amelita

Villaros
a
Oriental Mindoro

1st

Rodolfo
Valencia

2nd

Reynald
o Umali

1st

Antonio
C.
Alvarez

2nd

Victorin Paraaque
o
Dennis
Socrate
s

Palawan

Pampanga

1st

2nd

3rd

4th

Pangasinan

1st

2nd

3rd

Carmelo
Lazatin Pasay
Gloria
Macapa
Pasig
galArroyo
Quezon
Aurelio
Gonzale
s, Jr.
Anna
York
Bondoc
Jesus
Celeste
Leopold
o
Bataoil Quezon City
Maria
Rachel

Arenas
4th

Gina de
Venecia

5th

Carmen
Cojuang
co

6th

Marlyn
Aggaba
s

1st

Edwin
Olivarez

2nd

Roilo
Golez

Lone

Imelda
CalixtoRubiano

Lone

Roman
Romulo

1st

Wilfrido
Mark
Enverga

2nd

Irvin
Alcal

3rd

Danilo
Suarez

4th

Lorenzo
Taada
III

1st

Vincent
Crisolog
o

2nd

Winston
Castelo

3rd

Jorge
Banal,
Jr.

Quirino

Rizal

Romblon

4th

Felician
o
Belmont
e, Jr.

Lone

Dakila
Carlo
Cua

Escuder
o
III(until
August
13,
2012)12

1st

Joel
Duavit

2nd

Isidro
South Cotabato
Rodrigu
ez, Jr.

Lone

Eleandr
o Jesus
Madron
a
Southern Leyte

Samar
1st

2nd

San Jose del Monte

San Juan

Sarangani

Lone

Mel
Senen
Sarmien Sultan Kudarat
to
Milagros
a Tan
Arthur
Robes

Sulu

Lone

JV
Ejercito

Lone

Manny
Pacquia
o
Surigao del Norte

Siquijor

Lone

Sorsogon

1st

Orlando
Fua
Salvado
r

2nd

Deograc
ias
Ramos,
Jr.

1st

Pedro
Acharon
, Jr.

2nd

Daisy
Fuentes

Lone

Roger
Mercad
o

1st

Raden
Sakalur
an

2nd

Arnulfo
Go

1st

Tupay
Loong

2nd

Nur-Ana
Sahidull
a

1st

Francisc
o
Matuga
s

2nd

Guillerm
o
Romara
te, Jr.

1st

Philip
Pichay

2nd

Florenci
o Garay

TaguigPateros

1st

Arnel
Cerafica

Taguig

2nd

Sigfrido
Tiga

1st

Enrique
Cojuang
co

2nd

Susan
YapSulit

3rd

Jeci
Lapus

Lone

Nur
Jaafar

Surigao del Sur

say
Antonio
M.
Diaz (u
ntil
August
3,
2011)12
2nd

Tarlac

Tawi-Tawi
Valenzuela

1st

2nd

Zambales

1st

Zamboanga City

Zamboanga del Norte

Rexlon
Gatchali
an
Magtan
ggol
Gunigun
do
Maria
Zamboanga del Sur
Milagros
Magsay

Hermog
enes
Omar
Ebdane
III (sinc
e
Februar
y 13,
2012)13

1st

Maria
Isabelle
Climaco
Salazar

2nd

Erico
Basilio
Fabian

1st

Seth
Jalosjos

2nd

Rosend
o
Labadla
bad

3rd

Cesar
Jalosjos

1st

Victor
Yu

2nd

Aurora
Cerilles

Zamboanga Sibugay
1st

Jonatha
n
Yambao

2nd

Romeo
Jalosjos,
Jr.

Baras

West district
Mayor
Jorge C. Reyes
Rodel V. Abichuela

Provincial Board Memb

Municipal Mayor
Jose Romeo R. Francisco

Provincial Board Memb

Vice Mayor

Reinhard T. Soledad

Councilors

Giovanni A. Balmadrid
Municipal Vice- Mayor

Nel B. Asanza

David dela Via

Municipal Councilor
East District:

Ely T. Carranza

Municipal Councilor
Edwin T. Tanael

Diolito R. Tanael

Municipal Councilor

Juan V. Timuat, Jr.

Lorenzo T. Templonuevo, Jr.

Municipal Councilor

Rico T. Tating

Municipal Councilor
Arnel B. Turado

Loreto G. Toledana, Jr.

Municipal Councilor
Marilyn T. Tatel

Joseph M. Belaro

Municipal Councilor

Eufemio T. Oliman

Municipal Councilor

Provincial Board Memb

Provincial Board Memb

Provincial Board Memb

Provincial Board Memb

Provincial Board Memb

Provincial Board Memb