Gimei Benedict Final SCOUL IT Report 2016 PDF

THE PRODUCTION PROCESSES OF
COMMERCIAL SUGAR AT SUGAR

CORPORATION OF UGANDA LIMITED
(SCOUL)
AN INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING (II)
SUBMITTED TO:
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY
KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY, UGANDA

SUBMITTED BY:
GIMEI BENEDICT
14/U/132/CHD/GV
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING (II)
SUPERVISED BY:
MR. KYAZZE PASCAL
Process Chemist, Works Department-Process Section (SCOUL)
30th May to 6th August 2016
DEDICATION
I dedicate this report to my beloved parents, Mr. Mafabi Patrick Gimei and Mrs. Nannozi Lucy,
for their encouragement, unconditional love and support that has made me the person I am today.
Thank you for believing in me and may the Almighty God reward you abundantly.
Also to my brothers, Mafabi Patrick and Gimei Peter, and my only beloved sister Nabisaawa
Christine whose love and company was very important to keep moving me forward. I wish you
the best in your future endeavors.
STUDENT DECLARATION
I, Gimei Benedict, humbly declare, that the work which is being presented in the Industrial
Training Report entitled THE PRODUCTION PROCESSES OF COMMERCIAL SUGAR
AT SUGAR CORPORATION OF UGANDA LIMITED (SCOUL), in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the award of the Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering, and submitted
to the Department of Chemistry, Kyambogo University, is an authentic record of my own work
carried out during my industrial training period from 30th May 2016 to 6th August 2016 under the
supervision of Mr. Kyazze Pascal, Process Chemist Works Department (Process Section) at
SCOUL.
I also declare that, the matter presented in this Internship Report has not been submitted by me for
the award of any other degree elsewhere. It is only prepared for my academic requirement and not
for any other purpose. It should not be used with the interest of opposite party of the corporation.
Signature of Student
GIMEI BENEDICT
14/U/132/CHD/GV
B. Science in Chemical Engineering (Yr. 2)
Department Of Chemistry
Kyambogo University, Uganda.
0704649584 / gimibens@gmail.com
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APPROVAL
The undersigned certify that this Industrial Training Report has been submitted by Gimei
Benedict, Registration Number 14/U/132/CHD/GV, and to the department of Chemistry,
Kyambogo University, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Bachelor of
Science in Chemical Engineering. We also certify that the above statement made by the student is
correct to the best of our knowledge. The training was carried out under special supervision and
within the time frame prescribed by the syllabus. We found the student to be hardworking, skilled,
bonafide and eager to undertake any commercial and industrial work related to his field of study
and hence we recommend the award of Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering.
Approved as to the style and content by:
Signature of Supervisor
MR. KYAZZE PASCAL
Process Chemist, Works Department-Process Section
Date: .
Signature & Stamp:
Signature of Training Manager

MR. OBBO VINCENT
Superintendent Training
Date: .
Signature & Stamp:
Signature of University Inspector

DR. WANASOLO MICHEAL WILLIAM
Kyambogo University (Department of Chemistry)
Date: .
Signature & Stamp:
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
A great number of people have helped me in this internship training. First of all, I thank The
Almighty God, Who has enabled me produce this piece of work.
I would like to place on record my deep sense of gratitude to Mr. Obbo Vincent, Superintendent
Training, and the management of SCOUL, for the opportunity of the internship program.
I express my sincere gratitude to Mr. Kyazze Pascal, Industrial Chemist, Works Department
(Process Section), SCOUL, for his stimulating guidance, continuous encouragement and full
supervision throughout the course of present work, his support and effort to compile this report.
I am also indebted to Mr. Anwar Mubarak, Senior Deputy Manager, Works Department (Process
Section), SCOUL, for his generous guidance, help and constructive suggestions.
I would like to convey my thanks to the mechanical staff and electrical staff for giving me support
during maintenance work in the power house with mechanical and electrical engineering point of
views. In the Boiler house, I got support from Mr. Mugerwa Joseph (Boiler Engineer) and Mr.
Ssemwanga Siraj (Boiler Engineer), whose efforts provided me a valuable environment, in which
my practical growth occurred.
I also wish to extend my thanks to all the Process Chemists (Process House) especially Mr. Kirya
Keneth, Mr. Kizito Joel, Mr. Eyaru Francis, Mr. Iriso Richard and Laboratory Chemists, Mr.
Baryayefuza Frank, Mr. Woira Patrick and Mr. Alekuku Festos, and all my colleagues, for their
insightful comments and invaluable suggestions to improve the quality of this report work.
I am extremely thankful to my lovely niece, Miss Nambozo Winnie, Headmistress Mehta Central
Nursery, SCOUL, for providing me accommodation, meals and a valuable environment with
infrastructural facilities to work in, without which this work would not have been possible.
Finally, yet more importantly, I would like to express my deep appreciation to my parents, Mr.
Mafabi Patrick and Mrs. Nannozi Lucy, my sister and brothers for their perpetual support,
advice and encouragement that has enabled me reach this level as far as my Bachelors degree is
concerned. May the Almighty God reward them accordingly.
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ABSTRACT
Sugar Corporation of Uganda Limited, sugar factory with a distillery plant, is located at Lugazi
about 46 km west of Jinja along the main Kampala Jinja highway. SCOUL is one of the pioneers
of the sugar industry in Uganda. The main product of the company is commercial light-brown
and brown sugar. The working capacity of SCOUL sugar factory is 140 - 150 tons of crushing of
cane per hour. It has a maximum capacity of 160 tons of crushing of cane per hour.
The organization believes in strict adherence to commitment, discipline and fair business
principles. The operation activities of the factory revolve on its departments. There are different
types of employees who are hired at need basis, some employees are permanent who work for a
whole year and some are temporary (seasonal employees). The management is quite successful in
providing a congenital and co-operative atmosphere to its employees.
From the processing point of view, the production of cane sugar can be summarized in the
following way: Sugarcane is purchased from farmers (out-growers) or supplied from the company
estates and transported directly to the factory where it is weighed, conveyed, cutted, and fiberized.
Primary juice along-side juice from the second mill is then extracted by fiberized cane from the
milling operation and pumped for screening into a mixed juice tank for further processing. The
waste bagasse is used in the boilers as a fuel for the production of steam, in order to meet industrial
requirements. Excess bagasse is stored in the bagasse yard. The steam produced is supplied to
power house to run the turbines so as to generate electricity for the factory and also used to start
up motors that drive the milling operation. The sugar factory generates a total of 9.5MW of
electricity that it can also meet the energy requirements of Lugazi town if it is provided to them.
The mixed juice is then heated in different stages using exhaust steam supplied to process house.
Its then treated, clarified and evaporated to form concentrated solution (syrup). The syrup is then
sulphited and sent to vacuum pans for crystallization. Other by products are utilized for other
processes. The filter cake is utilized as fertilizer in the field, while final molasses that are separated
from the centrifugation process are supplied to ethyl alcohol production plant (distillery). The final
production of commercial light-brown sugar is about 2000 bags per shift. Each shift, is of 8 hours
and each bag is of 50kg. Therefore, final production is of about 250-300 tons/day.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION................................................................................................................................ i
STUDENT DECLARATION....................................................................................................... ii
APPROVAL ................................................................................................................................. iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................ iv
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... v
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................ vi
BACKGROUND OF INDUSTRIAL TRAINING .................................................................. viii
CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................... 1
1.0 INTRODUCTORY PAGE ..................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Company Profile: .................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Objectives of the Company: ................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Management and Organizational Structure: ....................................................................... 2
CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................................... 4
2.0 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................... 4
2.1 What is Sugar? ........................................................................................................................ 4
2.2 Properties of Sucrose (Sugar): ............................................................................................... 4
2.3 Uses of Sucrose: ....................................................................................................................... 5
2.4 Nutrition and Health Aspects of Sucrose: ............................................................................ 6
2.5 Constituents of Sugar Cane: .................................................................................................. 6
CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 7
3.0 SUGAR FACTORY FEED SECTION AND MILL HOUSE SECTION DETAILS ....... 7
3.1 Block Flow Diagram ............................................................................................................... 7
3.2 Feed Section (Delivery, Weighing, Off-loading & Handling of Cane) ............................... 7
3.3 Cane Preparation .................................................................................................................... 8
3.4 Mills ........................................................................................................................................ 10
3.5 The Milling Process............................................................................................................... 10
3.5.1 Imbibition at the Mills ....................................................................................................... 11
CHAPTER FOUR ....................................................................................................................... 12
4.1 Boiler ...................................................................................................................................... 12
4.2 Boiler Feed Water Treatment (Water Chemistry) ............................................................ 13
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CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................ 15

5.0 POWER HOUSE .................................................................................................................. 15
5.1 Turbines ................................................................................................................................. 15
5.2 Steam Turbine ....................................................................................................................... 15
5.3 Electricity co-generation ...................................................................................................... 17
CHAPTER SIX ........................................................................................................................... 18
6.0 PROCESS HOUSE ............................................................................................................... 18
6.1 Block Flow Diagram (Process House) ................................................................................. 18
6.2 Clarification Process ............................................................................................................. 18
6.2.1 Juice Heating ...................................................................................................................... 19
6.2.2 Treatment of Juice (Defecation) ....................................................................................... 21
6.2.3 Subsidation (Clarifier) ....................................................................................................... 23
6.3 Mud Filtration ....................................................................................................................... 27
6.4 Evaporation ........................................................................................................................... 30
6.5 Syrup Sulphitation ................................................................................................................ 34
6.6 Pan Boiling / Sugar Boiling .................................................................................................. 35
6.7 Crystallization by cooling ..................................................................................................... 40
6.8 Centrifugation (Centrifugal Machines) .............................................................................. 41
6.9 Sugar Drying (Fluidised Bed Drier) .................................................................................... 44
6.10 Packaging and Storage: ...................................................................................................... 45
CHAPTER SEVEN ..................................................................................................................... 46
7.0 ACTIVITIES CARRIED OUT, SKILLS AQUIRED AND CHALLENGES FACED .. 46
7.1 CHEMICAL LABORATORY ............................................................................................ 46
7.2 CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS, REFERENCES & APPENDICES ............. 53
APPENDIX A .............................................................................................................................. 55
APPENDIX B .............................................................................................................................. 56
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BACKGROUND OF INDUSTRIAL TRAINING

Industrial Training is a course unit with programs or courses specified by universities and other
tertiary institutions, carried out by students in the recess term or holiday time to enable them relate
theoretical work with practical work in the field. It is carried out in reputable firms, organisations
and companies or from within the university, and permits students to get a considerable vision and
awareness of their future professions as well as the working environment in such careers.
Introduction:
I chose to do industrial training for my second year, at SCOUL so as to develop a comprehensive
understanding and appreciation of Chemical Engineering concepts and principles as an expanding
discipline of a continuous learning process, in relation to sugar processing and its quality control.
During my training with SCOUL, I was attached to the Process Section. I have been able to study
all the chemical and physical processes of sugar production, the design, construction and operation
of all the equipments used for production. The ultimate goal is the conversion of the raw-material
(sugarcane) to the useful product (commercial-light brown sugar).
Purpose and objectives of industrial training attachment:
To collectively appreciate and transform the basic knowledge as acquired in the lecture rooms,
to a more productive and practical bit by physically and mentally engaging to the best of my
ability in the real world.
To execute more information judgment at work place and accept the responsibility for it.
To recognize that financial and economic factors play important role in all science and
technology activities.
To develop own personality and communication skills for future roles as managers and leaders
in the scientific and technological world.
To develop a sense of responsibility towards society and the community at large.
To understand the formal and informal relationship in an organization, promoting favorable

human inter-relations and team work.
To appreciate that science and technology are expanding disciplines and that learning is a
continuous process
viii
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTORY PAGE
1.1 Company Profile:
Sugar Corporation of Uganda Limited (SCOUL) was established in 1924 as Uganda Sugar
Factory. It was wholly owned by the Late Nanji Kalidas Mehta. The business was incorporated in
1934 as a limited liability company for the purpose of producing sugar for both local and
international markets. In 1972, the owners left the country due to political upheavals and the assets
of the Uganda Sugar Factory were expropriated by the then Government of Uganda. In 1980,
however, the new Government invited the Mehta family and handed them back their assets under
the joint venture agreement where all the assets were vested in a new company known as Sugar
Corporation of Uganda Limited (SCOUL).
The new company was incorporated on the 26th May 1980. (Government 51% shares, Mehta
family 49% share-holding) and set out to establish a new plant and rehabilitate the sugar cane
plantation and other infrastructure at a massive cost of US$86.645 million. The new Sugar factory
was inaugurated on 26th, January 1988. Currently SCOUL is 100% owned by the International
Investment Corporation ltd (Mehta family) after Government handed over all its shares on 10th
August 2009. Before this ceremony, government shares stood 24% (Ministry of Finance).
Presently, SCOUL, comprises of agricultural land of over 11,000 hectares, a sugar plant, a
distillery and a CO2 plant. In addition to the sugarcanes produced in its estate, SCOUL also buys
sugarcanes from out growers. The sugarcanes are processed in the factory to produce sugar and
molasses (by-product). Molasses is further processed in the distillery to produce Extra Neutral
Alcohol (ENA) and Technical Alcohol (TA). The raw CO2 gas produced from fermentation of
molasses is sent to CO2 plant for purification. The factory normally works continuously for 10
months with a scheduled stop (shut down) of two months period every year.
1.1.1 Location of the Organization:
The manufacturing center is situated at Lugazi Municipal council about 46km west of Jinja along
the main Kampala Jinja highway.
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1.1.2 Business Principle:

The SCOUL mission is To produce the best quality sugar in Uganda that satisfies our customers
and provides fair returns on the capital employed through dedicated employees and team work.
The SCOUL vision is To be the best quality sugar producer in Uganda.
1.2 Objectives of the Company:
The company operates basically on objectives that cover the interest of stake-holders, majority of
employees, customers and economic interest of the corporation at large and these include:
To provide fair returns on capital employed.
To ensure total satisfaction and to have the best supply of the sugar.
To implement and maintain environmental management system that fulfills the

requirements of ISO.
To build dedicated and hardworking team for efficiency.
To provide staff development through involvement and training.
To provide fair work environment with job security and equal opportunity for all.
1.2.1 Products produced by the Company:

The organizations major product is commercial light-brown and brown sugar that meets the
East African standard (EAS 749). The sugar is packed in bags of 1kg, 2kg, 5kg, 25kg and 50 kg
with brand names such as Lugazi Sugar. Other products include; Extra Neutral Alcohol and
Technical Alcohol, flowers, cables and electric power generated by use of steam turbines.
1.2.3 Target Market and Competitors in the market:
SCOULs target market is the whole of East Africa including the neighboring countries. Sugar is
distributed through wholesalers who in turn sell to the retailers and retailers to consumers. The
competitors in the market are: Kakira Sugar Works (1985) Ltd, Kinyara Sugar Works Ltd, Mayuge
Sugar Ltd, Kaliro Sugar Ltd, Kayanja Sugar Ltd and imported sugar.
1.3 Management and Organizational Structure:
A strong team of managers under the Chief Executive runs the company. The existing
corporations structural organization consists of the following sections: Agriculture, Factory,
Financial, Distillery, Administration and Personnel plus training, Materials and IT.
2
Below is the Organizational Structure of SCOUL Factory:
KEY
G.M General Manager

Dy. - Deputy
Sr. Senior
Mgr. Manager
Asst. Assistant
Eng. Engineer
B.H Boiling House
Supt. Superintendent
Q.A- Quality Assurance
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 INTRODUCTION
2.1 What is Sugar?
Sucrose in common language is known as sugar (table sugar). Sucrose having a chemical
formula is also known by its structural name (D fructofuranosylD
glucopyranoside). Its molecular weight is 342.3 g/mole. It belongs to the family of disaccharides
composed of glucose and fructose joined by an - glycosidic bond (refer to Figure 1).
Figure 1
2.2 Properties of Sucrose (Sugar):
2.2.1 Physical Properties of Sucrose:
Its physical properties are shown in Table-1
Property
Value
1587.9
Density, kg/m3
Melting point, 0C
160~186
Solubility in H2O at 500C, g/ml
2.59
Specific Heat, J/gmole

Crystalline at 200C
415.8
Amorphous at 220C
90.2
4.750.26
Heat of solution, KJ/gmole

Enthalpy of crystallization at 300C, KJ/gmole
Table 1
10.5
2.2.2 Chemical Properties of Sucrose:

a) Oxidation of Sucrose
Sucrose can be oxidized by , and , under selected conditions using
oxygen with palladium or platinum to form sucronic acid derivatives.
b) Hydrolysis of Sucrose
Sucrose can be enzymatically hydrolyzed to glucose and fructose by invertase.
() + (). The conversion is
called inversion and the resulting glucose-fructose mixture is called invert. Sugar is destroyed by
Ph extremes, and inadequate Ph control can cause significant sucrose losses in the sugar factory.
c) Alkaline degradation
At high Ph, sucrose is relatively stable; however, prolonged exposure to strong alkali and
heat converts sucrose to a mixture of organic acids (mainly lactate), ketones, and cyclic
condensation products. In aqueous solutions, sucrose is most stable at Ph 9.0.
d) Thermal Degradation
At high temperatures (160-180C), sucrose decomposes with charring, emitting an odor
of caramel. Acid catalyzed thermo-lysis causes decomposition to glucose and fructofuranosyl
cation. The latter reacts with sucrose to form a complex mixture of products, including
fructoglucan and several ketoses. These substances are examples of fructo-oligosaccharides
(FOS) and are known to promote the growth of beneficial intestinal micro-organisms.
2.3 Uses of Sucrose:
a) Food Applications: Its principle contribution to food is sweetness. However it provides many
other functionalities, e.g. mouth feel and moisture retention. Cereals and backed goods are the
leading consumers of sucrose, followed closely by confectionary products. It is used as a
preservative in jam and jelly. It lowers the freezing point of ice cream and other frozen desserts
to improve product mouth feel and texture.
b) Feedstock for Chemical Synthesis: Sucrose reacts with fatty acids to produce esters with
degrees of esterification (DE) from 1 to 8.
c) Fermentation Feedstock: Sucrose, in the form of beet or cane molasses, is a fermentation
feedstock for production of a variety of organic compounds including lactic, glutamic, citric
5
acids, glycerol, and some antibiotics. Rum is made by fermentation of cane molasses. Beet and
cane molasses are used for production of bakers and brewers yeast. Ethanol is produced for
use in alcoholic beverages, and as a fuel, solvent, and feedstock for organic synthesis.
d) Pharmaceutical Applications: Sucralfate, an aluminum salt of sucrose octasulfate, is used as
an antacid and antiulcer medication. Bis- and tris-platinum complexes of sucrose show promise
as an anti-tumor agents. Sucrose monoesters are used in some pharmaceutical preparations. A
sucrose polyester is under evaluation as a contrast agent for magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI). Oral administration of this substance opacifies gastrointestinal tract and eliminates the
need for purging prior to MRI.
2.4 Nutrition and Health Aspects of Sucrose:
For many years, there has been concern by medical professionals and nutritionists over the
effects of dietary sugar on human health. Sucrose has been implicated as a cause of juvenile
hyperactivity, tooth decay, diabetes mellitus and obesity, atherosclerosis, hypoglycemia and
nutrient deficiencies. The sugar task forces select committee on Nutrition and Human Needs
recommended a daily consumption of sugars at 10% of total calories.
2.5 Constituents of Sugar Cane:
CONSTITUENTS
% IN CANE
Dissolved
Sucrose
13%
Substances
Other
2%
Substances
Insolubles
Fiber
13%
Substances
Soil
2%
Water
100%
70%
Table 2
NOTE: Other substances (2 %) consist of:

a) Other sugars - (0.9 %)
b) Inorganic salts/ash- (0.6 %)
c) Organic salts& acids, Polysaccharides, Gums, Proteins, Amino acids & Amides, Colouredsubstances & pigments, Waxes - (0.5 %)
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CHAPTER THREE
3.0 SUGAR FACTORY FEED SECTION AND MILL HOUSE SECTION DETAILS
3.1 Block Flow Diagram
The cane feed preparation, handling and juice extraction steps are shown in the diagram below:
Block Flow Diagram [Feed Section + Milling House]
Cane
Weigh-Bridge
Cane cutters (2)
Fibrizer
Equaliser
Cane carrier
Magnetic Separator
(70C)
Feed Tables (4)
Cane yard
Cane Kicker
Fiberized Cane Carrier
Bagasse Elevator
Mills (4) + Elevators
Bagasse to
Boiler House
Juice from Mill 2

Rotary Screen
Primary Juice (Mill 1)
Mixed Juice
Tank
To Process House
Figure 2
3.2 Feed Section (Delivery, Weighing, Off-loading & Handling of Cane)
a) Delivery of Cane at the Factory:
The factory takes delivery of the raw material (sugar cane) directly at the factory
weighbridge. Cane transportation is done for 24 hours and is arranged by the factory by: Lorries,
trucks, tandems and trailers. All harvested canes, are transported to the factory within 36 hrs for
burnt cane and 48 hrs for green cane, from the time of harvesting, so as to avoid stale canes.
b) Weighing of Cane at the Weighbridge:
The weighing of cane is done at the factory weighbridge. There are two (2) inlets to the
7
weigh-bridges at the factory, one for out growers and the other for company contractors.
When the vehicles reach the weighbridge, the information and details of the farmer and cane are
entered and transferred onto a R.I.F.T. card. The first weighing is done after the removal of
trashes, and the second weighing is done after the removal of tops to get the gross weight of cane.
Upon off-loading, the empty vehicles are weighed again and their tare weight is taken. This finally
gives the net weight of which 5% of the cane is subtracted as tops and trashes and is allocated
to the particular grower by the weighbridge computer system.
c) Off-loading of Cane at The Cane Yard:
The factory cane yard is charged with receiving cane and offloading it safely for feeding to
feed tables, by use of several off-loading devices. The principal types of off-loading mechanisms
and equipment used at the factory cane yard are: Three (3) Sling bars (Lifting), Gantry crane
(Lifting), Hydraulic off-loaders and Mechanical off-loaders (Lifting).
3.3 Cane Preparation
Cane preparation involves three stages. Conveying of cane from feeder tables to cutters by
the Cane Carriers, Size reduction of the conveyed cane by the cane cutters and levelers to reduce
the cane to a length of about 10cm and finally Disintegration of cane by the Fibrizer to rapture
and expose sucrose cells for extraction by the mills.
a) Feed table:
The purpose of the feed table is to transfer the off-loaded sugar cane, onto the cane carrier.
There are four (4) Feed tables in the factory. Each feeder table is mounted with a Cane Kicker
that is used to even out the distribution of cane as it proceeds to the carrier. Conveyer belts and
impellers are also mounted on the feed table to transport the cane from feed point to cane carrier.
b) Cane Carrier:
The Cane Carrier is a moving apron that is generally supported by three chains and driven
independently, by an electric motor. It is a type of conveyer belt, consisting of both a drive and
non-drive shaft which carries cane from feed table and transports it towards the Cutters, Leveler,
Fiberizer, Equalisers, magnetic separator, mills, boilers, and finally to bagasse storage point. There
are three (3) cane carries at the factory namely: A, B1 and B2. They consist of a horizontal portion
and an inclined portion that conveys cane horizontally as well as vertically simultaneously.
8
c) Levelers and Equalisers:

Levelers are sets of knives which even out the layer of cane while cutting, so that other size
reduction operations can easily be performed in cane cutters without jamming them. Equalisers
consist of a shaft placed across the carrier, rotating at a specific rpm to even out the distribution
of cane on the carrier, and to level the layer of cane to a certain extent.
d) Cane Cutters:
Cutters are devices with a number of knives mounted on the shaft spindle. They are used to
cut the cane into very short and small pieces. Two (2) sets of cane cutters are installed over the
feed carrier. The cane meets the Cam-on chopper (cutter 1) before it proceeds to the Head-on
chopper (cutter 2). These cutters are motor driven with different numbers of knives, used to make
the cutting more effective and installed at a high clearance to throw pieces of cut cane upwards.
e) Fibrizer:
The objective of the fibrizer is to complete the preparation and disintegration of the cane,
so as to facilitate the extraction of juice by the mills. The Fibrizer is a type of hammer mill
consisting of a number of hammers pivoted on discs, which are used to strike and disintegrate the
cane simultaneously with a very powerful blow. In doing so, the tissues of cane cells are torn open
and disintegrated favoring the extraction of juice from the mills. The resultant material is a mass
of cell-material mixed with long thread-like fibres which felt the material together and contribute
to hold it together when it is subjected to the pressure of the mill rollers.
The state of disintegration of cane is expressed as Preparative Index (P.I) as calculated
from laboratory. The expected range of P.I after the fibrizer is 85-88% (P.I) of open cells. Beyond
88%, the cane is over prepared. It becomes a problem for it to hold firm onto the roller groovings
and easily slips off the rollers hence poor juice extraction. Over preparation of cane also leads to
formation of fine bagasse particles that may easily clog the rotary screen.
f) Magnetic Separator:
A magnetic separator is used to remove the iron particles or pieces which become the part
of cutted cane or other iron particles which are already present, that may easily jam the mills. The
commonest objects are: pieces of knife blades, sling hooks, broken pieces of slings, bolts and nuts
which must be removed since mills are very expensive due to the mill rollers.
3.4 Mills
A Mill is a machine which is used to extract the juice and separate the fiber from fiberized
cane. It consist of four (4) major components: Donnelly chute, Trash plate, Scrapers and Four (4)
rollers (top roller, underfeed roller, feed-roller & delivery/discharge roller)
3.4.1 Typical Layout of the Mills Configuration at SCOUL.
To Process
House
Mixed Juice Tank
Rotary Screen
Bagasse to
Boiler
House
Fiberized
(70C)
Cane
Mill 1
Mill 2
Primary
Juice (Mill 1)
Mill 3
Mill 4
Mill 2 Juice
Figure 3: Configuration of the mills at SCOUL sugar factory

3.5 The Milling Process
Milling involves the extraction of juice from the prepared cane and it is done by a tandem
of four (4) mills used in series. Each mill consists of four rollers for juice extraction. The top roller,
working under a specific hydraulic pressure, is driven through an electric motor operating at
very high r.p.m and acts as the driver for the rest of the rollers.
During Milling, the prepared cane falls through a Donnelly chute, between the top roller and
feed roller where its squeezed by the groves of rollers so as to extract the juice. Juice from each
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mill is collected in tanks as the bagasse is carried by Rake Elevators that are associated with each
mill. A biocide named Bussan is always added to the last mill juice tank to inhibit micro bio
activity that would lead to sugar losses.
3.5.1 Imbibition at the Mills
Imbibition is a general term which defines the process of adding water or thin juice to
bagasse in order to mix and dilute the juice concentration and maximize extraction. Bagasse, even
when subjected to high and repeated pressures never gives up all the juice it contains. It approaches
to a minimum moisture in the most favorable cases and retains a high proportion of juice,
amounting roughly to half its weight. In order to extract as much as possible of the sugar which it
retains, Simple and Compound Imbibition is carried out.
Primary Bagasse from Mill 1 mixed with juice from Mill 3 while Bagasse from Mill 2 is
mixed with juice from Mill 4. This is termed as Compound Imbibition. Since the Bagasse moisture
content at Mill 3 cannot be reduced, the juice it comprises is replaced with water. In this process,
the bagasse is sprayed with water at 70C. This water spreads in the bagasse and dilutes the juice
which it contains. Mill 4 then recovers bagasse at limiting moisture (less than 49%). This moisture
will consist no longer of absolute juice but of diluted juice. Hence the sugar will have been
extracted and the operation is continuous.
a) A Rotary Screen filter:
It is used for separation of suspended bagasse particles from extracted juice.
b) Mixed Juice Tank:
It is a tank which stores extracted juice for further processing in process house.
c) Bagasse Elevator:
It is a type of inclined carrier which transports the bagasse (moisture of about less than 49%)
from last mill outlet to all boilers inlet and towards the bagasse storage point.
11
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 BOILER HOUSE
4.1 Boiler
A Boiler is an equipment which is used to convert water into steam. The main type of boilers
installed at the factory are water tube boilers which use bagasse as a fuel. There are four (4) water
tube boilers installed at the factory, so further discussion will be related to water tube boilers only.
Steam Generation:
The furnace material is made of cast iron, furnace inside layer is made of refractory bricks,
middle is of insulating bricks and outer is cast iron. Furnace tube material is Mild Steel. Bagasse
from the last mill (Mill 4) is sent to the boilers by a bagasse elevator and is used as the fuel for
boiler furnaces. Bagasse having less than 49% moisture is burned. Air is supplied to furnace by
Forced Draft Fan, Secondary Fan, and Induced Draft Fan. The furnace is operated under negative
draft produced by maintaining a Speed Ratio of (F.D. Fan): (I.D. Fan) to 1:1.2. A steam super
heater is integrated with boiler and in this, saturated steam is converted to superheated steam by
exchanging heat with flue gases. An air pre-heater is also integrated with boiler. Flue gases enter
the air preheater at 220C and leave at 210C. 2 tons of steam is produced per ton of bagasse
combusted.
Figure 4: Simple Boiler Circuit

12
Superheated steam from all the four boilers combines in the common steam header at 400C
temperature and 34 kg/cm2 pressure, and then this steam is transferred to power house to run
turbines. When steam reaches the power house its temperature becomes 370 ~ 390C due to heat
losses to environment, while the pressure of the steam reduces to 30 kg/cm2 due to pressure drop
in pipes and valves. After steam turbines its temperature becomes near about 160C - 180C and
then it goes to steam desuperheater, where its temperature is reduced to 125C which is the
requirement of process house.
The boilers are installed to generate steam from water working with the following specifications.
Boiler(1,2,3,4) Specifications
Capacity Inlet
Water T
35
95C
tons/hr
Inlet
Water P
40
kg/cm2
Outlet
Steam T
360C
Outlet
Steam P
34
Furnace
T
780C
Outlet T
Outlet
Flue
Preheater
gases T
inlet T
390C
220C
Boiler
Bank
Air
210C
kg/cm2
4.2 Boiler Feed Water Treatment (Water Chemistry)

Boiler feed water is always treated to remove scale forming ions for proper boiler operation.
Ca2+ and Mg2+ are scale forming ions. For this purpose, chemical treatment of Boiler Feed
Water is employed at SCOUL. After water has undergone treatment, its hardness is removed and
soft water is used for boiler feed and for other purposes where ever it is required.
a) Chemical Treatment (Boiler Feed Water System):
Sodium Sulphite which is an Oxygen scavenger is generally used since it forms an alkaline,
non-corrosive solution which has a high capacity for Oxygen that prevents corrosion in boiler
tubes. It is used in the addition to the de-aerator, to remove the last traces of Oxygen and to take
care of the irregularities in de-aeration. The reaction between Sulphite and Oxygen is not
instantaneous, even at boiling point. Therefore, Nickel Sulphate is used as a catalyst to increase
the reaction rate. Sodium phosphate is also dosed directly into boiler steam drum to prevent scale
deposition. The treatment relies on the precipitation of the Calcium hardness as Calcium
hydroxyapatite which is basic Calcium phosphate and magnesium as the hydroxide or silicate.
13
b) Lay-Out of Typical Feed Water System for Boilers

Low Pressure Steam
Condensate
from the
factory
Steam
Drum
De-aerator
FEED WATER
STORAGE TANK
Make-up water from
pre-boiler station
Mud
Drum
WATER TANK (MAKE UP)

Water tube Boiler
(Fitted with heating device)
Boiler feed water pump

Sodium Sulphite Sodium Phosphate
Booster
Pump
Chemical Injection Pumps

Figure 5: Layout of Chemical Treatment
c) De-aeration:
In order to prevent corrosion in boilers and feed pipes, both dissolved oxygen and carbon
dioxide are eliminated from the boiler water. Oxygen is usually removed from boiler water by
thermal de-aeration. This is done by a pressure vessel known as a de-aerator.
4.2.1 Boiler Feed Water Specifications:
The following specifications are met in order to minimize scaling and maximize Boiler efficiency.
Property
Value
TDS (Total Dissolved Solids)
100-200 mg/l
Hardness
0%
PH
8.5 ~ 10
14
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 POWER HOUSE
5.1 Turbines
A Turbine is a device which converts internal energy of a fluid to mechanical or useful work.
There are two fundamental types of turbines:
1) Hydraulic Turbine (Turbine driven by incompressible fluid)
a) Water Turbine (Turbine driven by water)
2) Pneumatic Turbine (Turbine driven by compressible fluid)
a) Steam Turbine (Turbine driven by superheated steam)
b) Gas Turbine (Turbine driven by any other dry gas)
In the power house at SCOUL, sugar factory, steam turbines are used, so major focus of
attention will be the steam turbine. A figure of a typical steam turbine is shown below:
Figure 6: Steam Turbine

5.2 Steam Turbine
Steam turbine is a device which converts pressure energy of the superheated steam into
mechanical work (useful work). NOTE: It is only a prime mover just like an electric motor.
15
5.2.1 Way of Working:

A turbine consists of alternate sets of nozzles and rotating blades through which vapor or
gas flows in a steady state expansion process. The expansion of a gas in a nozzle to produce a high
velocity stream is a process which converts internal energy into kinetic energy, which in turn is
converted into shaft work when the stream impinges on blades attached to a rotating shaft.
Superheated steam provides the motive force for the turbine. The overall result is the conversion
of internal energy of a high pressure stream into shaft work.
Turbines consist of a casing in which a turbine router is fitted in such a way that it can rotate
about its axis of rotation. A turbine router has blades on its surface. When superheated steam is
introduced from the inlet pipe line at high pressure and temperature, it strikes the router blades and
imparts its pressure energy to it. This pressure energy rotates the turbine router which generates
shaft work. The shaft work produced by the router is then used to rotate the shaft of an Alternator.
5.2.2 Circulation of oil in the Turbine:
The turbines other rotational parts have an oil assembly which decrease friction in order to
improve the efficiency. The oil circulates continuously inside the equipment and gets heated
during operation. An oil cooling mechanism is thus applied in which a shell & tube heat exchanger
is used as a cooler, for cooling the hot oil; with water as coolant in the shell side.
5.2.3 Calculation of Shaft Work Produced by Turbine
= (2 1 ) Where1 & 2 = & ()

() = ()
() =
()
=
()
()
Where: = () and = ( )
There are two (2) turbines used in power house. One of them generates 6MW of work power, and
the other generates 3.5MW of work power. Their specifications are given below;
16
Turbine Specifications
Turbines Steam
Power
Used
Inlet
Outlet Inlet
Temp Temp
Pressure
Outlet
No. of
No. of
Pressure
Rotations Rotations
before
after
reduction reduction
3.5 MW
38tons/hr 3.5MW 390C 160C
30kg/cm2 0.9kg/cm2 8280 rpm
1500 rpm
6 MW
38tons/hr 6MW
30kg/cm2 0.9kg/cm2 8280 rpm
1500 rpm
390C 160C
5.3 Electricity co-generation

Electrical energy generation using steam involves three (3) energy conversions, extracting
thermal energy from the fuel (bagasse) and using it to raise steam (boilers), converting the
thermal energy of the steam into kinetic energy in the turbine and using a rotary alternator to
convert the turbines mechanical energy into electrical energy.
An alternator is a source of a three phase supply usually connected in a star connection to
convert mechanical energy to into electrical energy. A standby electric generator is also used at
the factory to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. The alternator produces electricity
by the principle of electromagnetic induction. The Output Voltage produced by the Alternator is
11 KV while the stand-by generator produces an output Voltage of 415 Volts. Step up
transformers are used to increase 415 V to 11 KV.
Superheated Steam to Power House
Drive shaft
Steam
Turbines
Boilers
1,2,3,4
COMMON STEAM
HEADER
Alternator
A. C
Exhaust steam to Process House

Steam Desuperheater
Process House
Figure 7: Electricity co-generation using turbines-Layout Diagram

17
CHAPTER SIX
6.0 PROCESS HOUSE
6.1 Block Flow Diagram (Process House)
()2
Vapor Line Juice Heater No. 1

Mixed
Raw Juice Heaters (4)
Juice
3 4
Vapor Line Juice Heater No. 2

Flash Tank
Mud Recirculation
Tank
Field as Fertilizer
Filter Cake
Clear
Juice
Heater
Evaporator
s
Sugar Drying
Mud-Bagacilo Mixer
Rotary Vacuum Filter
Filtrate receiver tank
Sugar Bagging
Storage
Treated Juice
Tank
Treated Juice Heaters (4)
Clarifier
Vapour Cell
Reaction tank
Syrup Sulphitation
Pan Boiling
Centrifugation
Cooling Crystallisers
To Market
Final Molasses to Distillery

Figure 8
6.2 Clarification Process

Clarification is defined as the separation of suspended solids from juice. It depends on the
principles of precipitation, coagulation and flocculation. The main aim of Clarification is to
provide juice of optimum quality to the back end of the factory. The clarification process involves
three (3) stages. Juice heating, Treatment of Juice (Defecation) and Subsidation (clarifier).
18
6.2.1 Juice Heating

Low pressure steam (exhaust steam) of about 0.9kg/cm2, supplied to process house, is used
as the requirement for heating mixed juice from the mill house, in different stages or, if possible,
preferably bled vapours from the vapour cell in order to improve steam economy. Shell and tube
heat exchangers are used at the factory to exchange heat between vapour and juice.
The Main Purpose of Juice Heating
1) Juice contains non-sugar soluble particles (e.g. proteins and polysaccharides), Coagulation of
these proteins will only emerge as a result of heat. Better quality of juice is obtained if these
coagulated particles combine together to form macro-floc particles for better clarification.
2) Juice also contains suspended and colloidal particles. The effect of heat causes a density
gradient between the juice and suspended insoluble particles, favoring proper clarification.
3) Heating Juice prior to liming (treatment) also acts as a way of inhibiting the growth of micro
bio activity. Low temperatures and high Ph favour the growth of the bacteria Leuconostoc
Mesenteroides which transforms sucrose into a spongy gum that can block pipes.
a) Vapor Line Juice Heaters:
Mixed juice from the mixed juice tank in mill house at 40C is fed to the tubes of a vapor
line juice heater, where it is heated. Vapor line juice heaters are shell and tube heat exchangers in
which the heating media is vapors generated by the last body of the multiple effect evaporators.
The vapour line juice heaters are placed in between the last body of the multiple effect evaporators
and a condenser, so as to improve steam economy and reduce the load on the condensers.
Vapours leaving the last body at 55C, are first utilized to avoid the risk of using too much
water to condense all these vapours. There are two (2) vapor line juice heaters installed in the
factory. Only one of them is operated during production. Their specifications are given below;
Specifications
Inlet Juice Temperature
40C
Outlet Juice Temperature
45C to 50C
Ph of juice
5 to 5.5
Heating Medium
Vapours generated from last body
19
b) Raw Juice Heaters:

Mixed juice, having passed through the vapor line juice heater and obtaining a maximum
temperature of about 50C, is now termed as raw juice. Raw Juice from vapor line heater is then
fed to the tube side of the Raw Juice Heaters (primary heaters). These are also shell and tube heat
exchangers in which Low pressure steam (Exhaust steam) or preferably bled vapours from a
vapour cell are used as the heating media, in the shell side. There are four (4) primary heaters
installed in the factory. Series arrangement is used during production.
Specifications
45C to 50C
70C to 74C
Ph of juice
5 to 5.5
Heating Medium
Exhaust steam or bled vapours
Structure of a Shell and Tube Juice Heater

A shell and juice tube heater consists of a cylindrical vessel with an assembly of tubes. The
juice circulates through the tubes, and the vapour outside them. Suitable headers force the juice
to pass a certain number of times from bottom to top and from top to bottom of the header by
restricting the juice time to a few of the tubes.
Figure 9: Top View
Figure 10: Bottom View Juice Circulation

20
Mechanism of Heat Transfer

Steam enters the vessel on the steam side
where
it
swirls
around
the
tubes
(conduction), condenses on the cooler

surface of the tubes (condensation) and
releases heat to the juice (convection). Air
and non-condensable gases are the major
problems in a steam system These noncondensable gases form a stagnant film onto
Four
meter
long
tubes
the walls of the tubes which creates a

resistance, thus reducing the heat transfer
efficiencies
depending
on
the
air
concentration in the system. Therefore, these

gases are vented off into the atmosphere
whilst condensate exits through a stream trap
on the opposite side of the vessel.
Figure 11: Lateral View- Heater Design
6.2.2 Treatment of Juice (Defecation)
Mixed juice extracted from the mill house, is a complex mixture of various components, not
only extracted from the cane plant itself, but also brought in as extraneous matter. Lime, (CaO),
is the universal basic defecant for the treatment of juice. The treatment of juice with lime is called
defecation. The main aim of juice treatment is to neutralize the natural acidity of the juice and
promote the formation of insoluble salts, mainly Calcium Phosphate. Juice treatment involves
three (3) stages. Liming at 70C, Addition of Phosphoric acid and Treated Juice Heating.
a) Liming at 70C:
Milk of lime or Hydrated Lime, () is prepared by mixing Calcium Oxide or lump
quicklime, with hot water condensate. The milk of lime is made up in 2 tanks, one of which
is emptied while the other is being filled in case of any excess, to avoid over liming. These tanks
are mounted with a stirrer, rotating at a specific r.p.m to make the suspension homogeneous.
21
Equation of reaction:
()
Liming is then carried out after raw juice from the raw juice heaters has obtained a
temperature of 70C. At this temperature, the necessary activation energy is provided for the
reaction to take place. The reaction takes place in a reaction vessel. The vessel is mounted with a
stirrer, rotating to make the mixture homogeneous. The action of lime and heat neutralizes the
natural acidity of the raw juice and also yields insoluble precipitates from the calcium present in
the lime added and phosphates which are naturally present in cane juice. Calcium Phosphate is
the resultant precipitate formed upon liming.
Holding time is given as retention time in the reaction vessel to maintain the PH value at
specified point. This process is also good for enzymatic action on starch. The juice is kept at 70C
for about 10 minutes to allow enzymes in the juice to reduce starch content to an acceptable level.
Raw juice is limed to a PH value of 7.8 8.0, to reduce turbidity problems. Also, at this PH value,
sucrose is relatively stable. Inversion that would occur as a result low Ph and high temperature
would have been eliminated. Further heating to about 103C-105C is also applied for the reaction
to go to completion and also coagulate the albumin, waxes and gums.
b) Addition of Phosphoric Acid:
The success of flocculation is always dependent upon the extent of the calcium phosphate
precipitation and, therefore, on the concentration of the calcium and phosphate ions. Phosphoric
acid ( ) is always added to the juice as it leaves the reaction vessel to increase the
concentration of phosphate content in the juice in and guarantee enough time to form a floc of
good quality for proper clarification, and also give a slightly alkaline PH (7.3-7.6) prior to heating.
The addition of this acid, forms a coagulant known as Tri-Calcium Phosphate (complex).
The + ions adsorbed at the juice particle surfaces act as nuclei for this precipitation and the
impurities become incorporated into the coagulum with the calcium phosphate acting as bridges
between the impurity particles.
+ +
( )
Tri-Calcium Phosphate
22
Figure 12: Calcium phosphate bridging

c) Treated Juice Heaters:
The treated juice from the treated juice tank is pumped to the treated juice heaters / secondary
heaters. These are shell and tube heat exchangers. Exhaust steam or bled vapours from vapour
cells, are used as the heating media in the shell side. Treated Juice is fed to the tube side of the
secondary heaters and heated to about 103C to 105C. At this temperature, the necessary heat is
applied to coagulate all the albumin, waxes and gums in the juice and for the lime reaction to go
to completion. There are four (4) treated juice / secondary heaters installed in the factory. Series
arrangement is used during production.
Specifications
70C to 75C
103C to 105C
Ph of juice
7.3 to 7.6
Heating Medium
Exhaust steam or bled vapours
6.2.3 Subsidation (Clarifier)

When raw juice has undergone the desired treatment / defecation process, it must be allowed
to settle in order to separate the clear juice from the precipitate formed in the body of the juice.
The settling is known as Subsidation by gravity and is effected in the clarifier. The Subsidation
process involves three (3) stages. Flashing the treated juice to 100C, addition of a Magna
Flocculant to the treated juice and finally settling the treated juice in a clarifier.
23
a) Flashing to 100C:
Flashing is the removal of all the dissolved air, non-condensable gases and vapors from
the treated juice and also air bubbles attached to the suspended particles to avoid undesirable
effects like flocs floatation during settling. This flashing is effected in a Flash tank. It is a simple
cylindrical tank located just above and ahead of the clarifier, with a flue open to the atmosphere.
Treated juice from the secondary / treated juice heaters discharges tangentially into this
tank. Since the treated juice that has been brought to about 103-105C, it partially flashes into
vapour when discharged into this vessel at atmospheric pressure, and in doing so, the flashing
causes a temperature drop to 100C. Likewise the juice entering at a high velocity is reduced to a
laminar flow (low and uniform speed) as it flashes and swirls in a tangential manner. Therefore
the juice going to the clarifier will be constantly at 100C to avoid formation of any convectional
currents and get rid of air or gas bubbles.
b) Addition of Magna flocculant:
The flocculant is added to the treated juice from the flash tank as it enters tangentially at the
top, into the feed compartment of the clarifier. This flocculant is a high molecular weight
polymer which attaches all suspended particles and impurities with it (it is sticky) and forms a
strong bond with them which causes the formation of mud. Addition of this flocculant improves
clarification and reduces the necessary settling time. The mud formed, having high density starts
to fall under the action of gravity to the bottom of the clarifier, which is known as Subsidation.
c) The Clarifier (Subsidation):
A clarifier is a vessel into which the treated juice to be settled is fed uniformly and
continuously, and which is large enough to reduce the velocity of flow and of circulation of the
treated juice to such a low value that it does not prevent settling from taking place. Its main purpose
is to clarify the treated juice by removing impurities in the form of mud. The time necessary for
settling always depends mainly on the difference in density between the treated juice and the
particles of the precipitate. There are two (2) clarifiers used at the factory and only one clarifier
operates in the season during production. The clarifiers used at SCOUL are Rapidor 444 type.
They consist of four (4) superimposed compartments, each fed separately by a rotating central
24
shaft by means of openings situated in the upper part of the compartment as shown in figure 13
below:
Bridge Support
Foam Chamber
Overflow
Box
Mud
Withdraw
Line
Feed
Compartment
Baffle
plate
Central shaft
Scrapper
Mud boot
Tray
Liquidating
Pump
Figure 13: Rapidor 444 clarifier

From the flash tank, the treated juice to be clarified enters tangentially at the top, into a
feed compartment or flocculation chamber and encounters baffle plates designed to ensure good
distribution of the juice. It then flows radially towards the outer wall as its velocity decreases. The
muds are deposited on the bottom plates and are moved by scrapers mounted on arms connected
to the central shaft and pushed towards the center. They settle into a mud tray and are extracted
by diaphragm pumps at controllable rates, then later pumped to a mud recirculation tank at the
filtration station. The clear juice is withdrawn from each compartment by a circumferential
internal pipe with several openings which withdraw the juice close to the roof of the compartment.
The juice then passes through an overflow box, by telescopic valves which permit regulation of
the rate and overflow level.
25
Vertical tubes through the roof of the clarifier allow escape of gas from each compartment to
atmosphere.
6.2.4 Typical Layout of the Clarification Process at SCOUL.
Clear juice to vapour cell
Juice Heating
Defecation /Treatment
50C
Subsidation
Flash Tank
Mixed
()
Juice
70C
Floc
103C
Vapour Line
Juice Heater
Raw Juice Heater
Magna
Clarifier
100C

Treated Juice Tank
Reaction
Vessel
Treated Juice
Heater
Mud pumped to Mud Tank

Figure 14: Clarification Process Layout Diagram
The Following Factors favour settling in the clarifier:
The main factor controlling settling is the difference in density between the material to be
settled and the liquid in which it is mixed. This is effected by use of a high molecular weight
flocculant to increase on the settling rate of mud.
Treated juice, at the entry to the clarifier, should have a laminar flow (low and uniform
velocity). Higher rates of juice flow creates eddies which are detrimental to the settling.
Treated juice going to the clarifier should be constantly at about 100C. This is so to avoid
formation of convectional currents and get rid of air or gas bubbles attached to the suspended
particles which would prevent proper settling during the clarification process.
Holding time is given as retention time in the clarifier (about 2 to 2 hrs) for proper settling
in order to obtain a good quality of clear juice.
26
6.3 Mud Filtration

Mud extracted from the clarifier carries high proportions of juice with it, which contains
sucrose. The main aim of filtration is to recover sucrose from the mud and to return it to the reaction
vessel. The type of filters used at the factory are Continuous Rotary Vacuum filters. Two (2)
filters are installed in the factory and normally, only one of them is operated during production.
The filtration process involves three (3) stages. Separation and Conveying of Bagacillo,
Mud-Bagacillo Mixing and Juice extraction from the mud by suction using vacuum. The byproduct obtained is known as the filter cake which is taken to the fields as fertilizer while the
product (filtrate) is pumped back to the reaction vessel.
a) Separation and Conveying of Bagacillo:
Bagacillo is obtained by screening the final bagasse with a static louvre-type separator and
mesh-screens that function as a sieve to separate the larger particles of bagasse. The fine bagacillo
is then conveyed to the mud-bagacillo mixer by a pneumatic conveying system. The conveying
is done by means of an extraction fan, used to transport the bagacillo in small quantities together
with large volumes of air, from the separator to the mud mixer via ducting. A cyclone separator
then separates bagacillo from the conveying air and discharges it into the mud mixer.
b) Mud Recirculation Tank and Mud Mixer:
Mud from the clarifier is pumped to a mud recirculation tank where mud keeps recirculating
due to overflow from the filter trough. A biocide (Damacide) is added to this tank to kill bacteria
or inhibit bacterial growth that may lead to sugar losses. From here, it is pumped to a mud mixer.
A mud mixer consists of a U-shaped, longitudinal trough fitted with a rotary shaft on which paddles
are mounted. Its main purpose is to form thick (viscous) mud, by mixing bagacillo from the cyclone
separator into the mud, before being sent to the vacuum filter. The bagacillo acts as a bonding
agent for the mud and forms a fibrous mat on the filter from which the filtrate is drawn.
c) Rotary Vacuum Filter:
A rotary vacuum filter is used to remove filtrate from the muds. The filter consists of a
rotating drum covered with a set of metallic perforated plates, which dips into the filter-trough
containing the muds. The periphery of the drum serves as the filtering surface.
27
Mode of Operation:
The thick mud from the mud mixer goes into the vacuum filter where the juice is extracted
from the mud by suction with the help of vacuum pump. As the drum rotates, suction is applied
successively by vacuum in spider coils to three different segments / zones, forming a thin cake
on the filtering surface. There are three (3) vacuum zones in the vacuum filter:
Figure 15: Rotary Vacuum Filter Mode of Operation-Diagram

1) Low vacuum zone: As the filter rotates, the section which first enters the liquid is immediately
connected with the low vacuum of 12 to 10 in of Hg. This produces an aspiration of the liquid,
which passes through the fine perforations of the filter drum. This section is the actual
beginning of the filter cake formation. A heavy filtrate is obtained and is sent to a heavy filtrate
receiver bottle. This filtrate is pumped back to the reaction tank.
2) High vacuum zone: In high vacuum zone the vacuum is of 18 to 15 in of Hg due to more
number of visible spider coils. First, a slight increase in vacuum occurs as the filter section
passes under several rows of atomizers which spray hot sweet water of 70C (165F) supplied
28
by the sweet water tanks onto the cake. This is the beginning of the washing. After the last
drip pipe, vacuum is highest as drying of the cake commences. A light filtrate is obtained and
is sent to a light filtrate receiver bottle. This filtrate is pumped back to the reaction tank.
3) No vacuum zone: Just before the filter drum re-enters the liquid in the tank, it arrives at a
scraper formed by a rigid strip of rubber belting which bears lightly on the perforated screen.
When the filter section is about to reach the scraper, the distributor valve breaks the vacuum
which has held the cake against the filter surface. Then the slightest contact of the scraper
detaches the cake and it drops onto a belt conveyor which removes it outside the building.
6.3.1 Typical Layout of the Filtration Process at SCOUL.
Vacuum into rotary filter spider coils
Bagacillo
Cyclone Separator
Heavy
Filtrate
Mud-Mixer
Mud Trough
Light
Filtrate
Filter Cake
Damacide
Filtrate
Tank
Mud
Recirculation
Tank
Vacuum Pump
Pump
To reaction Tank
To field as fertilizer
Figure 16: The SCOUL Filtration Process Layout Diagram

Precautions:
The viscosity of juice and especially that of the gums and waxes, which has to pass through
the filtering surface, decreases as the temperature increases. Therefore, temperatures above 70C
and less than 80C of sweet water condensate are always used to wash the cake. Below the
temperature of 70C, there is a risk of waxes blocking the gauze and above 80C temperature,
there is a risk of dissolving the waxes and gums into the juice.
29
6.4 Evaporation
Evaporation is a process of concentrating the solution by eliminating the solvent (water),
due to a high latent heat of vaporization of water. During this process, the brix (Bx) concentration
of the clear juice increases from around 13Bx to syrup of around 60Bx in order to promote the
growth of sugar crystals. Over 80% of water is eliminated in the clear juice by boiling it off. The
water is removed by boiling the juice in two (2) stages. Using a single effect evaporator vessel
(vapor cell) and using a series of multiple effect evaporator vessels. The evaporators are designed
and operated in such a way that the brix of the syrup lies between 60-64brix.
6.4.1 The Evaporator vessel and Heat Transfer Mechanism
The evaporators consist of a vertical cylinder, built onto a tubular calandria across which
heat exchange takes place. Exhaust steam and bled vapours are used as the heating medium for
concentrating the juice. The heating steam surrounds the outside of the calandria tubes and the
juice to be evaporated circulates inside the tubes. Vapour to metal tube (conduction) and from
metal tube to juice (convection). The heat transfer coefficients from vapour to metal and across
the metal surface are very high compared with that from metal to juice.
The vessel terminates vapour at the top in a save-all, which separates the liquid droplets that
may be entrained with the vapour from the juice. All the steam used for heating is transformed
into condensate in the calandria. Non-condensable gases are vented off by a small gas pipes
leading from the calandria to atmosphere for only vessels under atmospheric pressure and into the
vapour space of the vessel, to the exterior of the vessel for all vessels under vacuum.
a) Vapour Cell (Single Effect Evaporator)
Evaporation by heating with exhaust steam in a single vessel is called evaporation in single
effect. Clear Juice from the clear juice receiving tank is pumped to a clear juice heater, to raise
the temperature of the clear juice to boiling point (100C) and then admitted to the vapour cell.
The vapour cell is a separate single effect used to heat and evaporate almost 70% of the water
from clear juice, using low pressure steam (exhaust steam) at atmospheric pressure of about
0.5kg/cm2 at temperatures of about 120-125C. The vapours generated from heating the juice are
bled to pans and juice heaters. There are three (3) vapour cells installed at the factory.
30
b) Multiple Effect Evaporators (Quadruple effect principle)

Evaporation by heating with exhaust steam in the first vessel and utilising the vapour arising
from the clear juice in the first vessel (bleeding of vapours) to heat the solution in the second
vessel, the vapour produced by the second to heat the third and the vapour produced by the third
to heat the fourth is known as a Quadruple effect principle. This principle is applied to evaporate
same solution in multiple effects, thus enabling boiling at lower temperatures under vacuum to
avoid the destruction of sucrose by caramelisation.
6.4.2 Vapour Bleeding and Juice Circulation from Bottom to Bottom

Bled off vapours from juice
100C
120C
Body 1
Atm. p
Clear
Body 2
Vacuum
Entrainment Trapper
80C
Body 3
Vacuum
To Vapour
Line Juice
Heater
55C
Body 4
Vacuum
Juice
Juice
Exhaust steam
Gate - Valve
Syrup receiver bottle
Siphon (U-tube)
To Syrup Sulphitor
Syrup
60Brix
Syrup Pump
Figure 17: Quadruple effect principle with Vapour Bleeding- Layout Diagram
During the evaporation process a certain amount of vapours drawn off the vessels is used
for heating and pan boiling. This practice is called vapour bleeding and results in steam saving /
steam economy. Exhaust steam at atmospheric pressure of 0 - 0.2 in Hg and temperature of 120125C is used for boiling clear juice in body 1. The vapors produced by evaporation of solution
are bled off and used in next effect as heating media. The vessels following the first body are put
31
under vacuum. Body 2 is at a higher vacuum than body 1, thus juices moves from body 1 to
body 2 by opening a gate-valve on a pipe connecting both bodies. Bled vapours from body 1 are
used to heat and evaporate the same solution at pressure of 5 8 in Hg and temperatures of 90100C. Body 3 is at a higher vacuum than body 2, juice will likewise move from body 2 to body
3 by opening a gate-valve on a pipe connecting both bodies. Bled vapours from body 2 are used to
heat and evaporate the same solution at pressure of 1218 in Hg and temperatures of 70-80C.
Body 4 is at the highest vacuum than all bodies, juice will likewise move from body 3 to
body 4 by opening a gate-valve on a pipe connecting both bodies. Bled vapours from body 3 are
used to heat and evaporate the same solution at pressure of 22 25 in Hg and temperatures of 5560C. The juice is boiled at a maximum level of two sight glasses in all evaporator bodies to
prevent entrainment. The vapour from the 4th body first passes through an entrainment
separator, to a vapour line juice heater, before its condensed in a condenser by spraying cold
water from the spray pond onto it to establish the vacuum in the evaporator set.
6.4.3 Creation of Vacuum for the Evaporator Set and Vacuum Pans
Water
Vapour
Hot water
Multi - jet
Condenser
10 meters
wind
Condensate
Spray pond water cooling by evaporation
Pumps
Figure 18: Creation of vacuum and cooling effect of hot water condensate-diagram
32
Cold water from the spray pond is fed to the multi-jet condensers which is sprayed through jet
nozzles onto the vapours leaving the evaporator set and vacuum pans. The vapours condense to
form hot water condensate. In doing so, the necessary vacuum at atmospheric pressure of 101,325
K.pa is then created at a water leg of height 10 meters. The hot condensate is pumped back to the
spray pond for cooling by evaporation and the process is continuous.
6.4.4 Condensates
All the steam used for heating is transformed into condensate in the calandria. Condensate
from each vessel is extracted from a calandria under any vacuum to a condensate bottle attached
to a condensate pump, due to the pressure ruling in the calandria. The types of pumps used are
Centrifugal pumps. These pumps are provided with a small pressure-equalisation line to put
the admission valve of the body of the pump in communication with the top of the calandria so
that the condensate can easily flow. Condensate from the 1st vessel is sent directly for Boiler feed,
2nd vessel is first sent to Condensate tanks to Make-up for boiler feed, and 3rd and 4th vessels
are sent to sweet water tank and used for Imbibition, filter-cake washing and dilution of molasses.
Precautions:
1) Shut down condition: In shut down condition, water is circulated in the evaporator tubes to
avoid the risk of the tubes collapsing since the tubes are the heart of the evaporator.
2) Scale formation: Sodium hydroxide is circulated during heat exchanger cleaning to remove
the scaling. This is the salting out of materials that are deposited on the walls of heating tubes.
Scale formation causes clogging of tubes and thus reduce the heat transfer coefficient.
3) Corrosion: Many solutions attack ferrous metals thus causing damage to evaporators and
contamination of products. It is therefore important to use evaporators whose material of
construction is compatible with the solution being evaporated.
Calculation of Amount of Vapors Generated
Amount of vapors generated in the multiple effect evaporators is given by the following formula:
= (
) %
= Brix into the first body - clear juice

= Brix out of the last body (syrup)
100% = % of Mass flow rate of juice at inlet
E = % Mass of water evaporated
33
6.5 Syrup Sulphitation

Syrup from the last body is pumped by syrup extraction pumps onto which are connected to
a vacuum equalizing line from the last body to the sulphiter. As the syrup leaves the evaporator, it
assumes some turbidity due to suspended offloading particles, which are more soluble in this
juice and insoluble in syrup and dark coloration as a consequence of over-heating and
caramelisation of some of its constituencies at higher temperatures. Syrup is bleached by action
of Sulphur-dioxide which reduces the ferric salts (+ ) in the syrup, formed during contact with
steam machinery and which are highly coloured, to ferrous salts (+ ) which are slightly
coloured and dont crystalize together with the sugar in an acid syrup. This is done in a Sulphitation
vessel to a distinct acidity of Ph 5.5-6.0. Saturating a coloured solution with Sulphur-dioxide gas
results in a reduction of colour or bleaching.
Combustion of sulphur: Sulphur-dioxide gas (() ) is produced by combustion of solid
Sulphur in the presence of compressed air according to the reaction below. Combustion takes place
in a Sulphur furnace at 300-350C after the initial melting of Sulphur. For temperatures below
300C, Sulphur will merely sublime.
() + ()
()
The excess air is provided by an air compressor that supplies compressed air through nozzles.
The Sulphur-dioxide gas is then cooled by a tower of cooling pipes to about 70C. Syrup enters
the sulphitor at the top, while Sulphur dioxide enters the sulphitor via a perforated pipe located
near the bottom of the vessel and is bubbled through a mass of syrup. The process is countercurrent to expose all the syrup to the gas and enable even mixing since Sulphur dioxide is a light
gas and settles easily at the bottom. The final acidity or pH sought after Sulphitation is 5.5-6.0.
Precaution: In the presence of water, sulphur burns to give sulphuric anhydride (() ), instead
of sulphurous anhydride (() ). On reacting with water, (() ) immediately forms sulphuric
acid ( () ) that can easily corrode the pipes. Care is always taken to avoid the introduction
of water or moisture into the furnace. Accordingly, the air for combustion should always be dried.
34
6.5.1 Typical Layout of the Sulphitation Process at SCOUL.
Raw Syrup
300-350C
Sulphited Syrup to
70C
Pump
Sulphur Furnace Burner
Syrup
Sulphitor
Cooling tank
Compressed air
Drain
Compressor
() gas
perforated pipe at bottom
To Syrup
Tank
Figure 19: The Counter-current flow Process of Syrup-Sulphitation- Diagram
6.6 Pan Boiling / Sugar Boiling

Pan Boiling or sugar boiling is a process in which sugar crystals are produced by further
evaporation. When syrup is further concentrated, its viscosity rises rapidly with brix and, when
the brix reaches 75-80 (Bx), crystals begin to appear and the nature of the material changes. The
material loses its fluidity more and more, and completely different methods are required for
handling it. The product obtained after boiling is then called massecuite.
6.6.1 The three Massecuite Boiling System
A three (3) massecuite boiling system is applied to enable the greatest possible exhaustion
of sugar due to consequential recirculation of mother liquor. The system is also applied for
production of Very High Pol (VHP) sugar and make the final molasses purity as low as possible.
The different grades of sugar boiling are designated by letters (A, B and C). Molasses are purged
and sugars are yielded from the respective massecuites of A, B and C.
35
Syrup
A-Light
B-Heavy
A-Heavy
C-Light
60 (Bx)
A-Massecuite 94 (Bx)
A-Horizontal crystallizer
B-Massecuite 96 (Bx)
C-Massecuite 98 (Bx)
B-Horizontal crystallizer
C-Horizontal crystallizer
B-Vertical crystallizer
A-Centrifugals
A Sugar
A-Molasses
C-Vertical crystallizer
B-Centrifugals
B-Sugar
C-FW Centrifugals
B-Molasses
CFW sugar Final Molasses

To Distillery
Melt
C-Melter
C-Sugar
C-AFW Centrifugals
Figure 20: The Three Massecuite System Flow Chart- Diagram

Conduct of Sugar Boiling.
The equipments used for Sugar boiling are known as Vacuum Pans. All use vapours as the
heating medium, generated and bled from the vapour cells. The function of the vacuum pans is to
grow sugar crystals, on the syrup sucrose, in as many steps as may be required to reduce the purity
of the syrup down to the purity of final molasses and to maximize the amount of sucrose recovered
in the sugar. There are two (2) types of vacuum pans at the factory. (Batch and Continuous pans)
1) Batch Pans: These are essentially Single effect Evaporator Vessels made up of a heating
surface and a body connected to a vacuum system. The Batch pan is an equipment in which
syrup concentration is increased by heating it under vacuum. There are 6 Batch pans at the
factory. (3 A-pans, 1 B-pan and 2 C-pans)
36
2) Continuous Pans: This consists of a horizontal cylindrical vessel in which a heat exchanger
is arranged along its length. Vertical baffles longitudinally and transversely divide the vessel
into several compartments. There is only 1 Continuous pan (B-pan) at the factory.
6.6.2 Different Grades of Sugar boiling
Spontaneous formation n of new crystals occurs at Very High Super-Saturation Coefficients (SSC)
There are 3 zones or areas of super-saturation for pure sucrose; they are defined as:
Metastable zone: The SSC is high enough for added crystals to grow while no new crystals will
form. Sugar boiling is generally carried out here.
Intermediate zone: The SSC is high, where added crystals will grow and new crystals will form,
but only in the presence of existing crystals.
Labile zone: The SSC is very high; new crystals form spontaneously and crystals growth is rapid.
A Pan-boiling:
Depending on the raw materials available, A-light, B-seed, syrup/melt or even water is used
as the footing for A-strikes. The sugar boiler introduces into the A-pan a certain quantity (about
600cft) of syrup of about 80-83 purity with Sufficient B-seed (about 200cft), so that the calandria
is completely covered to improve the rate of nucleation. This is done after the vacuum in the pan
has reached 23-25Hg. Steam is then turned on into the calandria and the mixture is supersaturated
to a metastable zone. When the super-saturation has attained the required value, graining is carried
out by sudden introduction of small drinks of syrup. Hot water is usually added after every drink,
in case of any false grains and also make sure that the concentration does not fall too far. Graining
is continued with the addition of syrup or water until the level of the massecuite in the pan has
reached to about 4 glasses (about 1000cft) and to the required crystal size of about 0.8mm. This is
referred to as footing, i.e. when the pan is almost full. At this point, the massecuite is cut into half
to make two pans of A-grain (each about 500cft) and each pan is developed using syrup to about
3.5-4 glasses and tightened to the required brix of about 92-94 and required crystal size of
0.8mm. A-massecuite is then dropped to the A-horizontal crystallizers for further crystallization.
B Pan-boiling:
B massecuite is achieved using two types of pans. (Batch pan and a Continuous pan)
37
i)
B-Batch Pans: The raw materials used as the footing for B-strikes are: A-heavy and slurry.
Slurry: Is a mixture of icing sugar and rectified spirit. The purpose of slurry is to enable crystals
to grow faster or to enable seed graining to the pan where the super-saturation coefficient (SSC)
of the syrup is just short of the spontaneous crystal formation.
The sugar boiler introduces into the B-pan a certain quantity of sufficient A-heavy molasses
for making two pans after the vacuum in the pan has reached 23-25Hg. The massecuite is
supersaturated to a metastable zone. When the super-saturation has attained the required value,
graining is carried out by addition of a suitable amount of slurry. Hot water is usually added to
harden the grain and dissolve any false grains. Graining is continued with the addition of
conditioned A-heavy molasses regularly, until the crystals become visible to the naked eye. The
level of the massecuite in the pan reaches to about 4 glasses to the required crystal size of about
0.6mm and is cut into half which is sent to a B-vacuum crystallizer for storage of B-grain.
ii)
B-Continuous Pan:
This is an automated pan equipped with automated systems of control designed to maintain
at a constant level of: Steam pressure in the tubes, Vacuum in the pan, Pressure of agitating steam
and massecuite level in the pan. It possesses vertical baffles which divide the pan into a number of
10 compartments. These compartments communicate with each other by an opening located at
the base of the partitions. The first compartment delivers into the second compartment, the second
delivers into the third, which delivers into the fourth, and so on.
The pan is fed directly with B-grain pumped from the B-vacuum crystallizer into the first
compartment. Each compartment is set to boil the massecuite to a specified brix read from a Brix
meter. Automatic opening and closing of valves is set to allow either feeding of water or
conditioned A-heavy molasses to develop B-grain and obtain the required Brix. When the
required Brix of about 94-96 is obtained in the last compartment, the B-massecuite automatically
discharges into a B-horizontal crystallizer for further crystallization.
C Pan-boiling:
C-light molasses and B-heavy molasses are used as footing of C-massecuite. The sugar boiler
introduces into the C pan a certain quantity of sufficient C-light molasses (about 2 glasses) into a
40 ton capacity pan after the vacuum in the pan has reached 23-25Hg. The massecuite is
supersaturated to a metastable zone. When the super-saturation has attained the required value,
38
graining is carried out by addition of a suitable amount of slurry. When the grains start to appear,
hot water is usually added to harden the grain and dissolve any false grains. Graining is continued
with the addition of conditioned C-light and B-heavy molasses regularly, until the crystals
become visible to the naked eye. The level of the massecuite in the pan reaches to about 4 glasses
and is cut into half, of which is sent to a C-vacuum crystallizer for storage of C-grain. C-grain
is then pumped from the C-vacuum crystallizer into a 60 ton capacity C pan after the pan has
attained a vacuum of 23-25Hg. Steam (vapour) is then opened into the calandria of the pan to
start boiling of the C-grain. When saturation starts in the pan, small drinks of conditioned B heavy
molasses is fed into the pan till its full. When the pan is filled up to capacity and has become tight,
the steam is stopped and the pan is kept under vacuum for half an hour. C-massecuite is then
dropped into the C-crystallizer at 960 to 980 Brix.
6.6.3 Typical Layout of the Sugar/Pan - Boiling Process at SCOUL.

A-light
Melt
Sulphited syrup
Conditioned
B - heavy
Conditioned
C - light
Conditioned
A - heavy
Slurry
Conditioned
B - seed
Syrup
Tank
B Continuous
C
PANS
B
PANS
1&2
Water
Steam
Water
C-Massecuite
A
PANS
Pan (4)
5, 6, 7
Steam
Water
B-Massecuite
Agitator
Steam
A-Massecuite
Horizontal
Crystallisers
Figure 21: The Sugar Boiling Process Layout- Diagram
39
Water
Steam
6.7 Crystallization by cooling

Crystallisation is a process which consists of mixing the massecuite for a certain time after
dropping from the pans, and before passing to the centrifugals in order to complete the formation
of crystals and force further exhaustion of the mother liquor. The massecuite when discharged
from the pan at about 600C, is at a high super saturation. Therefore, for the massecuite to crystallise
after boiling, it is kept in constant motion to constantly change the relative positions of particles
of mother liquor and crystals. Crystallisation ceases if the massecuite is left undisturbed, because
the layer of mother liquor surrounding the crystals will be rapidly exhausted, and its viscosity will
prevent more distant molecules of sugar from circulating and coming in contact with the crystals.
6.7.1 The different types of crystallisers:
1) Horizontal Crystallisers:
The horizontal crystallizers are of a U-shape with an open top side for receiving massecuite.
The crystallization process consists of two major events, nucleation and crystal growth.
Nucleation is the step where the solute molecules dispersed in the solvent start to gather into
clusters that become stable under the current operating conditions while Crystal growth is the
subsequent growth of the nuclei that succeeds in achieving the critical crystal size. Nucleation and
growth continue to occur simultaneously while the super saturation exists. Super saturation is
the driving force of the crystallization hence the rate of nucleation and growth is driven by the
existing super saturation in the solution. The effect of cooling to about 500C is to maintain as high
a level of super-saturation as possible in order to increase the driving force for crystallisation.
Agitation is necessary in order to renew the layer of mother liquor around the crystals and ensure
uniform super saturation and also bring fresh massecuite in contact with the cooling surfaces.
2) Vacuum Crystallisers:
There are two (2) vacuum crystallisers at the factory. (B-grain and C-grain vacuum
crystallisers). These are cylindrical crystallisers completely closed and maintained under vacuum,
with inlet and outlet pipes for developed grain. They also consist of a jacket for admission of steam
whilst condensates being withdrawn from below. They are used in the operation at the pan station,
to hold in reserve, a storage of B-grain and C-grain that needs to be re-processed later onwards.
40
3) Vertical Cooling Crystallisers:

There are two (2) vertical crystallizers at the factory. These are B-massecuite and CMassecuite Vertical crystallizers. Vertical crystallizers are used for efficient sugar crystallization
from low-purity crystal suspensions. B and C massecuites, are low grade massecuites. These
massecuites become more viscous as their purity decreases. The Crystallisers ensures proper
cooling for B and C massecuites to about 400C, permitting completion of formation of crystals and
exhaustion of the molasses. Since proper cooling makes them more viscous, they are therefore
reheated by transient heaters located just below the pug mills, for feeding to the centrifugals.
6.7.2 Pug Mills

After crystallizers, the respective massecuites are sent to their respective pug mills. The
main purpose of pug mill is to prevent the massecuite from solidifying by the mixing process,
through rotating shaft on which the rods are fixed.
6.8 Centrifugation (Centrifugal Machines)

From the pug mill, massecuites are sent to centrifugal machines for curing. These machines
separate crystals from mother liquor by filtration using centrifugation process in order to obtain
the sugar in the commercial form. The walls of the centrifuge basket are porous, and the liquid
filters through the deposited cake of solids and is removed. Two (2) different types of centrifugal
machines are used at the factory: Batch fugalsusually for high-purity massecuites and
Continuous fugalsfor lower purity, higher viscosity massecuites
6.8.1 The different types of centrifugals:
1) Batch Centrifugals (A-Centrifugal Machines):
A-massecuite from A-pug mill, is centrifuged (cured) in batch centrifugals since it is a high
grade massecuite (High purity). The batch centrifugal consist of a spindle with a revolving
cylindrical perforated metallic basket designed to receive the massecuite to be treated. The basket
is carried on the vertical shaft driven by a motor as shown in the figure 21 below. The cylindrical
basket, rotating at 50 rpm is open at top to receive A-massecuite when the pug-mill valve is
opened. The basket has vertical sides, in which a perforated cover screen is inserted alongside its
41
inner circumference and a back-liner screen sandwiched between them to allow molasses to
escape.
Suspension
Head
Spindle
Massecuite
Feeder
Casing
Charge
regulator
Basket
Wash Spray
Discharge Plough
Sugar
discharger
Figure 22: A-Batch Centrifugal Machine
The massecuite falls onto a distributor, spreading it evenly over the surface of the cover
screen. The spindle is driven by an electric motor and rotates at a maximum speed of about 1,350
rpm inside a housing. As the machine accelerates to a high speed, the molasses is separated from
the crystals by centrifugal force developed giving rise to A-heavy molasses. The centrifugal force
of the spinning, forces molasses to separate from the crystals, and pass through the perforations
while the crystals remain inside the basket. The basket wall is constructed in such a ways so as to
withstand the centrifugal force developed during the operation. Hot water and steam is sprayed to
42
the inside of the sugar wall to remove residual molasses sticking to the crystals. This gives rise to
A-light molasses. Then an electric brake engages followed by a mechanical brake that slows the
basket down to 50 rpm. A discharge valves opens and the sugar crystals are removed/scrapped
off the walls of the basket at the end of a cycle operation by means of a plough which is lowered
into the basket. The sugar falls through the centre of the basket and is discharged onto a carrier
below (hopper), while the basket rotates.
Batch cycle of Operation: The capacity of the process is measured in cycle time. A cycle is
defined as the sequence of operations from charging A-massecuite into the basket to the
discharging of sugar and is typically denoted by the following steps:
1) Charging and accelerating 65s
4) Electric braking 15s
2) Washing at high speed 8s
5) Mechanical braking 10s
3) Drying 36s
6) Discharging 20s
Total Time = 2minutes, 34 seconds. At this rate there should be between 17-22 cycles per hour.
2) Continuous Centrifugals (B and C-Centrifugal Machines)
Figure 23: Basket for a Continuous Centrifugal Machine
The Continuous Centrifugals are used for curing B and C-massecuites. The continuous
centrifugals are designed with a cone-shaped basket, which is usually belt-driven from below
along-side the machine. The inner surface of the basket is fitted with a screen with a backing screen
within them. The basket rotates at a maximum speed of 1,730 rpm depending on the size and duty
of the machine. Massecuite is continuously fed into the cone. Sugar crystals rise up the inclined
screen whilst molasses is forced through the perforations and exits the process. The crystals are
flung off the top edge of the cone and strike the wall of the stationary outer housing.
43
B-Massecuite curing:
B-massecuite from the B-pug-mills is fed into the middle of a cone and is then eventually
distributed in the basket. The centrifugal force causes the massecuite to climb up the cover screen
forcing the molasses to escape through the cover screen and backing screen. The molasses then
climb up the basket wall behind the backing screen and goes through openings in the basket wall
and finally into the molasses chamber. B-heavy is thus obtained. The sugar left on the cover screen
goes up and is thrown out over the rim into the magma mixers. Steam is used at the entrance of
the massecuite to facilitate curing. The steam enters a jacket outside the central tube and heats the
entering massecuite. Steam inside the jacket finally goes out through holes in the central tube at
the bottom of the jacket and mixes with the incoming massecuite. B sugar obtained is mixed with
water to form seed used as A-pan footing.
C-Massecuite curing:
C-massecuite is double cured giving rise to Final Molasses, C-light molasses and C-sugar.
C-massecuite from C-For-Worker-pug-mills is fed into the first set of Centrifugals (C-For-Worker
Centrifugals). The massecuite is then sunned dry without washing and steaming is done giving rise
to Final Molasses which is weighed and sent to distillery. The cured sugar from the for-workers
is discharged into a C-After-Worker-magma mixer, where its mixed with water, forming a magma
of high purity then pumped into a second set of Centrifugals (C-After-Worker Centrifugals) for
second curing giving rise to C-light molasses and C-sugar. C-Sugar is mixed with water and
pumped to the C-melter. In the C-melter, the C-Sugar is melted with water and the C-melt formed
is conditioned for A-boiling. The C-melter melts all sugars and makes a homogeneous mixture.
6.8.2 Hopper:
Hopper is used to supply the final commercial sugar obtained from A-fugals to a belt
conveyor that conveys the sugar to the fluidised bed drier. A magnetic separator is placed at the
end of the hopper in order to trap any magnetic particles that come along hopping with the sugar.
6.9 Sugar Drying (Fluidised Bed Drier)
A Fluidised Bed-Drier is used to dry the final product sugar crystals with the help of steam.
The drier is divided into two compartments: hot air and cool air chamber. Drying is generally done
by blowing heated air from a heat exchanger (radiator) by use of a Forced Draft fan, through
perforated screens into the hot air chamber, fluidising the sugar, swirling the grains thus drying
44
them. The air passes around the sugar crystals in co-current flows within the dryer. As the heated
air makes contact with the moist sugar, moisture is driven off from the liquor covering the crystals.
Once the moisture has been evaporated off, cold air is blown into the cooler section where the
sugar is cooled. An Induced Draft Fan is then used to suck out dust, vapours to a scrapper tank.
6.10 Packaging and Storage:
After drying, sugar goes into a sugar beam as a temporary storage where weightment machines
are connected. Sugar is then packed into 50 kg bags and stored. Manual packaging is used and it
is closed by a sewing machine. In an 8 hrs shift of regular crushing of cane, approximately 2000
bags of sugar are produced. The final production of sugar is 250 tons of cane per day.
6.6.3 Typical Layout of the Centrifugation / Separation Process at SCOUL.
C Melter
Melt
C - Vertical Crystalliser
B Massecuite
A- Heavy
C Massecuite
A- Light
C- Light
B- Heavy
A Massecuite
A Pug Mill
B Pug Mill
A fugals
B fugals
1,2,3,4
1,2,3,4
C-AFW Pug Mill
CFW Pug Mill
C-FW fugals
1,2,3,4
C-AFW
fugals 1 & 2
Water
Water
Water
Commercial Sugar
B Magma
Mixer
B-seed
C-AFW Magma
Mixer
C-sugar
C-FW
Magma
C-FW Sugar
Hopper
To A-Pan boiling
Final Molasses to Distillery
Figure 24: The Centrifugation / Separation Process Layout- Diagram

45
CHAPTER SEVEN
7.0 ACTIVITIES CARRIED OUT, SKILLS AQUIRED AND CHALLENGES FACED
7.1 CHEMICAL LABORATORY
The laboratory is responsible for quality control and assurance by sampling and analysis of
critical control parameters in the sugar manufacturing process and also advises the process on
performance of particular unit operations. This chapter contains the activities I carried out during
my training period. They are listed below;
1) Brix, Pol and PH Test.
3) Determination of Preparative Index.
2) Last Mill Bagasse Test.
4) Determination of reducing sugars.
7.1.1 Brix, Pol and Ph Test

a) Brix Test: This test is performed by the
instrument known as a refractometer. A
refractometer is an instrument used to
measure the percentage by weight of
dissolved solids in a solution. Units are
termed as degrees brix. It works on the
principle of total internal reflection of
light. A refractometer is composed of a
prism surface where the sample is placed
and a presser to cover the surface.
The Following Procedure was performed to get the brix reading from the refractometer
The sample obtained was filtered with a sieve and mixed well before being transferred to
the prism surface. The prism surface and the presser were cleaned with a clean tissue soaked in
distilled water before taking the readings. A clean dropper was then used to transfer the sample
to the prism surface until it was completely covered. The pressure was then lowered onto the prism
plate to cover the sample and the read key button was pressed to take the brix reading.
46
b) Pol Test: This test is performed by the

instrument known as a polarimeter. The
polarimeter is an instrument used for
determining the optical rotation of
substances. It works on the principle of
polarization of light. In this way, the
concentration content of sucrose and
purity of various samples, can be found.
It is one of the most useful instruments in
laboratory of the sugar factory.
The Following Procedure was performed to get the pol reading from a polarimeter and pol%
100 ml of a sample was obtained and transferred into a flask. 2g of lead sub acetate was
then added to it, and the mixture was stirred well and filtered. The pol tube was then cleaned
thoroughly with distilled water to remove all traces of any previous sample which could dissolve
into the new sample. The clean pol tube was then rinsed with the sample to be read and the filtrate
was poured into the pol tube while checking that there were no bubbles at the end caps, until it
was full. The filled tube was then finally placed on the rails of the polarimeter. The covers were
closed, and the stable reading was taken. The reading displayed is was recorded as the POL
reading. The corrected POL factor was got from the Schmitzs table for calculating the POL
percentage (pol %), with respect to the brix reading that was obtained.
c) PH Test: This test is performed by the

instrument
known
as
PH
is 7 while below 7 is acid and over 7 is
and
alkaline.
Conductivity Meter. It is an instrument

used
for
determining
the
Ph,
conductivity, and T.D.S of substances.

PH is the scale number 1 to 14 which is
used as a measure of the acidity or
alkalinity of a solution. The neutral point
47
ANALYSIS CARRIED OUT ON POL, BRIX AND PURITY

The purity was obtained from the equation: Purity =
1) Analysis Carried Out: Determination of Pol, Brix and Purity for Juices
Sample
Brix (Bx)
Pol
Purity (%)
Primary Juice
16.64
13.89
83.47
Mixed Juice
10.84
8.97
82.75
Last expressed Juice
2.30
1.81
78.70
Clear Juice
11.61
9.63
82.95
Filtrate
7.78
6.06
77.89
PH
6.78
2) Analysis Carried Out: Determination of Pol, Brix and Purity for Syrup and Massecuites
Samples from Syrup to Molasses are diluted (Dilution Factor of 10) before testing for brix and pol.
Sample
Brix (Bx)
Pol
Purity (%)
Syrup
54.80
45.23
82.54
A-massecuite
93.80
78.69
83.89
B-massecuite
96.70
65.36
67.59
C-massecuite
98.55
51.52
52.25
3) Analysis Carried Out: Determination of Pol, Brix and Purity for Sugars and Molasses.
Sample
Brix (Bx)
Pol
Purity (%)
A-heavy molasses
81.10
56.21
69.31
A-light molasses
61.00
50.10
82.13
B-heavy molasses
80.20
35.76
44.59
B-seed (sugar)
92.10
80.76
87.69
C-light molasses
85.30
54.55
63.95
Melt (C-sugar)
41.20
37.00
89.81
Final Molasses
86.30
30.33
35.14
48
7.1.2 Last Mill Bagasse Test

Pol in the bagasse is tested by a polarimeter, after the extraction of pol by a Rapi-pol extractor.
A Rapi-Pol Extractor
The rapi-pol extractor is a mixer
developed for the quick determination of
pol% in cane and mill bagasse and fiber% in
the cane and bagasse. Cold water is used for
the
extraction
of
pol
and
for
the
determination of fiber. To obtain pol in cane

or bagasse a weighed quantity of the sample
along with the predetermined quantity of
water is mixed in the vessel for a set time.
The homogeneous liquid thus formed is
filtered by adding lead sub acetate to it,
filtered and polarized for the pol reading.
Procedure:
Small portions of bagasse were sampled carefully from an entire breadth of the last mill
carrier. The weight reading of an empty tray onto which the bagasse is to be transferred was
recorded. 100g of bagasse was accurately weighed onto the previously weighed tray and
transferred to a hot air oven for a set time of 2-hours for drying and the weight reading was later
recorded. Another 250g of bagasse was accurately weighed in a clean bucket. 2 liters of cold water
was added to it and was transferred into a Rapi-pol extractor. The extractor was commissioned to
run for five (5) minutes. The result juice was separated from the fiber and clarified by adding 2g
of lead sub acetate to it. The filtrate was then polarized in a pol tube to obtain the pol reading.
Analysis:
The weight reading of the empty tray obtained was subtracted from the weight reading
obtained after drying. The result value obtained was recorded and was further subtracted from 100
to obtain the value for moisture%, which was used to read off a standard value for a moisture
factor. The Pol% was then calculated from: Pol reading2Moisture factor.
49
7.1.3 Determination of Preparative Index (P.I)

Procedure:
Samples of prepared cane were drawn from the entire cross section of cane-belt conveyor 1
into a clean bucket. 625g of the prepared cane sample was accurately weighed into a clean plastic
can. 3 litres and 750 ml of water was then added to it and transferred to Tumbler. The tumbler was
then commissioned to run for 30 minutes. The result juice was obtained and the brix reading was
taken and recorded as Brix 1. Another 333g of the prepared cane sample was accurately weighed
into a clean bucket and 2 litres of water was added to it. It was then transferred to a Rapi-pol
extractor and commissioned for 15 minutes of further disintegration. The result juice was obtained
and the brix reading was taken and recorded as Brix 2.

The Preparative Index (P.I) was then calculated from: (
7.1.4 Determination of Reducing Sugars in Juice

Procedure:
75g of the sample was accurately weighed into a 250ml volumetric flask. 24ml of neutral
lead acetate solution was then added and thorough shaking was done for proper mixing. Distilled
water was added to make up to the mark. The mixture was then filtered using What-man No.1
filter paper. 200 ml of the filtrate was transferred to a 250ml volumetric flask and 20 ml of deleading solution was added. Thorough shaking was then done for proper mixing. Distilled water
was then added to make up to the mark and the mixture was then filtered using What-man No.1
filter paper. 5mls of Fehlings -A add 5mls of Fehlings -B solution was pipetted and transferred
into a conical flask. The pipetted solution was then titrated with the filtrate (the first 15ml were
titrated rapidly) and then slowly using methyl blue indicator to brick red end point.
The Dilution factor was calculated as
Reducing sugar % was calculated from
= . and Fehlings factor was 0.98

.
50
7.1.3 Knowledge Acquired During My Training:
I have learnt the essence of safety and the precautions to be taken, in any engineering work
environment. Overcoats, a helmet and safety shoes must strictly be worn at all times before
setting a foot into the factory.
I have also learnt the importance of building a collaborative relationship and friendship with
different and various categories of people (staff and workers) in the field, for future
employment opportunities.
I have also learnt the benefits associated with team work by practically being part of it, at the
best of my ability, through partaking safety practices of the factory and laboratory standards.
I have also learnt the essence of building confidence and develop a personality, based on
effective communication skills through collective and interactive avenues for future roles.
I have also been able to understand that some problems encountered in the industry rarely
have unique solutions, and there is no need to gain experience necessary for selecting the
optimal solutions from the many options.
Finally, I have been able to learn all the chemical and physical processes of sugar production,
the design, construction and operation of all the equipments used for production and I have
appreciated all the knowledge acquired during my studies in a more practical bit.
7.1.4 Skills Acquired During My Training:
Safety skills: My Overcoat, helmet and safety shoes have strictly been worn at all times.
Time Management: I have kept a good profile on attendance and punctuality without any
unscheduled absences and I have always completed my work before leaving for the day.
Confidence: I have also developed an outstanding ability and confidence to explain all the
details learnt about sugar processing and technology.
Work product: The quality of my research work from various assignments given to me and
experiments carried out in the laboratory has been excellent according to my supervisor. I have
always completed my work on time with minimal errors and without constant supervision.
Laboratory skills: How to calibrate an electronic weighing balance, A Ph and Conductivity

meter, and how to prepare solutions in the laboratory (analytical skills).
51
Operational skills: How to start and operate a Rapi-pol extractor using a Spanner as well as a
Tumbler. Likewise, how to operate a Refractometer and Polarimeter and take readings.
Communication skills: The factory employees comprises of people from different parts of the
country. I was challenged at times to speak using Luganda with some of the operators which
has also improved my communication skills to a certain level.
Cooperativeness: I have displayed an excessive positivity when working with my fellow

colleagues. I have always been cordial and willing to assist and help them.
7.1.5 Challenges Faced During My Training:
Dust and flue gas: The factory boilers operate using bagasse as fuel. Some flue gas and dust
escapes and circulates inside the factory which was so dangerous when inhaled.
Uncontained Bagacillo: Fine particles of bagasse escape when conveyed to the cyclone
separator at the filter station and were dangerous to my eye-sight and also when inhaled.
Noise impingements: The factory does not provide hearing impingements to its workers or
trainees. At times, it became so hard to listen to my supervisors explanations when training or
for him to listen to my questions and thus I had to strain my voice.
Sampling in Dirty Areas: Some factory areas are extremely dirty with sticky molasses. The
factory does not provide hand gloves in such cases where we had to get our hands and coats
very dirty and sticky with molasses. On the other hand, no soap or detergents were provided
for washing our hands. I believe this extremely has an effect on the health of workers.
Cost of Living: No form of allowances or accommodation were given to trainees. The current
cost of living in Lugazi has been higher than what I expected. All transport, food, research,
and safety working equipment costs, were catered for by my pocket.
Language Barrier: This was one of the major challenges faced especially when interacting
with the operators. In most cases, when my supervisor was a little busy, he could hand me over
to the operators for a while. Some of them could not explain in English and preferred using
Luganda. It was a struggle for me to understand some unit operations in a different-language.
52
7.2 CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS, REFERENCES & APPENDICES

7.2.1 General Conclusion
Amidst some challenges, my industrial training at SCOUL has been a big success. Sugar
Corporation of Uganda limited has hardworking, cooperative and trained staff, as well as a very
friendly environment. It has been a big experience in my life, to interact with staff and workers
that are co-operative, social, approachable, caring and competent enough to provide me with all
the necessary information I needed to have obtained. Their efforts provided me a valuable
environment, in which my practical growth occurred.
I am extremely grateful, having trained with SCOUL, a large organization I believe that anyone
would wish to train from. I therefore recommend students and other professional personnel to
undergo training at this company. I also recommend SCOUL to continue providing industrial
training placements to students as well as professional personnel from various institutes and firms.
7.2.2 Recommendations to SCOUL
The factory should provide hearing impingements to its workers or trainees that are just
sufficient to block any excessive noise. A lot of noise in the factory causes hearing side-effects.
The factory should provide hand gloves to its workers and trainees to enable those who work
in extremely dirty areas maintain a good-hygiene and health. Most of them use bare hands, and
of which, no soap or detergents are provided to them for washing hands.
The management of SCOUL should put into consideration, the importance of their trainees to
the organisations. Despite trainees benefiting from the knowledge acquired, their research can
also benefit the organization as well or would be motivated to come back and work as
permanent employees. Therefore, I advise the company, to consider some little allowances for
trainees as they strive to survive during their internship training.
The management of SCOUL should also start giving incentives or benefits to its employees to
improve the production.
From the processing point of view;
The packaging is manually controlled causing more men power. From my observation, the
hygiene of men power employed has not been so proper. If the packaging process can be
automated, it could save costs, time and the risk of contaminating the sugar to be bagged.
53
The factory should also devise ways of studying and setting up a short retention time clarifier
purposely for the filtrate to avoid recirculation of non-sugars and sugars in the reaction tank.
The excess bagasse produced by the factory should be sold or exported to paper and board
making industries as it is a raw material for making paper bags, card-boards, etc.
Not all the power produced is used by the factory and therefore the factory should start up a
power project, which can meet the energy requirements of the whole Lugazi town.
The Operation of the plant is often at times, below its capacity and other times, abrupt
stoppages of the mill (No crushing). This is a strong weakness to the factory since the demand
of sugar is increasing with the passage of time and therefore the importance of this sugar plant
has to be much increased.
7.2.3 Recommendations to Kyambogo University
The university should also play a role of connecting students to organisations for a placement
of internship training. Students do struggle on their own to get placements of which some are
lucky and some just fail to get and yet all do pay a fixed ITCSP fee for industrial training. It
could only take a recommendation for one to easily get a place.
The university should at-least organize one or two sessions with students to brief them on what
is expected to be done during training and guidance on how to make industrial training reports.
Providing a log book is not quite be enough to fully provide the guidance needed.
Internship allowances should be provided to students in time, preferably two weeks prior to
training so that students can easily plan for their accommodation especially in urban areas
where costs of living are high.
Organization of study trips to such organisations especially for those doing engineering
sciences, should be put into consideration as this will benefit many students who wouldnt have
gotten a chance to train from such a valuable organization for their practical growth.
Likewise, organization of public meetings and exhibitions at the University should be put into
consideration, inviting experienced personnel form SCOUL, to share with students more about
cane sugar engineering and technology.
7.2.4 References
1) E. Hugot Handbook of Cane Sugar Engineering, 3rd, completely revised, Edition, 1986.
54
2) J.M.Smith, Introduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics, 7th Edition.

3) Coulson & Richardsons, Chemical Engineering, Volume-2.
4) Wikipedia a free Encyclopedia.
5) Kirk Othmer, Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Vol.25, 4th Edition.
6) Kirk Othmer, Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Vol.23, 4th Edition.
APPENDIX A
Bagasse: The residue after extraction of juice from the cane that has passed through the mills
Bagacillo: Very small/fine particles of bagasse separated from the mass of final bagasse
Brix: The percentage by weight of dissolved solids/matter in a solution expressed as a

percentage by mass or as an actual mass.
Entrainment: The process by which vapours escape with juice droplets in cases due to a very
high vacuum.
Extraction: A percentage of sucrose recovered from the cane.
Filter Cake: The dry and porous material formed and scrapped off onto the screens of filters
and has undergone different vacuum zones. Its later sent to the field as fertilizer.
Final Molasses: Heavy molasses obtained from curing the last grade of the massecuite (Cmassecuite).
Imbibition: The general term which applies to the process of adding water or thin juice to
bagasse to mix and dilute the juice concentrate therein.
Inversion: The process that takes place when sucrose is exposed to high temperatures and low
PHs, and breaks down into equal parts of glucose and fructose referred to as invert sugar.
Massecuite: The product obtained from sugar boiling / pan boiling.
Molasses: The product obtained from curing of massecuite that contains sucrose, invert sugar,
ash and other insoluble matter.
Pol: the apparent sucrose, given as a percentage by mass or as an actual mass.
Purity: The mass of pol (or sucrose) expressed as a percentage of the brix of a sugar solution
Seed: Sugar or magma obtained from curing massecuite that is mixed with water and used as
a footing for further boiling of massecuite.
Syrup: The concentrated clarified juice leaving the last evaporator vessel.
Sulphited Syrup: Syrup that has been bubbled through a mass of Sulphur dioxide gas.
55
APPENDIX B
Vapour Line Heater
Primary Juice Heater
Design of the Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
Reaction vessel
Rapidor 444 Clarifier
Flash Tank
Addition of Magna Flocculant

56
Lime Preparation
Cyclone Separator
Rotary Vacuum Filter
Quadruple-effect evaporators
Filtrate Receiver Bottles
Entrainment trapper
57
Sulphitation vessel
B & C grain vacuum

crystallisers
Centrifugal Machines
Pug-mill and
transient heater
Trainee
Fellow colleagues and I at the Cane yard during Training
58

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THE PRODUCTION PROCESSES OF

COMMERCIAL SUGAR AT SUGAR

KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY, UGANDA

Signature of Training Manager

Signature of University Inspector

CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................ 15

BACKGROUND OF INDUSTRIAL TRAINING

To develop a sense of responsibility towards society and the community at large.

To understand the formal and informal relationship in an organization, promoting favorable

1.1.2 Business Principle:

To provide fair returns on capital employed.

To implement and maintain environmental management system that fulfills the

To build dedicated and hardworking team for efficiency.

To provide staff development through involvement and training.

1.2.1 Products produced by the Company:

Below is the Organizational Structure of SCOUL Factory:

G.M General Manager

Solubility in H2O at 500C, g/ml

Specific Heat, J/gmole

Heat of solution, KJ/gmole

2.2.2 Chemical Properties of Sucrose:

() + (). The conversion is

NOTE: Other substances (2 %) consist of:

Cane cutters (2)

Feed Tables (4)

Fiberized Cane Carrier

Mills (4) + Elevators

Juice from Mill 2

Primary Juice (Mill 1)

c) Levelers and Equalisers:

Mixed Juice Tank

Figure 3: Configuration of the mills at SCOUL sugar factory

Figure 4: Simple Boiler Circuit

4.2 Boiler Feed Water Treatment (Water Chemistry)

b) Lay-Out of Typical Feed Water System for Boilers

WATER TANK (MAKE UP)

Boiler feed water pump

Chemical Injection Pumps

TDS (Total Dissolved Solids)

Figure 6: Steam Turbine

5.2.1 Way of Working:

5.2.3 Calculation of Shaft Work Produced by Turbine

= (2 1 ) Where1 & 2 = & ()

38tons/hr 3.5MW 390C 160C

30kg/cm2 0.9kg/cm2 8280 rpm

30kg/cm2 0.9kg/cm2 8280 rpm

5.3 Electricity co-generation

Superheated Steam to Power House

Exhaust steam to Process House

Figure 7: Electricity co-generation using turbines-Layout Diagram

Vapor Line Juice Heater No. 1

Vapor Line Juice Heater No. 2

Rotary Vacuum Filter

Filtrate receiver tank

Treated Juice Heaters (4)

Final Molasses to Distillery

6.2 Clarification Process

6.2.1 Juice Heating

Outlet Juice Temperature

Vapours generated from last body

b) Raw Juice Heaters:

Outlet Juice Temperature

Exhaust steam or bled vapours

Structure of a Shell and Tube Juice Heater