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INTRODUCTION
Since the first powered flight, propellers have been used to convert aircraft engine power into thrust. Although
many modern transport category aircraft are powered by turbojet or turbofan engines, most of the aircraft in use
today are propelled by one or more propellers that are driven by either a turbine or reciprocating engine.
Regardless of the engine type, the primary purpose of a propeller is to convert engine power to thrust. Therefore,
as an aircraft maintenance technician, you must have a thorough understanding of the basic principles, maintenance, and repair of propeller systems.
PROPELLER PRINCIPLES
NOMENCLATURE
Before you can fully understand the principles of
how a propeller produces thrust, you must be familiar with some basic terms and component names.
Figure 12-1. The blades of a single-piece propeller extend from the hub assembly. Blades have a shank and a tip, while the hub
assembly has a hub bore and bolt holes that facilitate propeller mounting.
12-3
Propellers
PROPELLER THEORY
Figure 12-2. All propeller blades have a leading edge, a
trailing edge, and a chord line. In addition, all propeller
blades are set at a specific angle that is defined by the
acute angle formed by the propeller's plane of rotation and
the chord line.
cases, the shank may extend beyond the hub assembly and into the airstream. When this is the case,
blade cuffs may be installed to improve air flow
around the blade shank. A blade cuff is an
airfoil-shaped attachment made of thin sheets of
metal, plastic, or composite material. Blade cuffs
mount on the blade
shanks
and are
primarily used to
Figure 12-3. Some large turboprop propeller blades are fitted with blade cuffs to improve the airflow around the
blade shanks.
Propellers
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Unlike a wing which moves through the air at a uniform rate, the propeller sections near the tip rotate
at a much greater speed than those near the hub.
The difference in rotational velocity along a propeller blade segment can be found by first calculating the circumference of the arc traveled by a point
on that segment. If you recall from your general
studies, the circumference of a circle is calculated
with the formula:
2irr
The circumference is then multiplied by engine rpm
to find rotational velocity. For example, to determine the blade velocity at a point 18 inches from
the hub that is rotating at 1,800 rpm use the following formula:
Velocity = 2TTr x rpm
= 2 XTT x 18 x 1,800 =
203,575
At a point 18 inches from the hub the blade travels
203,575 inches per minute. To convert this to miles
per hour, divide 203,575 by 63,360, the number of
inches in one mile, and multiply the product by 60,
the number of minutes in one hour.
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Propellers
72-6
Propellers
Propellers
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PROPELLER PITCH
In the strictest sense, propeller pitch is the theoretical distance a propeller advances longitudinally in
one revolution. Pitch and blade angle describe two
different concepts, however, they are closely
related and the two terms are often used interchangeably. For example, when a propeller is said
to have a fixed pitch, what is actually meant is that
the blades on the propeller are set at a fixed blade
angle.
A propeller's geometric pitch is defined as the distance, in inches, that a propeller will move forward
in one revolution if it were moving through a solid
medium and did not encounter any loss of efficiency. Measurement of geometric pitch is based on
the propeller blade angle at a point out from the propeller hub that is equal to 75 percent of the blade
length.
When traveling through air, inefficiencies prevent a
propeller from moving forward at a rate equal to its
geometric pitch. Therefore, effective pitch is the
actual amount a propeller moves forward in one
revolution. Effective pitch varies from zero when
the aircraft is stationary on the ground, to about 90
percent of the geometric pitch during the most efficient flight conditions. The difference between geometric
pitch
and effective pitch is
called slip.
12-8
Propellers
Figure 12-14. Geometric pitch is the theoretical distance a propeller would move forward if it were 100% efficient. Effective pitch,
on the other hand, is the actual distance a propeller moves forward in one revolution. Slip is the difference between geometric
and effective pitch.
PROPELLER CLASSIFICATIONS
Propellers are typically classified according to
their position on the aircraft. For example, tractor
propellers are mounted on the front of an engine
and pull an aircraft through the air. On the other
hand, pusher-type propellers are mounted on the
aft end of an aircraft and push an airplane through
the air. Most aircraft are equipped with tractor-type
propellers; however, there are several seaplanes
and amphibious aircraft that are equipped with
pusher propellers. A major advantage of the tractor-type propeller is that lower stresses are
induced in the propeller as it rotates in relatively
undisturbed air.
Both tractor- and pusher-type propellers effectively
propel an aircraft through the air. However, in some
instances one type of propeller may be better suited
for a given airplane. For example, on land planes
that have little propeller-to-ground clearance,
pusher-type propellers are subject to more damage
Propellers
12-9
PROPELLER CONSTRUCTION
Almost all propellers produced are made of wood,
steel, aluminum, or some type of composite material. In the early years of aircraft development all
propellers were made of wood. However, since
wood is fairly susceptible to damage, steel propellers quickly found their way into aviation.
Today, aluminum alloys are the predominant mate-
COMPOSITE
Composite propeller blades are slowly gaining in
popularity. Some advantages of composite propellers include the fact that they are lightweight and
extremely durable. In addition, composites absorb
vibration and are resilient, making them resistant to
damage and corrosion.
FIXED-PITCH PROPELLERS
quently operates from short runways, or high field
elevations generally perform better with a climb
propeller. On the other hand, aircraft which are normally operated at sea level from airports with long
runways may be equipped with a cruise propeller.
The simplest type of propeller is a fixed-pitch propeller. As its name implies, the blade angle on a
fixed-pitch propeller is fixed and cannot easily be
changed. Because of this, fixed-pitch propellers
achieve their optimum efficiency at a specific rotational and forward speed.
FIXED-PITCH CLASSIFICATIONS
A typical fixed-pitch propeller installed on a light
aircraft has a diameter between 67 and 76 inches
and a pitch between 53 and 68 inches. The exact
diameter and pitch required for a specific airplane
is specified by the aircraft manufacturer. In some
cases, a manufacturer may authorize multiple propellers, each with a different pitch. In this case, a
propeller with the lower blade angle provides the
best performance for takeoff and climb and, therefore, is often called a climb propeller. The low blade
angle allows the engine to develop its maximum
rpm at the slower airspeeds associated with
climbout. However, once the aircraft reaches its
cruising altitude and begins to accelerate, the low
blade angle becomes inefficient.
A fixed-pitch propeller with a slightly higher blade
angle is called a cruise propeller. A cruise propeller
is designed to be efficient at cruising speed and high
altitude flight. However, because of the higher
pitch, cruise propellers are very inefficient during
takeoff and climbout.
A standard propeller is often referred to as a compromise between a climb propeller and cruise propeller. Each aircraft manufacturer usually designates a standard propeller which is designed to provide the best all-around performance under normal
circumstances.
When an aircraft-engine combination is type certificated with a specified standard, climb, and cruise
propeller, the aircraft operator may choose the type
of fixed-pitch propeller which provides the best
performance for the flight operations most often
conducted.
For example,
an aircraft
which fre-
PROPELLER CONSTRUCTION
Almost all fixed-pitch propellers produced are
made of either wood or aluminum. Of the two, aluminum is the most common, especially on production aircraft. However, there are still several classic
and experimental aircraft that utilize wood propellers.
WOODEN PROPELLERS
A majority of fixed-pitch propellers were made from
wood until World War II and wooden propellers are
still in limited use on small utility aircraft.
Hardwoods such as ash and birch are typically used
to build a wooden propeller. However, other hardwoods that have been used include mahogany,
maple, cherry, oak, and black walnut. Whatever
type of wood is used, it must be free of grain irregularities, knots, pitch pockets, and insect damage.
A wooden propeller is constructed of a minimum of
five layers of wood that are kiln-dried and laminated together with a waterproof resin glue. Each
layer is normally the same thickness and type of
wood; however, alternate layers of different wood
types may be used. The reason laminated wood is
used instead of a solid block of wood is that a laminated structure is less likely to warp. Once the layers of wood are laminated together, they form what
is called a propeller blank.
During fabrication, the blank is rough-cut to shape
and then allowed to season for a period of time. The
waiting period allows the moisture in the wood to
disperse equally through all of the layers. The
rough-shaped blank, referred to as a white, is then
finished to the exact airfoil and pitch dimensions
required. In addition, the center bore and bolt holes
Propellers
12-11
Figure 12-15. (A) 11 The first step in the manufacture of a wood propeller is to laminate planks together to form a propeller blank.
(B) he propeller blank is shaped and its hub is drilled to produce a "white." (C) 11 Once sanded smooth, a fabric sheathing and
varnish coating are applied for reinforcement and protection.
holes are then drilled 3/16 inch deep into the tip of
each blade. These holes allow moisture to drain
from behind the metal tipping and allow the wood
to breathe. [Figure 12-16]
Propellers
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PROPELLER DESIGNATION
To help prevent excessive vibration, all new propellers are balanced both horizontally and vertically. Horizontal balance is typically achieved by
removing metal from the blade tip while vertical
balance is achieved by removing metal from a
blade's leading and trailing edges. Some propeller
models may be horizontally balanced by placing
lead wool in balance holes near the boss while ver-
Propellers
12-13
Figure 12-18. A Sensenich aluminum propeller has information stamped on the hub which identifies its hub design,
blade design, blade length, and pitch. In addition, the number 1 stamped on one of the blade roots identifies that
blade as blade number one.
ADJUSTABLE-PITCH PROPELLERS
The design and construction of adjustable pitch propellers permit the aircraft operator to change the
propeller blade angle. This offers the advantage of
being able to set the propeller blade angle to obtain
the maximum possible efficiency from a particular
propeller/engine combination. While a few of the
older adjustable pitch propellers could only be
adjusted on the ground by a maintenance technician, most modern adjustable pitch propellers permit a pilot to change the propeller pitch in flight.
The first adjustable pitch propeller systems developed offered two pitch settings; a low pitch setting
and a high pitch setting. Today, however, nearly all
adjustable pitch propeller systems are capable of a
range of pitch settings.
Figure 12-19.
GROUND-ADJUSTABLE
PROPELLERS
As mentioned in Section A, ground-adjustable propellers are constructed in a way that allows the
blade angle to be changed when the aircraft is on the
ground and the engine is shut down. This type of
propeller is seldom used today and is usually found
on older aircraft equipped with radial engines.
The hub of a ground adjustable propeller consists of
two aluminum or steel halves that are machined to
form a matched pair. The interior of each hub half is
machined out so that the shank of two propeller
blades can be held between the two hub halves. To
prevent centrifugal force from pulling the blades out
of the hub, the base, or butt, of each metal blade is
machined with shoulders which fit into grooves
that are machined into each hub half. If wooden
blades are used, the shoulders are cast or machined
into a metal sleeve that is fastened to the blade
shank by lag screws. [Figure 12-19]
Once the blades are inserted between the two hub
halves, bolts are normally used to secure the hub
halves when steel blades are used. However, when
wood or aluminum alloy blades are used, either
bolts or clamp rings may be used to hold the hub
halves together. [Figure 12-20]
CONTROLLABLE-PITCH
PROPELLERS
Controllable-pitch propellers have an advantage
over ground adjustable propellers in that the
blade angle may be changed while the propeller is
rotating. This allows the propeller to assume a
blade angle that provides the best performance for
Propellers
12-15
Figure 12-21. When low pitch is selected, engine oil pressure forces the cylinder forward. This motion moves the
counterweights and blades to the low pitch position.
Figure 12-22. When high pitch is selected, engine oil pressure is removed from the piston assembly allowing centrifugal force to move the counterweights outward. This
rotates the blades to the high pitch position.
Propellers
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CONSTANT-SPEED PROPELLERS
A constant-speed propeller, often called a
variable-pitch or controllable-pitch propeller, is
the most common type of adjustable-pitch propeller
used on aircraft today. The main advantage of a
constant-speed propeller is that it converts a high
percentage of the engine's power into thrust over a
wide range of rpm and airspeed combinations. The
primary reason why a constant-speed propeller is
more efficient than other propellers is because it
allows the operator to select the most efficient
engine rpm for the given conditions. Once a
specific rpm is selected, a device called a
governor automatically adjusts the propeller blade
angle as necessary to maintain the selected rpm.
For example, after selecting a desired rpm during
cruising flight, an increase in airspeed or decrease
in propeller load will cause the propeller blade
angle to increase as necessary to maintain the
selected rpm. On the other hand, a reduction in
airspeed or increase in propeller load will cause
the propeller blade angle to decrease.
- .
i
The range of possible blade angles for a
constant-speed propeller is called the propeller's
constant-speed range and is defined by the high
and low pitch stops. As long as the propeller blade
angle is within the constant-speed range and not
against
Propellers
12-17
12-18
Propellers
Figure 12-25. When a governor is in an under-speed condition, speeder spring pressure is greater than the centrifugal
force and the flyweights tilt inward.
Figure 12-26. When a governor is in an over-speed condition, the centrifugal force acting on the flyweights overcomes the force of the speeder spring to tilt the flyweights
outward.
12-19
Propellers
McCAULEY CONSTANT-SPEED
PROPELLERS
The McCauley constant-speed propeller system is
one of the more popular systems used on light and
medium size general aviation aircraft. For example,
most Cessna aircraft that use a constant-speed propeller utilize a McCauley propeller system.
Currently, there are two types of constant-speed
propellers that are installed on aircraft; the threaded
series and the threadless series. Both use the same
pitch change mechanism in the propeller hub; however, the method used to attach the propeller blades
to the hub does differ. For example, a threaded
series propeller uses a retention nut which screws
into the propeller hub and holds the blades in the
hub. This differs from the threadless-type blades
which employ a split retainer ring to hold each
blade in the hub. [Figure 12-27]
Both series of McCauley propellers are non-feathering
and non-counterweighted.
Therefore,
oil
Figure 12-27. (A) 19 McCauley threaded blades use retention nuts and threaded ferrules to secure the propeller blades to the
hub. (B) 19 The threadless design is the more modern of the two types of propeller blades and incorporates a split retainer ring
to hold each propeller blade in place.
72-20
Propellers
Propellers
12-21
Figure 12-30. A McCauley non-feathering governor ports high pressure oil to the propeller hub to increase blade angle and releases oil
pressure to decrease blade angle.
McCAULEY GOVERNORS
Propellers
72-22
head, the body, and the base. The head contains the
flyweights and flyweight assembly while the body
and base house the pilot valve and boost pump.
In most cases, a Hamilton-Standard governor has a
designation code that is stamped on the governor
body. The designation system indicates the design
of the head, body, and base. For example, a governor
with a designation code of 1A3-B2H identifies a "1"
head design, an "A" body design, and a "3" base. In
addition, the "B2H" indicates the modifications
made to the head, body, and base respectively.
HARTZELL CONSTANT-SPEED
PROPELLERS
Hartzell constant-speed propeller systems are
widely used in modern general aviation airplanes
and share the market with McCauley. Currently,
Hartzell produces two types of constant-speed propellers, a steel hub propeller and a Compact model.
The Hartzell steel hub propeller is similar to the
Hamilton-Standard constant-speed propeller in that
the pitch change mechanism is exposed. On the
Propellers
12-23
COMPACT PROPELLER
Propellers
12-24
FEATHERING PROPELLERS
When an engine fails in flight, the propeller continues to windmill, or turn, slowly as air flows over the
blades. This creates a considerable amount of drag
that can adversely effect an aircraft's flight characteristics. To help eliminate the drag created by a
windmilling propeller, design engineers developed
a way to rotate the propeller blades to a 90 degree
angle. This is known as feathering a propeller and
eliminates the drag created by a windmilling propeller because it presents the smallest blade profile
to the oncoming airstream. Today, all modern
multi-engine, propeller-driven aircraft are equipped
with feathering propellers. [Figure 12-38]
The operating principles discussed previously for
constant-speed propellers also apply to feathering
propeller systems. However, the propeller control
Propellers
12-25
lever in the cockpit typically incorporates an additional position that, when selected, rotates the propeller blades to their feathered position. In most
cases, the propeller control is pulled all the way aft
to feather the blades. If a propeller is feathered from
a low blade angle, the blades will move from a low
angle through a high angle before they reach their
feathered position. On the other hand, if a propeller
is feathered from a high blade angle, the blades will
move from their high pitch setting directly into the
feathered position.
On most aircraft, feathering functions are independent of constant-speed operation. In other words,
the operator can override a constant-speed system
to feather the propeller at any time. In fact, in some
systems the propeller can be feathered without
engine rotation.
The constant-speed operation of a Hartzell compact feathering propeller is the same as the constant-speed model with one difference; the feathering propeller uses both governor oil pressure
and centrifugal twisting force to rotate the blades
to low pitch while some combination of a
high-pressure nitrogen charge, an internal spring,
or counterweights are used to increase blade
angle. For example, one type of Hartzell compact
feathering propeller utilizes a high-pressure
nitrogen charge and a mechanical spring to
increase blade angle and to feather the blades.
The nitrogen charge is stored in the cylinder head
and works in conjunction with a spring that is
also contained within the propeller hub.
12-26
Propellers
Figure 12-39. The Hartzell compact feathering propeller depicted above relies on governor oil pressure to decrease blade angle and a
combination of blade mounted counterweights and compressed nitrogen in the propeller cylinder to increase blade angle.
Propellers
72-27
HAMILTON-STANDARD HYDROMATIC
PROPELLER
The second type of feathering propeller that will be
discussed in detail is the Hamilton-Standard hydromatic propeller. This type of propeller is commonly
found on medium and large radial engine transport
aircraft built during the WWII era and, although
they are not used much today, you should be familiar with its operating principles.
A
typical
non-reversing,
full-feathering,
Hamilton-Standard Hydromatic propeller is made up
of three major assemblies, the hub, or barrel,
assembly; the dome assembly; and the distributor
valve. All three of these assemblies work as a single
unit to permit constant-speed operation of the
propeller. [Figure 12-41]
Figure 12-41. A Hamilton Standard Hydromatic propeller is made up of three major assemblies; the hub assembly, the dome
assembly, and the distributor valve.
12-28
Propellers
."-
OPERATING PRINCIPLES
The hydromatic propeller differs from other constant-speed propellers in that no springs or counterweights are used to change blade angle.
Instead, engine oil pressure acts on one side of the
piston while governor oil pressure acts on the
opposite side. Depending on the propeller model,
governor oil pressure can be directed to either the
Propellers
12-29
Figure 12-42. In an overspeed condition, governor oil pressure forces the piston in the dome assembly forward. When this happens, the cam rollers also move forward causing the rotating cam to turn. As the rotating cam turns, the beveled gear attache d
to the back of the cam engages the sector gears on the propeller blades and rotates the blades to a higher angle.
Figure 12-43. In an underspeed condition, governor oil pressure is ported back to the engine through the governor. Once the pressure behind the piston decreases below the engine oil pressure, the piston moves aft. As the piston moves aft, the rotating cam
turns and drives the propeller blades to a lower blade angle.
72-30
Propellers
piston starts to build rapidly. The increasing pressure is sensed by the oil pressure cutout switch on
the governor and, when the pressure builds to
approximately 650 psi, the circuit to the feather button holding coil is opened. This de-energizes the
feather relay and shuts off the electric oil pump.
With the engine stopped and the propeller feathered, the oil pressure drops to zero.
To unfeather the propeller, the feather button is
pressed and manually held in to prevent it from
popping back out when the pressure cutout switch
opens. With the feather button depressed, the electric oil pump starts pumping more oil to the inboard
side of the piston causing the pressure to increase.
Once the pressure becomes greater than the combined spring pressure and oil pressure holding the
distributor valve in place, the distributor valve will
shift and allow high pressure oil to flow to the outboard side of the piston. At the same time, a passage
is provided for oil to drain from the inboard side of
the piston to the governor inlet and back to the
engine. The pressure differential between the front
and back side of the piston moves the piston and
cam rollers inboard causing the blades to rotate to a
lower blade angle. [Figure 12-44]
Once the blade angle is decreased, the propeller
starts to windmill, allowing the engine to be
restarted. At this point, the feather button is
released and the system returns to constant-speed
operation. If the feather button is not released,
excess oil pressure actuates a dome relief valve in
the distributor valve. The relief valve off-seats and
releases oil pressure over 750 psi from the outboard
side of the piston when the rotating cam contacts
the low blade angle stop.
Propellers
72-31
Figure 12-44. To unfeather a Hydromatic propeller, high pressure oil bypasses the governor and forces the distributor valve over
so the oil is directed to the outboard side of the piston. At the same time, a passage is provided for oil to drain from the inboard
side of the piston.
TURBOPROP PROPELLERS
POWER SECTIONS
OPERATING PRINCIPLES
Since the advent of the turboprop, propeller and
engine manufacturer's have worked together to create new designs and manufacturing techniques to
improve the reliability and efficiency in which propellers operate with turbine engines. Today, this
effort has led to the creation of a wide assortment of
turboprop propeller designs that are used on many
aircraft ranging from relatively small, single-engine
utility airplanes, to large multi-engine transport category airplanes. In this section, basic design and
operational characteristics that are common to all
turboprop engines will be discussed. Furthermore, a
detailed description of a common turboprop propeller system as it is used on two different turboprop engines will be looked at in detail. By realizing
the methods in which this propeller system operates, you will be able to understand the basic operating principles of most types of turboprop propeller systems.
PROPELLER GOVERNING
All turboprop engines utilize constant-speed, feathering propellers. In addition, the propellers used are
all controlled by one or more governors. As a general rule, turboprop engines use the same governing
principles to control propeller pitch and maintain a
constant rpm. However, propeller pitch changes are
used more extensively with turboprop engines to
produce changes in thrust. One reason this is necessary is because, unlike a reciprocating engine, a turboprop engine takes more time to react to fuel flow
and power changes. With this delayed reaction
time, turboprop aircraft cannot use varying engine
rpm to effectively control the aircraft on the ground.
Therefore, to facilitate ground handling characteristics, the gas generator speed is held relatively constant while propeller pitch is varied as necessary to
produce the desired amount of thrust.
REVERSIBLE-PITCH PROPELLERS
In addition to providing constant-speed and feathering operations, most turboprop propellers are
reversible. A reversing propeller is essentially a variable pitch, constant-speed propeller that is capable
of operating with the propeller blades rotated
beyond the normal low pitch limits. By allowing the
propeller blades to rotate to a negative blade angle,
the propeller's thrust is directed forward instead of
Propellers
12-33
Figure 12-45. One of the most popular turboprop engines in use today is a free turbine design that houses the reduction gear
assembly in the front section of the engine.
aft. This greatly reduces an aircraft's landing distance by producing reverse thrust similar to that of a
thrust reverser installed on a turbojet or turbofan
engine. As an added benefit, a reversing propeller
also allows the aircraft operator to better control taxi
speeds and back the aircraft up. These benefits ultimately improve an aircraft's landing performance as
well as its maneuverability on the ground.
When a reversible propeller is operated in the standard, constant-speed mode, it is said to be operated
in its Alpha range. On the other hand, when the
blades are rotated so they produce zero or negative
thrust, the propeller is being operated in its Beta
range. On some aircraft, the Beta range may be
divided into two ranges: a Beta for taxi range and a
Beta plus power range. The Beta for taxi range
includes the blade angles that fall between the bottom of the Alpha range to a blade angle that produces zero thrust. This range of blade angles is used
primarily for taxiing and allows the gas generator to
operate at a high rpm while limiting the amount of
thrust being produced by the propellers. This allows
the aircraft operator to better control the aircraft's
speed on the ground without causing excessive wear
to the braking system. On most engines with a Beta
for taxi range, the power lever must be moved back
past a detent below the flight idle position.
The Beta plus power range represents the range of
blade angles that produce negative thrust. This
range is primarily used when an aircraft must be
landed in a short distance. When in the Beta plus
power range, power lever movement also controls
Propellers
72-34
and/or compressed nitrogen. About the only difference between a reversing and non-reversing propeller is the absence of permanently fixed low pitch
stops. The reason there are no low pitch stops is
because the blades of a reversible propeller must be
able to rotate through the low pitch limits to produce reverse thrust. Based on this, the appropriate
blade angle must be maintained by creating a
hydraulic lock with the propeller governor that can
be changed as necessary. In other words, once a
desired blade angle is achieved, the amount of oil
pressure within the hub balances the sum of the
other forces acting on the propeller blades.
Therefore, if the quantity of oil in the hub is not
changed, or locked, at this point, the propeller blade
angle will remain set.
As a backup to the primary pitch lock mechanism,
some reversible propellers incorporate a secondary
method of locking the blade pitch. This way, if the
primary pitch lock should fail, the secondary pitch
lock will prevent the blades from rotating to
reverse pitch.
Propellers
12-35
Figure 12-46. The Allied-Signal TPE-331 is a fixed shaft turbine engine with a two-stage centrifugal compressor and a three-stage
axial turbine. Depending on the airframe/engine combination, the propeller reduction gearing may be installed either above or
below the engine drive shaft.
PROPELLER CONTROL
COCKPIT CONTROLS
The controls for a typical TPE-331 turboprop installation are similar regardless of the aircraft. A typical
72-36
Propellers
Figure 12-49. The schematic in this figure shows how each of the components in a TPE-331 turboprop propeller system operate to
control the propeller.
Propellers
12-37
Figure 12-50. When the power lever is moved toward the REVERSE position, the follower sleeve in the propeller pitch control
moves forward exposing an oil port in the oil transfer (Beta) tube. This allows high pressure governor oil to flow to the propeller
hub and decrease the propeller blade angle.
12-38
Propellers
Figure 12-51. When the propeller blades reach the Beta angle selected by the power lever, the port in the Beta tube becomes
blocked by the follower sleeve. This traps high pressure oil in the propeller hub and holds the blades in a set position.
The Beta tube is attached to the propeller piston; therefore, when the propeller piston moves, the Beta tube
also moves. Based on this, the propeller blade angle will
stop changing when the port in the Beta tube moves forward enough to be blocked by the follower sleeve. This
is referred to as the neutral position and represents the
point where the oil pressure within the propeller hub
balances both spring pressure and centrifugal force acting on the counterweights. [Figure 12-51]
Propellers
12-39
Figure 12-52. When the power lever is moved forward in the Beta mode, the follower sleeve in the propeller pitch control unports
the Beta tube allowing oil to flow out of the propeller hub. This allows the combination of spring tension and centrifugal fo rce
acting on the counterweights to rotate the blades to a higher pitch.
72-40
Propellers
Figure 12-53. To feather a propeller on a TPE-331 engine, the feathering valve must be shifted so the oil within the propeller hub
can drain back to the engine case. Once the oil pressure is relieved, spring tension and centrifugal force acting on the blade
counterweights can rotate the blades to the feathered position.
Once the aircraft is in position for takeoff, the condition lever is moved to a high rpm setting and the
power lever is moved to the FLIGHT IDLE position.
With the condition lever in a high rpm position, the
underspeed governor is fully opened and no longer
controls fuel flow. In addition, when the power
lever is moved forward to the FLIGHT IDLE position, the follower sleeve in the propeller pitch control is slid far enough forward that it can no longer
cover the port in the Beta tube. This effectively
eliminates the ability of the propeller pitch control
to change the propeller pitch giving the propeller
governor full control over the propeller blade angle.
In this mode, the power lever is used to control fuel
flow through the engine's fuel control unit and has
no effect on propeller pitch changes.
In the Alpha, or flight, mode, the propeller governor
is adjusted by the condition lever to set the system
rpm in much the same manner as that used with a
conventional constant-speed propeller system.
When the condition lever setting is fixed, the power
lever operates the fuel control unit to control the
amount of fuel delivered to the engine. Moving the
power lever forward increases fuel flow which, in
Propellers
12-41
Figure 12-54. A propeller commonly used with the PT6 is a Hartzell three-bladed, steel hub, feathering and reversing propeller. Oil
pressure moves the propeller's blades to low pitch, while the combined forces of a feathering spring and blade counterweights
move the blades to high pitch and the feather position.
12-42
Propellers
Propellers
12-43
The propeller control lever is connected to the primary propeller governor and adjusts the tension
applied to the governor's speeder spring in the same
manner as a conventional constant speed governor
arrangement. Full aft movement of the propeller
control lever causes the oil pressure to be dumped
from the propeller piston, thereby allowing the propeller to feather.
The fuel cutoff, or condition, lever is typically utilized only on reversing propeller installations and
has two functions. First, it provides a positive fuel
shutoff at the fuel control unit allowing the engine
to be shut down. Secondly, the condition lever sets
the gas generator's low and high idle rpm. The two
positions for the condition lever are: LOW IDLE,
which provides approximately 50 percent gas generator rpm, and HIGH IDLE, which allows the
engine to obtain approximately 70 percent gas generator rpm. The low idle is used during ground
operations, while the high idle is used during flight.
[Figure 12-57 on page 12-44]
SYSTEM OPERATION
Like most turboprop engines, the PT6 engine operates in either an Alpha mode or a Beta mode. In
most cases, the Beta range on a PT6 includes all
power settings between 50 and 85 percent. On the
other hand, the Alpha mode includes all operations from 95 to 100 percent. To better understand
how each of the components within the PT6 operate to change the propeller blade angle, the following discussion will examine each component as an
engine is started and operated in both the Beta and
Alpha ranges.
To begin, assume that a PT6 engine is sitting idle on
an aircraft with the propeller blades in the feathered
position. To start the engine, the power lever is
placed in the IDLE position while the propeller control lever and condition lever is placed in the
FEATHER and FUEL CUTOFF positions respectively. Once the starter is engaged and the Na turbine reaches a specified speed, the condition lever
is moved to the LOW IDLE position.
When the engine starts and you are ready to taxi, the
propeller control lever is moved to a HIGH RPM setting and the power lever is adjusted as necessary to
achieve a taxi speed. In situations where excessive
taxi speeds result when the power lever is in the idle
position, the lever can be moved past the detent into
the Beta mode. When in the Beta mode, the primary
Figure 12-57. The figure above illustrates the location of the components on a PT6 engine that are used to control the engine speed and propeller pitch.
Propellers
12-45
allowing oil to be released from the propeller piston. As oil leaves the hub, the propeller piston
moves aft to increase the blade angle. At the same
time, the feedback ring moves aft until the Beta
valve is returned to the neutral position.
In the Alpha mode, the system rpm is high enough
for the primary propeller governor to operate in its
constant-speed mode. In other words, when the
power lever is moved forward to increase engine
output, the propeller governor increases the propeller blade angle to absorb the power increase and
maintain the selected rpm. On the other hand, when
the power lever is moved aft, the propeller blade
angle is decreased by the governor to maintain the
selected rpm.
To feather the propeller on a PT6 engine, the propeller control lever is moved full aft. This action
causes the pilot valve in the primary governor to
Figure 12-58. When the power lever is moved aft into the Beta range, the Beta valve is forced inward so that governor oil is
directed to the propeller. As the propeller piston moves outward to decrease the propeller blade angle, the feedback ring moves
forward and returns the Beta valve to its neutral position.
SYNCHRONIZATION SYSTEMS
Anytime multiple engines and propellers are
installed on an aircraft, the potential for excessive
vibration and noise exists. A contributing factor to
this problem is dissimilar rpm settings between the
propellers. Based on this, one way to reduce the
amount of noise and vibration produced is to match,
or synchronize, the rpm settings on the engines.
Currently, there are several synchronization systems
used on multi-engine aircraft including the master
motor synchronization system, the one engine master control system, and the synchrophasing system.
Synchronizing systems control engine rpm and
reduce vibration by setting all propellers at exactly
the same rpm. Such a system can be used for all
flight operations except takeoff and landing.
Propellers
12-48
Figure 12-59. The basic units of a light twin propeller synchronization system are a control box, master governor, slave governor,
and actuator.
SYNCHROPHASING
Synchrophasing systems are a refinement of propeller synchronization systems in that they
allow a pilot to control the angular difference in
the plane of rotation between the propeller
blades. This angular difference is known as the
phase angle and can be adjusted by the pilot to
achieve minimum noise and vibration levels.
[Figure 12-61]
12-49
Propellers
Figure 12-61. Synchrophasing allows a pilot to adjust the phase angle between the propellers for minimum noise and vibration levels.
Propellers
72-50
Figure 12-63. A typical propeller anti-icing system consists of a fluid tank, a rheostat control, a slinger ring for each propeller, and a
fluid pump.
Propellers
12-51
Figure 12-64. Aircraft electrical power is used to operate this propeller de-icing system. When the timer closes the relay, electrical
current flows to the carbon brushes which, in turn, pass the current to the rotating slip rings on the propeller hub. Flexible connectors carry the current from the slip rings to each heating element.
MAINTENANCE REGULATIONS
FAR Part 43, Maintenance, Preventative
Maintenance, Rebuilding, and Alteration, defines
the different classes of maintenance for propeller
systems. Appendix D lists the minimum requirements for 100-hour and annual inspections of propellers and their controls. For example, as a minimum during an annual or 100-hour inspection, propeller assemblies must be checked for cracks, nicks,
and oil leakage. In addition, bolts must be inspected
for proper torque and appropriate safetying. When
equipped with anti-icing devices, those devices
must be inspected for improper operations and
obvious defects. Also, you are required to inspect
propeller control mechanisms for improper operation, insecure mounting, and restricted travel.
Appendix A of FAR 43 lists propeller major alterations and repairs which must be performed by the
manufacturer or a certified repair station. Propeller
major alterations include changes in blade design,
hub design, and governor or control design. Also
included are installations of a propeller governors,
feathering systems, de-icing systems, and parts not
approved for the propeller. On the other hand, propeller major repairs include items such as retipping,
replacement of fabric covering, and inlay work on
wood propellers. Also included in fixed-pitch wood
propeller major repairs are replacement of outer
laminations and repair of elongated bolt holes in the
hub. Any repairs to, or straightening of, steel propeller blades is considered to be a major repair. In
addition, repairs to, or machining of, steel hubs is
AUTHORIZED MAINTENANCE
PERSONNEL
Although you are restricted from performing major
propeller alterations or repairs, you are responsible
for minor repairs and alterations. In addition, you
may install, adjust, and perform a 100-hour inspection of a propeller and its related components.
Furthermore, an aviation maintenance technician
holding an Inspection Authorization may perform
an annual inspection on a propeller. However, that
person may not approve for return to service major
repairs and alterations to propellers or their related
parts and appliances. Only an appropriately rated
facility, such as a propeller repair station or the propeller manufacturer, may return a propeller or
accessory to service after a major repair or alteration.
12-53
Propellers
Propellers
72-54
Once clean, aluminum blades are inspected for pitting, nicks, dents, cracks, and corrosion. Areas that
are especially susceptible to damage include the
leading edges and the blade face. To aid in the
inspection process, you should inspect the entire
propeller with a four-power magnifying glass. In
addition, if a crack is suspected, a dye penetrant
inspection should be performed. In many cases, a
dye penetrant inspection will show whether visible
lines and other marks are actually cracks or only
scratches, saving the time and expense of unnecessary repairs.
Inspect the hub boss for damage and corrosion
inside the center bore and on the surfaces which
mount on the crankshaft. Also, inspect the bolt
holes for cracks, excessive wear, and proper dimensions. Light corrosion can be cleaned from the hub
boss with sandpaper. The affected area may then be
painted or treated to help prevent further corrosion.
Propellers with damage, dimensional wear, or
heavy corrosion in the boss area should be referred
to a repair station for appropriate repairs.
REPAIRS
BLADE INSPECTION
A requirement for both annual and 100-hour inspections includes checking for cracks, nicks, and properly torqued or safetied bolts. As with a wood propeller, most inspections of a fixed-pitch aluminum
propeller are conducted without removal. However,
if operational problems such as vibrations occur, it
may be necessary to remove the propeller for a
detailed inspection of the hub area.
Propellers
12-55
Propellers
12-56
GROUND-ADJUSTABLE PROPELLERS
Figure 12-69. This chart shows the amount of bend damage
at a given blade station that can be repaired by cold bending. Values that fall beneath the curve are repairable. For
example, a 10 degree bend at blade station 22 can be
repaired by cold bending. However, a 15 degree bend at station 22 cannot be repaired.
12-57
Propellers
that the blades are latched in the low pitch position. If insufficient pressure exists, follow the
manufacturer's instructions for servicing with
nitrogen.
HAMILTON- STANDARD HYDROMATIC
PROPELLERS
All the adjustable pitch propeller systems just discussed require inspections and servicing at regular
intervals. Lubrication is, in many cases, one of the
required servicing procedures. The grease used to
lubricate a propeller must have the proper anti-friction and plasticity characteristics. In other words,
an approved grease reduces the frictional resistance
of moving parts and molds easily into any form
under pressure.
Propeller lubrication procedures are usually published in the manufactureris instructions along with
oil and grease specifications. Experience indicates
that water sometimes seeps into the propeller blade
bearing assemblies of some propeller models. For
this reason the propeller manufacturer's greasing
schedule and recommended oil and grease specifications must be followed to ensure proper lubrication of moving parts.
Propellers
12-58
STEEL AND COMPOSITE PROPELLERS
Propellers made from steel or composite material
may be cleaned and inspected in the same manner
as wood or aluminum propellers. However, manufacturers of composite propellers may also include
cleaning techniques and inspection items that are
unique to composite materials. Manufacturer's
instructions take precedence over general cleaning
and inspection techniques.
With these propellers, you are restricted to inspections and cleaning. As you recall, any repairs made
to correct defects in steel or composition propellers
must be accomplished by an appropriately rated
repair station or the manufacturer.
BLADE CUFF INSPECTION
If you recall, some propeller blades are fitted with
blade cuffs to improve airflow over the blade
shank and cooling airflow through the engine.
When this is the case, the blade cuffs must also be
inspected and checked for proper clearance.
Longitudinal clearance of constant-speed pro
peller blades or cuffs must be at least 1/2 inch
between propeller parts and stationary parts of the
aircraft. This clearance must be measured with the
propeller blades feathered or in the most critical
pitch configuration.
-
STATIC BALANCE
GOVERNORS
As mentioned earlier, you, as an aviation maintenance technician, are somewhat limited as to
what you can do with propeller systems. Nowhere
is this more evident than with propeller governors. Inspection of governors is limited to checking for oil leaks and security of mounting.
Maintenance consists of properly rigging the governor controls and verifying freedom of motion.
Although you may remove and install propeller
governors on an engine, inspections and repairs
which require governor disassembly must be
accomplished by a properly equipped and certified repair station.
BALANCING
Exact propeller balance is critical to proper engine
and propeller performance. Any time maintenance
is conducted or a repair is made that adds or
removes weight from a propeller, you must check
the propeller's balance. For example, if a wood propeller is refinished, the new varnish can create an
imbalance if it is unevenly applied.
In
another
12-59
Propellers
When a propeller assembly exhibits a definite tendency to rotate, certain corrections to remove the
imbalance are allowed. The addition of permanent
fixed weights is permitted at acceptable locations
when the total weight of the propeller assembly is
under allowable limits. Likewise, the removal of
weight is permitted from acceptable locations when
the total weight of the propeller assembly is equal to
the allowable limit.
The location for removal or addition of weight on a
propeller is determined by the propeller manufac-
Figure 12-73. A three-bladed propeller is properly balanced when each blade can be placed in the six o'clock position with no tendency
to rotate.
Propellers
12-60
turer. The method and point of application of balance corrections must be in accordance with the
manufacturer's instructions. Typically, vertical
imbalance is corrected by adding a metal weight on
the light side of the hub 90 degrees from the propeller's horizontal centerline. On a wooden propeller, horizontal imbalance is corrected by adding
or removing solder at the propeller blade tips.
Horizontal balance correction on an aluminum propeller often involves the removal of small amounts
of metal by filing.
DYNAMIC BALANCE
A propeller exhibits dynamic balance when the centers of gravity of similar propeller elements, such as
the propeller blades, rotate in the same plane of
rotation. A dynamic imbalance resulting from
improper mass distribution is usually negligible if
the blades on a propeller track within limits. One
reason for this is that the length of the propeller
assembly along the engine crankshaft is very short
compared to its diameter. Another reason is the fact
that the blades track the same plane perpendicular
to the axis of the crankshaft.
Figure 12-74. A universal propeller protractor such as this one is used to check propeller blade angle.
Propellers
12-61
lock, and release the disk-to-ring lock. The protractor is now aligned with the engine crankshaft.
[Figure 12-75]
Once the protractor is zeroed, rotate the propeller until one blade is horizontal and place the
protractor on the blade face at the reference station mark. Stand on the same side of the propeller facing in the same direction you were
when zeroing the protractor. If you desire to
measure from the other direction, you must zero
the protractor from that side. With the protractor
resting on the face of the blade, turn the disk
adjuster until the spirit level centers. Now read
the blade angle using the zero line on the ring as
the index. Accuracy in tenths of degrees can be
read from the vernier scale. To measure the angle
of another blade, rotate the desired blade to the
same horizontal position and repeat the process.
[Figure 12-76]
Figure 12-75. Before measuring propeller blade angle, the
protractor must be "zeroed" or adjusted to a reference. A
common reference is the propeller hub.
Propellers
72-62
COUNTERWEIGHT PROPELLER
All propeller systems other than fixed-pitch propellers require occasional blade angle adjustments.
For example, ground-adjustable propellers are set to
one blade angle while controllable pitch propellers
require the setting of low and high blade angle limits. The method used to make blade angle adjustments depends on the propeller type. The following
examples represent the more commonly used methods for adjusting blade angle.
the rods are secure, measure the angle with the protractor resting on the rods. [Figure 12-77]
GROUND-ADJUSTABLE PROPELLER
Propellers
nuts on an index pin located under each counterweight cap. To gain access to the index pin, remove
the clevis pin which safeties the counterweight cap
and remove the cap. Pull the index pin out of its
recess in the counterweight or push it out from
behind the counterweight bracket with a small
tool. [Figure 12-79]
Alongside the recess which holds the index pin is a
scale calibrated with half degree marks and a
numerical scale from zero to ten. This scale is used
to adjust and set the stop nuts on the index pin.
12-63
Once the stop nuts are set, the index pins are
installed in the counterweights and the caps are
The low pitch setting on a Hartzell compact propeller is adjusted with the adjusting screw on the
hub cylinder. To make a blade adjustment, begin by
loosening the jam nut on the adjusting screw and
rotating the screw clockwise to increase the low
blade angle, or counterclockwise to decrease the
angle. When the desired angle is set, retighten the
jam nut. When changing the blade angles, always
refer to the aircraft specifications and the propeller
manufacturer's manual for instructions about specific propeller models. [Figure 12-80]
12-64
Propellers
BLADE TRACKING
Propeller blade tracking is a procedure which
allows you to check the track of each propeller
blade tip as it travels through its arc of rotation. In
other words, by checking the tracking of a propeller, you compare the positions of the propeller
blade tips relative to each other. This procedure is
normally accomplished when troubleshooting a
vibration problem or as a final check after balancing and reinstallating a propeller. Metal propellers
up to six feet in diameter on light aircraft must
track within 1/16 inch of each other. On the other
hand, the track of a wood propeller should not be
out more than 1/8 inch.
Before a propeller can be tracked, the aircraft
must be locked in a stationary position. This is
typically accomplished by chocking the wheels to
prevent aircraft movement. Once this is done,
place a fixed reference point on the ground that is
within 1/4 inch of the propeller arc. This may be
done by placing a board on blocks under the propeller arc and taping a piece of paper to the board.
With the reference point in place, rotate the propeller blade and mark the track of each blade. The
maximum difference in track for all of the blades
should not exceed the limits mentioned above.
[Figure 12-81]
If the propeller track is off more than is allowed, the
reason should be determined and the condition corrected. The easiest item to check is the torque of the
propeller retaining bolts. If all bolts are properly
torqued, the propeller should be removed to allow
an inspection for the presence of debris or damage.
In addition, it may be necessary to check the crankshaft for alignment. If no problems are found, the
excessive out-of-track condition may be corrected
by placing shims between the inner flange and the
propeller.
TROUBLESHOOTING
12-65
Propellers
the selector valve. Operations in a marine environment can cause salt-water corrosion around the propeller cylinder and piston, leading to sporadic and
unreliable pitch changes.
HAMILTON-STANDARD HYDROMATIC
Troubleshooting procedures and solutions discussed for other systems are generally applicable to
the feathering hydromatic system. If the propeller
fails to respond to the cockpit propeller control
lever, but can be feathered and unfeathered, the
cause is most likely a failure of the governor or governor control system. If the propeller fails to feather,
check the system for electrical faults or for open
wiring to the electrical components.
If the propeller fails to unfeather after feathering
normally, the distributor valve is not shifting. On
the other hand, if the propeller feathers and immediately unfeathers, the problem may be a short circuit in the holding coil wiring or an open circuit in
the pressure cutout switch or its associated wiring.
The same problem occurs if the feather button is
short-circuited internally.
PROPELLER INSTALLATION
The method used to attach a propeller to an engine
crankshaft varies with the design of the crankshaft.
Currently, there are three types of crankshafts used
on aircraft engines, the flanged crankshaft, the
tapered crankshaft, and the splined crankshaft. The
general installation procedures for all three types
are discussed in the following paragraphs. For specific instructions, you should refer to the aircraft
and engine maintenance manuals.
FLANGED SHAFT
Flanged propeller shafts are used on most horizontally opposed reciprocating engines and some turboprop engines. The front of the crankshaft is
formed into a flange four to eight inches across, perpendicular to the crankshaft centerline. Mounting
Propellers
72-66
Figure 12-84. When installing a propeller on a flanged crankshaft, it is important to follow the propeller manufacturer's
recommended sequence to avoid inducing stress in the propeller hub.
CONSTANT-SPEED PROPELLERS
Propellers
12-67
Figure 12-86. A full spinner mounts to forward and rear bulkheads with machine screws. On some smaller aircraft, the spinner may
mount to only a rear bulkhead.
Figure 12-87. McCauley constant-speed propellers are installed on flanged crankshafts with an O-ring seal to prevent oil leakage.
12-68
Propellers
Figure 12-88. On some low horsepower engines, the crankshaft is tapered and is threaded on the end for propeller
mounting.
TURBOPROPELLERS
When installing a constant-speed, reversing propeller, use the same basic procedures that are used
for other flanged shaft propellers. One difference,
however, is the addition of the Beta tube. The Beta
tube is installed through the propeller piston after
the propeller is installed, and is bolted to the forward part of the piston.
TAPERED SHAFT
Tapered shaft crankshafts are found on older
engines that produce low horsepower. This type of
crankshaft requires a hub to adapt the propeller to
the shaft. To prevent the propeller from rotating on
the shaft, a large keyway is cut into the crankshaft
taper and the propeller so that a key can hold the
propeller in place. [Figure 12-88]
When installing a wood propeller on a tapered
shaft, the propeller boss is installed over the adapter
hub and a faceplate is placed between the boss and
mounting bolts. This faceplate distributes the compression load of the bolts over the entire surface of
the boss. If a new fixed-pitch wood propeller is
installed, inspect the mounting bolts for tightness
after the first flight and again after the first 25 flight
hours. [Figure 12-89]
Before installing the propeller on the crankshaft, the
shaft must be carefully inspected for corrosion,
thread condition, cracks, and wear in the keyway
area. If cracks are allowed to develop in the keyway,
they can spread rapidly and eventually cause crankshaft failure. It is good practice to inspect the
key-way with dye penetrant at every 100-hour or
annual inspection. Any minor surface defects found
during the pre-installation inspection should be
dressed or
polished out in accordance with the engine manufacturer's maintenance manual. In addition, the propeller hub components and mounting hardware
should be inspected for wear, cracks, and corrosion.
Defective components must be replaced or repaired
as necessary.
Before permanently installing the propeller, a trial
fit of the hub on the crankshaft should be done
using a liquid transfer ink such as Prussian Blue.
Prussian Blue is a dark blue ink, or dye, which has
the consistency of a light grease. This dye visibly
reveals the amount of contact between two mating
surfaces. To do a trial fit, begin by applying a thin,
even coat of dye on the tapered section of the crankshaft. Once this is done, place the key in the keyway
and install the hub on the crankshaft and torque the
retaining nut. In practice, the hub, snap ring, and
retaining nut are never disassembled. If, however,
they were disassembled for inspection or repair,
place the retaining nut against the hub and install
the puller snap ring. Once assembled, the retaining
nut may be torqued. [Figure 12-90]
Propellers
The hub should then be removed from the crankshaft and inspected for the amount of ink transferred from the tapered shaft to the propeller. The
ink transfer must indicate a minimum contact area
of 70 percent. If insufficient contact is found, the
crankshaft and hub should be inspected for the
cause. The mating surfaces can be lapped with a
polishing compound until a minimum of 70 percent
contact area is achieved. After this is done, thoroughly clean the hub and crankshaft to remove all
traces of Prussian Blue and polishing compound.
Once the minimum contact area is achieved, apply
a very light coat of oil or antiseize compound to the
crankshaft. Make sure that the key is installed properly, then place the hub assembly and propeller on
the shaft. Be sure that the threads on the shaft and
nut are clean and dry, then verify that the puller
snap ring is in place before torquing the nut to the
proper value. Failure to tighten the retaining nut to
the proper torque results in play between the propeller, front cone and rear cone. Any space between
the cones and the propeller produces galling and
wear on their surfaces. Safety the retaining nut to
complete the installation.
SPLINED SHAFT
Splined crankshafts are found on
most radial engines, some horizontally
opposed, and some
12-69
72-70
Propellers
Figure 12-94. Rear cone bottoming occurs when the tip of the
rear cone contacts the land on the rear seat of the hub before
the hub seats on the cone. Removal of a specified amount of
material from the cone's apex corrects this problem.
Propellers
12-71
72-72
OPERATIONAL CHECK
An operational check should be conducted once a
constant-speed propeller has been installed and
safetied. To conduct this check, follow ground
runup procedures for the aircraft you are operating
and position the aircraft for maximum safety. The
first time a newly installed propeller operates at
high rpm on an engine, it is always wise to be alert
to the hazards of possible propeller failure.
All adjustable propeller systems share common features in regard to their control configuration.
Propeller controls must be rigged so that an increase
in rpm is obtained by moving the controls forward
and a decrease in rpm is caused by moving the controls
aft.
Furthermore,
engine
throttles
must be
Propellers
arranged so that forward thrust is increased by forward movement of the control, and decreased thrust
is obtained by aft movement of the throttle.
When running-up an engine and testing a newly
installed Hydromatic propeller, it is necessary to
exercise the propeller several times. This is done by
moving the governor control through its entire
range of travel several times to free the dome of
entrapped air.
Once all ground checks and adjustments are successfully completed, a test flight should be conducted. The test flight verifies the propeller system
response to dynamic loads and determines if any
other adjustments are necessary. After the test flight,
check for oil leaks and component security.