Theory of Reasoned Action

MARTIN FISHBEIN and ICEK AJZEN

- a theory that focuses on a person's intention* to behave a certain way; framework for identifying and
measuring the underlying reasons for a person's intent to behave a certain way (or not)
*An intention is a plan or a likelihood that someone will behave in a particular way in specific
situations whether or not they actually do so.
For example, a person who is thinking about quitting smoking intends or plans to quit, but may or
may not actually follow through on that intent.
Behavioral intent - main determinant of behaviour; To understand behavioural intent - TRA looks at a
person's (or population's) attitudes towards that behavior as well as the subjective norms of influential
people and groups that could influence those attitudes.
Attitude and Norms main influences of intention; motivator of behaviour
Attitude - is influenced by two related factors: outcome of the behaviour (i.e., is the outcome likely or
unlikely?) and our evaluation of the potential outcome (is the outcome a good thing or a bad thing?)
- if I read will it be relevant for me?; Will it be for my own good or not?
From the TRA perspective, the important aspect of your attitude is whether or not it is positive, negative,
or neutral. For example, if you strongly believe that reading the article (or getting a mammogram, or using
a condom, or whatever the behavior might be) will lead to a desirable outcome, then one could say that
you have a positive attitude toward that behavior. Likewise, if you strongly believe that the behavior will
lead to an undesirable outcome, you are likely to have a negative attitude about it.
Subjective norms are influenced by our perceptions of the beliefs of those around us: parents, friends,
colleagues, partners, etc. According to the TRA, we have a sense or belief about whether or not these
individuals and groups would approve or disapprove of the behavior. But we also have to factor in how
motivated we are to comply with their views. This can vary from one situation to another.
The more we understand about the attitudes and norms that influence intent, the more accurately
our interventions can be designed to influence these in a desired direction toward a healthier behavior,
for example. The flip side is that by ignoring these factors, we may inadvertently doom an intervention
because it overlooks the attitudes and norms that influence intent and motivate behavior.
The TRA has been used to explain and predict many different health behaviors, including:
Smoking
Drinking
Condom use
Age at first intercourse
Clinical breast exam and mammography use
Flu vaccine use
Physical activity
Seat belt and safety helmet use
It is particularly relevant to sexuality education because it focuses on cognitive factors beliefs and
values. It is vital to understand these cognitive factors in order to intervene because beliefs and values
about sexuality influence young people's decision-making about their sexual behavior. Moreover, these can
differ significantly from one person to the next and from one population to the next.
Therefore, we have several options for trying to persuade someone. The first group of options are like the
strategies identified by information integration theory:
-strengthen the belief strength of an attitude that supports the persuasive goal.
-strengthen the evaluation of an attitude that supports the persuasive goal
-weaken the belief strength of an attitude that opposes the persuasive goal
-weaken the evaluation of an attitude that supports the persuasive goal
-create a new attitude with a belief strength and evaluation that supports the persuasive goal
-remind our audience of a forgotten attitude with a belief strength and evaluation that supports the
persuasive goal.
For example, suppose you wanted to persuade your roommate, Pat, to go see a movie. If Pat had a positive
attitude toward that movie (Ive heard that movie is funny), you could try to increase the belief strength
(Everyone says it is funny; no question about it) or evaluation (That movie isnt just funny, its
hilarious!) of that attitude. If Pat had a negative attitude toward attending the movie (The movie theater
is decrepit) you could try to reduce the belief strength (They remodeled it) or evaluation (The
important thing is the movie, not the theater) of that negative attitude. You could create a new favorable
attitude (I heard the soundtrack to this movie is great!) or remind Pat of a favorable attitude.
SELF-EFFICACY THEORY

- a theoretical framework in which the concept of self-efficacy is assigned a central role, for analyzing
changes achieved in fearful and avoidant behavior.
An outcome expectancy is a persons estimate that a given behavior will lead to certain outcomes.
An efficacy expectation is the conviction that one can successfully execute the behavior required to
produce the outcomes
Although a person may expect a certain activity to lead to a particular outcome, they may lack the
motivation to perform the action, doubting their ability to do so:
Outcome and efficacy expectations are differentiated, because individuals can believe that a particular
course of action will produce certain outcomes, but if they entertain serious doubts about whether they
can perform the necessary activities such information does not influence their behavior.
Self-efficacy typically comes into play when there is an actual or perceived threat to ones personal safety,
or ones ability to deal with potentially aversive events
Increasing a persons self-efficacy increases their ability to deal with a potentially averse situation. For
example, experimental studies on the treatment of adult snake phobics have demonstrated that raising
levels of self-efficacy is an effective technique to help them cope with threatening situations. Perceived
self-efficacy mediates anxiety arousal.
Bandura (1994a) defined self-efficacy as peoples beliefs about their capabilities to produce designated
levels of performance that exercise influence over events that affect their lives
People with high assurance in their capabilities:
1. Approach difficult tasks as challenges to be mastered
2. Set challenging goals and maintain strong commitment to them
3. Heighten or sustain their efforts in the face of failures or setbacks
4. Attribute failure to insufficient effort or deficient knowledge and skills which are acquirable
5. Approach threatening situations with assurance that they can exercise control over them
In contrast, people who doubt their capabilities:
1. Shy away from tasks they view as personal threats
2. Have low aspirations and weak commitment to goals they choose to pursue
3. Dwell on personal deficiencies, obstacles they will encounter, and all kinds of adverse outcomes,
rather than concentrating on how to perform successfully
4. Slacken their efforts and give up quickly in the face of difficulties
5. Are slow to recover their sense of efficacy following failure or setbacks
6. Fall easy victim to stress and depression
FOUR MAIN SOURCES OF INFLUENCE BY WHICH A PERSONS SELF-EFFICACY IS DEVELOPED AND
MAINTAINED:
(a) performance accomplishments or mastery experiences;
(b) vicarious experiences;
(c) verbal or social persuasion; and
(d) physiological, or somatic and emotional, states.
A. Mastery experiences, or personal performance accomplishments, are the most effective way to
create a strong sense of efficacy.
B. Vicarious experiences through observance of social models also influence ones perception of selfefficacy. The most important factor that determines the strength of influence of an observed
success or failure on ones own self-efficacy is the degree of similarity between the observer and
the model: Seeing people similar to oneself succeed by sustained effort raises observers beliefs
that they too possess the capabilities master comparable activities to succeed. The greater the
assumed similarity, the more persuasive are the models successes and failures. If people see the
models as very different from themselves their perceived self-efficacy is not much influenced by the
models behavior and the results its produces.
C. Verbal or social persuasion also affects ones perception of self-efficacy. It is a way of
strengthening peoples beliefs that they have what it takes to succeed. Verbal or social persuasion
can provide a temporary boost in perceived ability. Unfortunately, it is more difficult to instill high
beliefs of personal efficacy by social persuasion alone than to undermine it [since] unrealistic
boosts in efficacy are quickly disconfirmed by disappointing results of ones efforts (p. 3).
D. People also rely on their somatic or emotional states when judging their capabilities. Stress and
tension are interpreted as signs of vulnerability to poor performance. Fatigue, aches and pains,
and mood also effect perception of ability. Perception and interpretation of stress/tension.
HEALTH BELIEF MODEL

- a psychological model that attempts to explain and predict health behaviors.

Core Assumptions and Statements
The HBM is based on the understanding that a person will take a health-related action (i.e., use condoms)
if that person:
1. feels that a negative health condition (i.e., HIV) can be avoided
2. has a positive expectation that by taking a recommended action, he/she will avoid a negative
health condition (i.e., using condoms will be effective at preventing HIV)
3. believes that he/she can successfully take a recommended health action (i.e., he/she can use
condoms comfortably and with confidence).
Concept

Definition

Application

Perceived
Susceptibilit
y

Define population(s) at risk, risk levels; personalize

One's opinion of chances of getting
risk based on a person's features or behavior;
a condition
heighten perceived susceptibility if too low.

Perceived
Severity

One's opinion of how serious a

Specify consequences of the risk and the condition
condition and its consequences are

Perceived
Benefits

One's belief in the efficacy of the

advised action to reduce risk or
seriousness of impact

Define action to take; how, where, when; clarify the

positive effects to be expected.

Perceived
Barriers

One's opinion of the tangible and

psychological costs of the advised
action

Identify and reduce barriers through reassurance,

incentives, assistance.

Cues to
Action

Strategies to activate "readiness"

Provide how-to information, promote awareness,

reminders.

Self-Efficacy

Confidence in one's ability to take

action

Provide training, guidance in performing action.

Concept
Condom Use Education Example
STI Screening or HIV Testing
1.
Youth believe they can get STIs or HIV or create
Youth believe they may have been exposed to
Perceived
a pregnancy.
STIs or HIV.
Susceptibi
lity
2.
believe that the consequences of getting STIs or Youth believe the consequences of having STIs or
Perceived
HIV or creating a pregnancy are significant
HIV without knowledge or treatment are
Severity
enough to try to avoid.
significant enough to try to avoid.
3.
Youth believe that the recommended action of
Youth believe that the recommended action of
Perceived using condoms would protect them from getting
getting tested for STIs and HIV would benefit
Benefits
STIs or HIV or creating a pregnancy.
them possibly by allowing them to get early
treatment or preventing them from infecting
others.
4.
Youth identify their personal barriers to using
Youth identify their personal barriers to getting
Perceived condoms (i.e., condoms limit the feeling or they tested (i.e., getting to the clinic or being seen at
Barriers
are too embarrassed to talk to their partner
the clinic by someone they know) and explore
about it) and explore ways to eliminate or
ways to eliminate or reduce these barriers (i.e.,

reduce these barriers (i.e., teach them to put

brainstorm transportation and disguise options).
lubricant inside the condom to increase
sensation for the male
5. Cues to
Youth receive reminder cues for action in the Youth receive reminder cues for action in the form
Action
form of incentives (such as pencils with the
of incentives (such as a key chain that says, "Got
printed message "no glove, no love") or
sex? Get tested!") or reminder messages (such as
posters that say, "25% of sexually active teens
reminder messages (such as messages in the
contract an STI. Are you one of them? Find out now").
school newsletter).
6. Self- Youth confident in using a condom correctly in all Youth receive guidance (such as information on
Efficacy
circumstances.
where to get tested) or training (such as practice
in making an appointment).