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Relays
Laith Al-Musawi / Andrew Waye / Dr. Nafia Al-Mutawaly, McMaster University, Canada
William Yu, OMICRON, USA
Introduction
With increased usage of Variable Frequency Drives
(VFDs), solid state inverters and other non-linear
loads, power quality is becoming a concern in
distribution network performance. Harmonics
produced by such loads can cause overheating of
neutral conductors, transformers, and motors.
Moreover, research has shown that high harmonic
content can have negative impacts on power
system performance, as protection relays are built
to operate at a nominal frequency (50/60 Hz) [1].
Previous research indicated that some relays may
mis-operate and trip under normal operating
conditions, or, conversely, fail to trip entirely in the
presence of harmonics [2]. False or missed relay
tripping may result in system failure, service
discontinuity or other economic losses.
This paper outlines work that has been conducted
to test various types of relays (electromechanical,
digital and Intelligent Electronic Devices) and their
performance in the presence of harmonics.
Although previous investigations addressed this
topic [2, 4], the findings did not comprehensively
quantify the impact of harmonics on relay
performance. The experiments discussed in this
paper were conducted using an OMICRON relay
test set (CMC 256). The tests conducted in this
study examined various levels of Total Harmonic
Distortion (THD) including individual harmonics up
to the 49th, superimposing harmonic profiles and
varying harmonic phase angles.
Test Methodology
General overview
Protective relay performance testing was
undertaken
on
both
conventional
(electromechanical) and modern (digital) relays. An
OMICRON CMC 256plus high-precision relay test
set was used to synthesize arbitrary waveforms and
capture resultant tripping times. Conventional (60
Hz) AC waveforms were applied directly to all relays
under test in order to determine the relay activation
baseline (time). To produce the same energy as that
of the fundamental frequency, a distorted waveform
was then synthesized (including both fundamental
and harmonic components) according to the
following RMS energy formula [3]:
Test Setup
With OMICRONs current channels connected
directly to the relay (no current transformer), various
types of relays were evaluated (figure 1).
Digital
ABB CO-8
Westinghouse
CO-11
Results
The data obtained from various tests were
recorded, tabulated and graphed to reflect relay
performance. Experimental findings were organized
into five categories: inverse time characteristic,
Fig. 2
Digital Relays
For digital relays, it was observed that respective
harmonic orders or magnitudes have little to no
effect on relay operation (the harmonics appear
invisible to the relay). Literature on the subject
indicates that digital filters eliminate harmonics
when converting from analog to digital (A/D)
quantities, as a filter in the relays digital signal
processor (DSP) stage removes frequencies
greater than 60Hz [4].
When comparing electromechanical versus digital
relay performance, it is apparent that digital relay
tripping time remains constant (independent of
harmonic content), whereas electromechanical
relay trip time is harmonic dependant (figure 3).
Harmonic Profiles
Electromechanical Relays
Mixed harmonic distortion had a minimal impact on
the tripping time of the electromechanical relays
tested, as shown in figure 8.
Digital Relays
Fig. 6 Trip Time - Harmonic Phase Shifting
Voltage Distortion
Fig. 7 Tap Order - Electromechanical Relays
Digital Relays
As there are no tap connections on digital relays,
there can be no impact to relay performance based
on the tap setting.
Discussion
Electromechanical relay induction discs consist of a
three-pole electromagnet manufactured to operate
on a nominal frequency of 50/60Hz. The centre pole
is energized by the flow of mains current, while the
outer pole is equipped with a lag coil, and the
remaining pole receives flux generated by the other
two poles (figure 12).
Where,
m is sample number
n is harmonic order
N is total number of samples
X(m) is the signal magnitude at sample m
Data acquisition and filtering stages are essential
parts of a digital relay. The presence of harmonic
pollution on input signals may result in the
malfunction of digital algorithms and therefore in the
mis-operation of the relay [5]. Since microprocessor
controlled relays implement low pass filters before
digital filtering, digital relays do not respond to
higher order harmonics [6]. As a result, they are
incapable of including energy within the higher
frequency harmonics into their trip algorithms [6].
Conclusions
The tripping times of electromechanical relays,
based on inverse time characteristics, were
observed to be dependent on harmonic amplitude
and order. IHD values of <10% were found to have
little to no impact on relay performance; this can be
attributed to the minimal magnetic flux introduced in
the induction disk. IHD values of >20% resulted in
an observable impact due to the generation of nonlinear magnetic flux. Harmonics greater than the
19th resulted in a significant variation in tripping time
(figure 2). In contrast, digital relay tripping times
remain constant regardless of harmonic amplitude
and order due to filtering implemented within the
relay; however, the tripping time of the digital relay
did appear to have a constant offset in the presence
of harmonics (figure 3).
Definite tripping times on electromechanical relays
were observed to be affected by the phase angles
of lower-order harmonics (3rd and 5th). Little to no
impact was observed with higher order harmonics
or phase angles (figures 4 and 5). Digital relays
experience minimal impact in the presence of 5th
order harmonic phase-shifting, however a
noticeable impact is observed with the 3rd order
harmonic (figure 6). The phase angle imparts more
impact for low order harmonics (3rd and 5th) whereas
higher harmonics have minimal impact. Phase
shifting the 3rd harmonic to 150-180 degrees will
introduce a destructive effect on the fundamental;
the inverse phenomenon applies to the 5th harmonic
introducing an additive effect on the fundamental.
However, with higher harmonics, an additive or
destructive action due to phase shifting has
relatively less impact on the fundamental.
Future work
Data recently collected (waveforms and harmonic
profiles) from typical modern homes reveal the
presence of significant harmonics and waveform
distortion (figures 14 and 15). As such, the need for
further investigation of harmonic distortions effects
on the distribution system is clearly needed.
Acknowledgment
The authors wish to thank the Natural Sciences and
Engineering Research Council (NSERC) programs
which helped to support this publication.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
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