New Method of Measuring Gel Strength

of Clay-Based Drilling Fluids and the

Determination of their Long-Term
Gelation Behaviour
R. GHOFRANI

V. BOSCH

Technical University Clausthal

Baroid Drilling Fluids

F.G. STRAHL
Wintershall AG Erdlwerke

Abstract
For avoiding environmental pollution, predominantly waterbased drilling fluids are employed in drilling operations. If these
drilling fluids contain clays as structural agents, contamination
by electrolytes or exposure to elevated temperature, or both, can
result in more or less severe flocculation and thickening; this
phenomenon can cause serious problems during the resumption
of circulation, especially after long round trips, as well as swab
and surge. For this reason, it is especially important in practice
to be capable of predicting the long-term gelation behaviour of
the drilling fluid on the basis of short-term gel strength
measurements.
In the present study, it has been shown that reproducible gel
data can be obtained only in exceptional cases on water-based
clay drilling fluids exposed to electrolytes or elevated temperature, or both, with the use of measuring instruments standardized
in conformance with API (such as the Fann V-G Meter, model
35).
On the other hand, it has been shown that arbitrarily high gel
strength values can be determined reproducibly with the ITE
instrument for measuring gel strength of clay suspensions
(GMT), because the apparent wall slip is eliminated.
On the basis of short-term gel strength values measured with
the ITE GMT, the long-term gelation behaviour of water-based
clay drilling fluids can be predicted with sufficient accuracy by
means of the analytical method introduced by Garrison in 1938;
this is of particular interest especially after lengthy round trips.

Introduction
For reasons of environmental protection, water-based drilling
fluids are now being used to an increasing extent in drilling operations, even under difficult drilling conditions. As a rule, clays are
employed as structural agents in these drilling fluids. For stabilizing the clay against electrolytes or elevated temperatures, or both,
protective colloids are added. As a result, the polymers impose
their flow behaviour on the clay; that is, the differential (true) viscosity of the clay suspensions treated with polymers decreases as
a function of the shear stress. Consequently, the clay is then
responsible only for the value of the yield point in these systems.
If water-based drilling fluids are exposed to electrolytes or elevated temperatures, or both, the protective action of the added
polymers may be inhibited; as a result, the flow and gelation
behaviour of the clay may break through. Especially during long
round trip times, the severely gelled drilling fluid can then cause
*

problems with the pumping pressure necessary for resuming the

circulation as well as with swab and surge. Hence, there is a need
for reliable measuring methods and analytical techniques for predicting the long-term development of the gel strength.
In the present study, the standardized API methods for measuring gel strength are first examined for reproducibility of the
results. If appropriate measures prove necessary, suitable methods
are developed and investigated for measuring the gel strength.
Finally, the analytical method of Garrison(1) is examined for its
applicability in calculating the long-term gel strength from the
results of short-term measurements.

Fundamental Principles
Structure and Hydration of Clays
In drilling operations, preponderantly three-layer clays are
employed as structural agents; under difficult drilling conditions,
clays with a needle-shaped structure are used in addition or exclusively. A single platelet of three-layer clays consists of two tetrahedral sheets and an intermediate octahedral sheet. For every three
octahedra, two or all three can be occupied by a metal ion at the
center; this situation is designated as di- or trioctahedral occupation, respectively(2-4). The bentonite predominantly employed in
drilling operations consists mainly of the mineral montmorillonite
with dioctahedral occupation; in contrast, the clay used for drilling
the KTB* well consists of the mineral hectorite with trioctahedral
occupation(5). In both montmorillonite and hectorite, an isomorphous substitution of Mg for Al (montmorillonite) or Li for Mg
(hectorite) occurs in the octahedral sheet. The negative excess
charge caused by the isomorphous substitution in the unit layer
results in the adsorption of a corresponding number of cations
between the individual single platelets within the crystal lattice.
These exchangeable cations are decisive for the properties (rheology, filtration behaviour) of the suspensions prepared with these
clays; hence, the clays are designated in correspondence with the
predominantly adsorbed exchangeable cation (Na- or Ca-bentonite). As a result of fractures in parallel with, or oblique to the caxis, which limit the extension of the elementary layer in the a-b
plane, primary positive or negative charges are exposed. The negative charges are compensated by the adsorption of hydrogen ions,
whereas the positive edge charges persist.
The needle-shaped clays (attapulgite, sepiolite) differ from the
three-layers clays by a lower degree of isomorphous substitution
of the ions in the lattice plane, and thus an extremely low content
of exchangeable cations. Consequently, these clays are preferen-

German Continental Deep Drilling Program

May 2000, Volume 39, No. 5

41

tially employed under very difficult drilling conditions because of

their freedom from swelling and their stability toward electrolytes
(salt water drilling clays) and high temperatures.
During hydration (water attachment) of three-layers clays, surface hydration (crystalline swelling) and osmotic swelling are as a
rule effective(2). In the case of surface hydration, the water dipoles
are attached to the individual tetrahedral sheets by hydrogen
bonding. The degree of water attachment by this mechanism is
constant, that is, independent of the salinity of the mixing water.
If the electrolyte concentration in the mixing water is lower
than the concentration of exchangeable cations between the unit
layers, the osmotic pressure becomes effective, although no semipermeable membrane is involved. As a result of osmosis, the
water dipoles migrate between the unit layers, where they are
electrostatically bound. The attachment of each water dipole layer
results in an increase in distance between two neighboring unit
layers by 0.3 nm. At the same time, the exchangeable cations diffuse into the surrounding liquid in response to the prevailing ionic
concentration gradient. The progressing adsorption of water by
osmosis finally results in overcoming of the attractive Londonvan-der-Waals forces with increasing distance between two neighboring unit layers; thus, the unit layers are separated, and the clay
disperses(2-4).
The water dipoles and cations which are electrostatically bound
to tetrahedral sheets, and which collectively constitute the hydration layer, are also designated as a diffuse double layer; the concentration of the cations thereby decreases exponentially with
increasing distance from the basal surface of the unit layer.
The thickness of the diffuse double layer depends on the following factors:
1. Ionic concentration difference between the basal surface of
the unit layers and the mixing water
2. Type and valence of the exchangeable cations
3. Type and valence of the ions positioned in the tetrahedral
and/or octahedral sheets by isomorphous substitution
4. Ionic occupation density (coverage) of the unit layers
In the absence of a concentration gradient, the thickness of the
hydration layer remains limited to a maximum of four water
dipole layers, which are always attached as a result of surface
hydration(2). If the exchangeable cations are predominantly univalent, the diffusion into the surrounding liquid is more extensive
because of the weaker electrostatic attraction between these
cations and the basal surface of the unit layer; thus, a thicker diffuse double layer is formed. In the case of isomorphous substitution with ions of lower valence in the tetrahedral and/or octahedral
sheets (Li+ in the case of hectorite, in comparison with Mg2+ for
montmorillonite), the exchangeable cations can diffuse even farther into the liquid because of the considerably weaker electrostatic force of attraction; consequently, a much thicker diffuse double
layer can form(5).

Rheology
The rheological properties of a clay suspension are affected by:
1. The degree of hydration of the clay particles (thickness of
the diffuse double layer),
2. The concentration of solids,
3. The gelation tendency,
4. The viscosity of the liquid phase.
The gelation tendency of the clay suspension results from the
tendency of the individual clay particles to remain in the position
of lowest free energy. This position can be attained if the unit layers assume an edge-to-surface (E-S) configuration because of their
positive edge charges and negative basal surface charge(4).
The constitution and stability of gel structures depend on:
1. The force of attraction between the positively charged fracture edges and the negatively charged basal surfaces of the
unit layers,
2. The clay concentration (the clay concentration is decisive for
the distance over which an unit layer must move in order to
reach the zone of action of another unit layer), and
3. The magnitude of the zeta potential.
42

Because of the Brownian molecular motion of the water

dipoles and the momentum thus received, the hydrated clay particles move in a zigzag pattern. The electrostatic force of attraction
at the basal surfaces of the clay particles decreases exponentially
with increasing distance. As a result, the outermost layers of the
diffuse double layers cannot be transported against the resistance
of the liquid phase of the suspension; consequently, the diffuse
double layers are divided along the so-called shear plane. In comparison with the liquid phase, a higher potential can be measured
on the shear plane; this potential is known as the zeta or electrokinetic potential. The zeta potential is a maximum if the clay is
mixed with deionized water to form a suspension; however, it
vanishes if the ionic concentration difference between the basal
surface of the unit layer and the mixing water is equal to zero (isoelectric point). Higher zeta potentials at the shear planes of unit
layers which are approaching one another prevent the attainment
of the position of lowest free energy (E-S attachment).

Effect of Electrolyte or Thermal Exposure, or

Both, on the Gelation Tendency of Clay
Suspensions
As far as the value of the electrolyte concentration in the liquid
phase of the clay suspension is concerned, two cases can be
distinguished:
a) The concentration of electrolyte in the suspension is not sufficient for attaining the isoelectric point.
b) Because of a high electrolyte concentration, the isoelectric
point has been exceeded.
In case a), the diffuse double layers of the unit layers disintegrate because of the decreasing concentration gradient which
results from electrolyte addition; that is, the cations which diffuse
away during hydration of the basal surfaces of the unit layers
return and thus release the water dipoles from the outer layers of
the diffuse double layers. A decrease in zeta potential is associated with the disintegration of the diffuse double layers; thus, the
formation of house-of-cards structures (E-S attachment) is initially favoured. At balanced concentration (isoelectric point), all
cations which had diffused away have returned to the basal surface of the unit layer; hence, all water dipole layers which had
been bound in the diffuse double layer as a result of osmotic
swelling are released. As a result of neutralization of the negative
excess charges at the basal surfaces of the unit layers by the
returning cations, existing house-of-cards structures disintegrate;
the influence of the attractive London-van-der-Waals forces now
give rise to surface-to-surface (S-S) attachment of the unit layers
(coagulation).
From these considerations, it is evident that the gelation tendency can be expected to attain its maximum at a certain electrolyte concentration below the isoelectric point, whereas only
very low gel strength values can be expected in deionized water or
during compensation of the ion concentration difference by the
addition of corresponding quantities of electrolytes.
As far as the gelation tendency is concerned, case b) is of interest only if the added electrolytes contain cations which differ from
exchangeable cations already present in the clay. A cation
exchange (conversion of the clay) then occurs in this case; thus,
for instance; Ca bentonite is formed from Na bentonite, or vice
versa. Consequently, the gelation tendency of the suspension
becomes weaker or stronger, respectively.
With respect to the effect of elevated temperature on the gelation tendency, differing, in part controversial opinions are still
expressed in the literature today. However, if the nature of the
incorporation of water dipoles into the diffuse double layers of the
unit layers is considered, the variations in the rheological properties of clay suspensions as a result of thermal exposure can be
explained in a plausible manner. It is known that a molar electrostatic bonding energy of 5 to 20 kJ/mol exists for the mutual interaction between permanent dipoles (including water dipoles). The
molar electrostatic bonding energy between permanent dipoles
and ions is 40 to 130 kJ/mol, whereas the mutual value for ions is
greater than 400 kJ/mol(6). Because of the increase in kinetic enerJournal of Canadian Petroleum Technology

= Constant, min.-1
In a coordinate system with

t
GSt

as ordinate and t as abscissa, this equation yields a straight line.

The slope of the straight line is equal to the reciprocal of the final
gel strength; the ordinates intersect corresponds to
1
k GS

FIGURE 1: Graphical representation of the measured gel values

for predicting long-term gel strength.

gy of the particles present in the system, thermal exposure of the

suspension first results in dissolution of the bonds among the
water dipoles if a critical temperature is exceeded. The outer portion of the diffuse double layer of the unit layers thus disintegrates. As already explained, this disintegration is accompanied
by a decrease in zeta potential; hence, an enhanced gelation tendency must initially be expected. With a further increase in temperature, bonds between water dipoles and hydrated ions can also
dissociate, and the diffuse double layers thus disintegrate further.
At even higher temperature, the diffuse double layers of the clay
particles disintegrate completely. Because of the higher kinetic
energy, on the one hand, and the absence of diffuse double layers,
on the other hand, individual clay particles can now enter the
active zone of the attractive London-van-der-Waals forces of
other clay particles; as a result, surface-to-surface attachment
occurs between the unit layers (coagulation).

Time Dependence of Gelation

As already explained, the formation and persistence of houseof-cards structures depend on the following:
The distance over which individual clay particles must travel, in order to establish edge-to-surface contact with neighboring clay particles, with the clay concentration and the
temperature of the suspension as decisive factors,
The value of the zeta potential on the shear planes of the unit
layers, and
The viscosity of the liquid phase of the suspension.
Under certain conditions, spontaneous gelation can occur in a
clay suspension, for instance, in suspensions of high bentonite
concentration or in suspensions with a very low electrolyte content, as in the case of hectorite (compare: Structure and hydration
of clays). Under other boundary conditions, however, it is also
possible that the final state of gelation is not attained even after a
period of days (for instance, in suspensions of low clay concentration prepared with deionized water at moderately elevated temperature). From these considerations, it is obvious that an appraisal of
the gelation behaviour of drilling fluids, especially after lengthy
round trips, is not possible on the basis of standardized API measurements of the initial and 10 minute gel strength(7).
For estimating the value of the gel strength after round trips on
the basis of short-term measurements, the equation presented by
Garrison(1) in 1938 can be applied:
t
t
1
=
+
GSt GS k GS ........................................................................(1)
t
= Gelation time, min.
GSt = Gel strength at time t, dPa
GS = Final gel strength, dPa
May 2000, Volume 39, No. 5

see Figure 1.
From Equation (1) and Figure 1, it is evident that the value of
the gel strength after round trips can be deduced from two shortterm measurements. With this method, however, reliable predictions are possible only if the measured short-term gel strength values are reproducible and of the correct order of magnitude.

Conventional Methods of Measuring Gel

Strength
The gel strength depends on the number of edge-to-surface (ES) attachments of the clay particles in a unit volume of the
suspension.
Because of the dependence of gelation on time(8), various gel
values have been defined in practice. The true yield point (dynamic property) corresponds to the gel strength immediately after
interruption of the drilling fluid circulation; since this value is not
accessible to measurement, the initial gel strength (measured static value) is employed instead in drilling operations(2). The gel
strength after a gelation time of 10 min. (10 minute gel strength)
is employed for appraising the final state of gelation(2).
As specified in API RP 13B-1(7), the initial and 10 minute gel
strengths are measured with the use of Fann V-G Meters, model
35. The measuring procedure is as follows: After subjecting the
suspension to shear stress for a period of 10 s at a rotational speed
of 600 min.-1, a gelation time of 10 s or 10 min., respectively, is
allowed to elapse before reading the maximum deflection of the
pointer at a rotational speed of 3 min.-1.
During the measurement of gel values with a rotational viscometer, two sources of error are especially serious:
1. Incomplete filling of the narrow annular gap between bob
and rotor in the case of clay suspensions with a higher concentration of solids, or thickened drilling fluids
2. Apparent wall slip
In the case of apparent wall slip, the concentration of solids
increases in the proximity of the wallsin comparison with the
average distribution of the dispersed particles in the flow field,
(phase separation). The rotor material of conventional rotational
viscometers causes sliding flow while testing certain drilling fluids; this can result in serious errors during gel strength
measurements(9-12).

Measurement of Gel Strength with an

Instrument Further Developed at ITE
The origin of the measuring instrument further developed at
ITE is the simplified gel strength device designed at the
University of Texas at Austin(13).
The simplified gel strength device consists of a glass vessel
resting on a balance; the vessel contains the suspension under
investigation. A thin rectangular metal plate with a total surface
area of 12.9 cm2 is present in the suspension during the intended
gelation time. After the gelation time has elapsed, the metal plate
is pulled with a wire out of the gelled suspension at a constant
speed of 1.5 mm/s by an electric motor. The adhesion of the suspension on the metal plate thereby results in a decrease in weight,
which is indicated by the balance. If the shear strength of the
gelling suspension is exceeded, the weight decrease passes
43

FIGURE 2: Structure of the ITE instrument for measuring the gel strength of clay suspensions (GMT).

through its maximum; in this case, the bond established by the gel
structures between the metal plate and suspension is ruptured.
In the case of the simplified gel strength device, the following sources of error limit the reproducibility of the results(14-16):
1. Apparent wall slip associated with the manufacture of the
plate from the metallic material
2. Acceleration effects associated with the relatively high
speed of 1.5 mm/s at which the metal plate is pulled
3. Impossibility of vertically positioning the metal plate in the
suspension, with resulting measurement of excessive tensile
forces in the correspondingly tilted position
4. Bottom effect: At the beginning of the measuring operation,
the metal plate is situated on the bottom of the glass vessel.
Consequently, a higher tensile force must be exerted for
pulling the metal plate from the gelled suspension, because
of the vacuum generated between the bottom of the glass
vessel and the lower edge of the metal plate.

Structure of the ITE Instrument for

Measuring Gel Strength of Clay Suspensions
(GMT)
In Figure 2, the structure of the ITE instrument for measuring
the gel strength of clay suspensions (GMT) is illustrated(15).
The main part of the instrument is the sample chamber (2),
where a glass plate (1) is immersed in the suspension. By means
of a pulling device (3, 4, 5), an electronic balance (6), as well as a
PC (7) for recording the measured values and controlling the balance, arbitrary values of the gel strength can be measured. The
measuring plate (1) is manufactured of frosted glass, which mineralogically resembles the structure of clays; apparent wall slip can
thus be avoided, as already has been demonstrated experimentally.
In the ITE GMT, possible effects of acceleration are eliminated by
limiting the pulling speed of the measuring plate to only 0.2
mm/s. Vertical suspension of the measuring plate is ensured by
forced guidance (see Figure 2). By means of the suspension technique and forced guidance, contact of the measuring plate with the
bottom of the measuring chamber is prevented. Hence, there is no
bottom effect on the measuring plate during the measuring
operation.
For performing the measurement, the measuring plate is
immersed in the sample chamber filled with suspension and suspended in the guiding device; it must be ensured that the filling
44

level corresponds exactly with the indication. After the intended

gelling time has elapsed, the measuring plate is pulled from the
suspension at the indicated speed of 0.2 mm/s. The maximum of
the resulting decrease in weight, mmax, is automatically recorded
by the PC. The gel strength, GS t, is calculated by means of
Equation (2):
GSt =
g
mmax
mA
mmin
A

g ( mmax + m A mmin )
A

...........................................................(2)

=
=
=
=

Gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2)

Maximum of the weight decrease on the balance
Mass of the suspension displaced by the measuring plate
Gross mass of the measuring plate, including the adhering suspension film
= Wetted surface of the measuring plate

Program of Investigation
In order to demonstrate the reproducibility of the results
obtained with the ITE GMT and document the practical applicability of the device a program of investigation has been prepared
and executed (see Table 1). For this purpose, pure clay suspensions (bentonite, hectorite) as well as a drilling fluid with commercially available additives have been analysed for their gelation
tendency. Each of the systems under investigation was prepared
with distilled water. The mass contents of clay were 1.7% for hectorite and 5 or 7% for bentonite.
The polymers employed were a low-molecular-weight copolymer deflocculant (LMWC) and a synthetic copolymer of 2-acrylamide-2-methyl-propane sulfonic acid/N-alkylacrylamide
(AMPS) as well as a vinylamide/vinylsulfonic acid, ammonium
salt (VAVS). The samples were weighted with baryte. Selected
samples were exposed to electrolyte or elevated temperature, or
both. NaCl or CaCl2 were employed for the electrolyte treatments;
the thermal exposure was performed in a roller oven.

Results and Discussion

For checking the reproducibility of the gel values measured
Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology

TABLE 1: Program of investigation.

Composition
of the
suspension

Electrolyte
exposure

Sample
designation

Symbols for
plotting
in the figures

Temperature
values
C

Duration
of thermal
exposure, h

Maximum
gelation time
min.

Distilled water 1,000 g

Hectorite 17 g

NaCl 0.06%
BWOS1)

RT3)

30

Distilled water 1,000 g

Bentonite 50 g

NaCl 0.15%
BWOS

RT

30

Distilled water 1,000 g

Bentonite 70 g

NaCl 0.3%
BWOS

RT

30

Distilled water 1,000 g

Bentonite 70 g
LMWC 1.5 g
AMPS 2.0 g
VAVS 10 g
Baryte 222 g

CaCl2 0.4%
BWOS

D2)

RT

2,930

E2)

200

45

2,880

1) BWOS = By weight of suspension

2) Gelation of the sample occurred in a desiccator in a saturated steam atmosphere
3) Room temperature

TABLE 2: The gel values measured on samples A to C with the ITE GMT and the Fann V-G Meter, model 35.
Gelation time t, min.
1

10

20

30

Sample A

GSt (GMT) , dPa

GSt (Fann) , dPa
Deviation, %

369.9
374.4
1.2

514.2
523.2
1.7

592.6
571.2
-3.6

602.4
590.4
-2.0

Sample B

GSt (GMT) , dPa

GSt (Fann) , dPa
Deviation, %

367.8
398.4
8.3

524.7
345.6
-34.1

535.9
379.2
-29.2

547.1
340.8
-37.7

Sample C

GSt (GMT) , dPa

GSt (Fann) , dPa
Deviation, %

700.2
398.4
-43.1

966.4
432.0
-55.3

1,011.2
465.6
-54.0

997.2
537.6
-46.1

with the ITE GMT, measurements were performed on clay suspensions exposed to electrolytes, A to C, with the use of the GMT
as well as with a Fann V-G Meter, model 35, as specified in API
RP 13B-1(7) (see Table 1). The results are presented in Table 2
and, graphically by the method proposed by Garrison (1) , in
Figure 3.
It is obvious from the plot that the gel values measured with the
GMT on samples A to C respectively yield straight lines with sufficient accuracy. Furthermore, the repeated measurements performed with the ITE GMT do not deviate appreciably from the
original values, hence, the measured gel strength values can be
regarded as reproducible.
In the case of the hectorite suspension (sample A), nearly the
same gel values were measured with the Fann V-G Meter as with
the ITE GMT. The reason for this observation is that this sample
with 1.7% by mass of synthetic hectorite forms a homogeneous
suspension with a low clay concentration, which completely fills
the annular gap of the viscometer. A further explanation is that no
apparent wall slip was observed during the measurement on this
sample with the Fann V-G Meter.
However, it is clearly evident from Figure 3 that the Fann V-G
Meter fails completely with the bentonite suspensions of higher
clay concentration (samples B and C). It is obviously not possible
to draw a continuous straight line through the corresponding
points of measurement. Moreover, the gel values measured with
the Fann V-G Meter deviate from those measured with the GMT
by 8.3 to -37.7% (sample B) and -43.1 to -55.3% (sample C) (see
Table 2). These considerable deviations are due to incomplete filling of the annular gap of the Fann V-G Meter, on the one hand,
and to apparent wall slip, on the other hand(11).
For predicting the long-term gelation behaviour of the suspensions under investigation, the following equation can be applied in
May 2000, Volume 39, No. 5

analogy with the method proposed by Garrison(1):

t
t1 t t 2
t2 t2
GS GS / GS GS = t t
t
t2
t2
2
t1
1 ........................................ (3)
GSt

= Gel strength at time t

GStl

= Gel strength after a gelation time of t1 min.

GSt2 = Gel strength after a gelation time of t2 min.

If the gel values measured on samples A to C after a gelation
time of 10 min. or 30 min. (see Table 2) are inserted, Equation (3)
yields:
Sample A:
t
= 0.001518 t + 0.004271 min./dPa
GSt
....................................(4)

Sample B:
t
= 0.001789 t + 0.001170 min./dPa
GSt
.....................................(5)

Sample C:
45

t
FIGURE 4:

FIGURE 3: GS -values for the clay suspensions under

t
investigation, A to C, as a function of the gelation time t.

function of the gelation time.

t
= 0.000987 t + 0.000479 min./dPa
GSt
.....................................(6)
For samples A to C, the measured gel strength values and those
calculated with Equations (4) to (6) are mutually compared in
Table 3; the indicated deviations have been calculated from
Equation (7):

Deviation =

GSt (measured) GSt (calculated)

GSt (measured)

t
-values for samples D and E (see Table 1) as a
GSt

100 %
.........................(7)

The deviations indicated in Table 3 clearly demonstrate that the

relative error is large for the gel strength values measured after
short gelation times (here: 1 min.). The reason is that gelation is
especially intensive immediately after interruption of circulation;
consequently, small errors in the time measurement very seriously
affect the measured gel strength value.
On the basis of preliminary experiments, a CaCl2 content of
0.4% BWOS was found to be necessary for attaining the maximal
gelation tendency with a bentonite suspension stabilized with the
polymers LMWC and AMPS, as well as VAVS (see Table 1).
This drilling fluid was then tested with the ITE GMT for longterm gelation behaviour in the presence of electrolyte (sample D)
as well as with electrolyte and at elevated temperature (sample E).
In order to avoid errors as a result of evaporation of the liquid
phase from the samples during longer gelation times, these samples were stored in saturated steam in a desiccator. The results are
presented in Table 4 and, in graphical form, in Figure 4.

With the short-term gel values after 30 and 60 (65) min.,

respectively, Equation (3) yields the following for samples D and
E:
Sample D:
t
= 0.000696 t + 0.011102 min./dPa
GSt
.....................................(8)

Sample E:
t
= 0.000863 t + 0.030935 min./dPa
GSt
.....................................(9)
In Table 5 the gel strength values calculated with the use of
Equations (8) and (9) are compared with the values measured on
samples D and E.
From Figure 4 it can be seen that the plot deviates from the linearity assumed by Garrison(1) between t/GSt and t after a gelation
time of 114 min. (sample E) and 694 min. (sample D). Hence, a
more or less serious relative error is associated with the estimate
of the long-term gelation behaviour of the drilling fluid on the
basis of short-term measurements of the gel strength and the evaluation proposed by Garrison (see Table 5). In comparison with the
usual practice of appraising the gelation behaviour of drilling fluids on the basis of the initial and 10-minute gel strength, however,
the method proposed by Garrison(1) represents a decisive step in
the effort to reliably predict gel values after round trips.

TABLE 3: Gel strength values measured on samples A to C [GSt (measured)] in comparison with the calculated values
[GSt (calculated)].
t, min.
1

46

10

20

30

480

1,440

Sample A

GSt (measured), dPa

GSt (calculated), dPa
Deviation, %

369.9
183.4
50.4

514.2
514.1

592.6
577.5
2.5

602.4
602.3

654.9

657.5

Sample B

GSt (measured), dPa

GSt (calculated), dPa
Deviation, %

367.8
337.9
8.1

524.7
524.7

535.9
534.3
0.3

547.1
547

558.2

558.7

Sample C

GSt (measured), dPa

GSt (calculated), dPa
Deviation, %

700.2
682.1
2.6

966.4
966.3

1,011.2
989.2
2.2

997.2
997

1,012.1

1,012.8

Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology

TABLE 4: The gel values measured on samples D and E (see Table 1) with the ITE GMT.
Sample D

Gelation time t, min.

GSt , dPa

30
938

60
1135

125
1,240

505
1,553

1,510
1,718

2,930
1,892

Sample E

Gelation time t, min.

GSt , dPa

30
528

65
747

128
946

458
1,519

1,440
1,917

2,880
2,019

TABLE 5: Gel strength values measured on samples D and E [GSt (measured)] in comparison with the calculated
values [GSt (calculated)].

Sample D

Sample E

t, min.
GSt (measured), dPa
GSt (calculated), dPa
Deviation, %

30
938
938

60
1,135
1,135

125
1,240
1,274
-2.8

505
1,553
1,393
10.3

1,510
1,718
1,422
17.2

2,930
1,892
1,429
24.5

t, min.
GSt (measured), dPa
GSt (calculated), dPa
Deviation, %

30
528
528

65
747
747

128
946
905
4.3

458
1,519
1,075
29.2

1,440
1,917
1,131
41

2,880
2,019
1,144
43.3

Summary and Conclusions

GSt2

In the present work, the long-term gelation behaviour of

drilling fluids has been analysed more closely. For this purpose,
the applicability of conventional rotational viscometers in conformance with API RP 13-B1 to this matter was first examined.
Subsequently, an instrument further developed at ITE for measuring gel strength (ITE GMT) was investigated to determine the
reproducibility of the results.
The essential results of the study are the following:
1. On the basis of standardized API gel values (initial and 10minute gel strength), the true gelation behaviour of claybased drilling fluids can hardly be predicted.
2. An analysis of the gelation behaviour with the use of the
Fann V-G Meter, especially with bentonite drilling fluids in
the presence of electrolytes, usually results in incorrect predictions. This is due to incomplete filling of the annular gap
with highly thickened drilling fluids, or to apparent wall
slip.
3. The gel strength values measured with the ITE GMT are
reproducible.
4. With the use of the ITE GMT, the apparent wall slip is
prevented by an appropriate choice of material for the measuring plate.
5. With the Fann V-G Meter, gel strength values can be measured up to a maximum of 1,440 dPaprovided that the
annular gap can be completely filled, and apparent wall slip
is avoidedwhereas values up to 2,019 dPa have been measured with the ITE GMT in the present study.
6. The mathematical analysis of the gelation behaviour of
drilling fluids by the method proposed by Garrison(1) results
in a decidedly better prediction of the long-term gelation
behaviour. However, the deviation of the calculated longterm gel strength values from the measured values increases
progressively with gelation time.

GSt(calculated)
GSt(measured)
GSt
ITE

NOMENCLATURE
A
AMPS
BWOS
E-S
g
GMT
GSt
GSt1

= Wetted surface of the measuring plate of the ITE

GMT, cm2 (in.2)
= Synthetic copolymer of 2-acrylamide-2-methylpropane sulfonic acid/ N-alkylacrylamide
= By weight of suspension, %
= Edge-to-surface attachment
= Gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m/s2 (ft./sec.2)
= ITE-instrument for measuring gel strength of clay
suspensions
= Gel strength at time t, dPa (lb.f/ft.2)
= Gel strength after a gelation time of t1 min., dPa
(lb.f/ft.2)

May 2000, Volume 39, No. 5

ITE GMT
k
KTB
LMWC
mA
mmax
mmin
RT
S-S
t
VAVS

= Gel strength after a gelation time of t2 min., dPa

(lb.f/ft.2)
= Calculated gel strength value, dPa (lb.f/ft.2)
= Measured gel strength value, dPa (lb.f/ft.2)
= Final gel strength, dPa (lb.f/ft.2)
= Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Technical
University Clausthal
= ITEInstrument for measuring gel strength of
clay suspensions
= Constant, min.-1
= German Continental Deep Drilling Program
= Low-molecular-weight copolymer deflocculant
= Mass of the suspension displaced by the measuring plate
= Maximum of the weight decrease on the balance,
g (lb.)
= Gross mass of the measuring plate, including the
adhering suspension film, g (lb.)
= Room temperature, C ( F)
= Surface-to surface attachment
= Gelation time, min.
= Vinylamide/vinylsulfonic acid, ammonium salt

SI metric conversion factors

1 in.
1 in.2
1 (ft./min.)
1 (ft./sec.2)
1 lb.m
1 (lb.f/ft.2)
1 (lb.fft.)
1 F

2.54
6.4516
5.08
3.048
4.5359237
4.788026
1.355818
( F-32)/1.8

E+07
E+00
E+00
E-01
E+02
E-03
E-03
E+00

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

nm
cm2
mm/s
m/s2
g
dPa
kJ
C

REFERENCES
1. GARRISON, A.D., Surface Chemistry of Clays and Shales;
Transactions of the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical
Engineers, Vol. 132, pp. 423-436, 1939.
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Drilling and Completion Fluids; Gulf Publishing Company, Houston,
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3. CHILINGARIAN, G.V., VORABUTR, P., Drilling and Drilling
FluidsUpdated Textbook Edition; Elsevier Science Publishers
B.V., Amsterdam, Oxford, New York, pp. 19-27, 125-131, and 215219, 1983.
4. VAN OLPHEN, H., An Introduction to Clay Colloid Chemistry;
Interscience Publishers, a division of John Wiley & Sons, New York,
London, pp. 30-36, 59-71, 93-101, and 135-142, 1963.
47

5. FARAZ, M.A., Untersuchungen zur Abtrennung von Bohrklein im

Feinstkornbereich aus einer synthetischen Tonsplung mit Hilfe der
Druckfiltration; Dissertation, Institute of Petroleum Engineering
(ITE), Technical University Clausthal, pp. 5-9 and 31-38, 1990.
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Verlagshandlung, Band 2 Cm - G, 8. neubearbeitete und erweiterte
Auflage, Stuttgart, pp. 981-982, 1981.
7. N.N., Standard Procedure for Field TestingWater-Based Drilling
Fluids; API RP 13 B-1, 1st edition, pp. 9-11, June 1990.
8. CHENG, D.C.H., Yield-stress: A Time-dependent Property and How
to Measure it; Rheologica Acta, 25, pp. 542-554, 1986.
9. WEIN, O., TOVCHIGRECHKO, V.V., Rotational Viscometry
Under Presence of Apparent Wall Slip; Journal Rheology, 36, 5,
pp. 821-844, 1992.
10. KULICKE, W.M., Flieverhalten von Stoffen und Stoffgemischen;
Hthig & Wepf Verlag, Basel, Heidelberg, New York, pp. 67-88 and
147-158, 1986.
11. MARQUARDT, W., NIJMAN, J., Mefehler beim Einsatz von
Rotationsrheometern; Rheology, 3, 1, pp. 120-129, 1993.
12. SCHLEGEL, D., WELTER, H.J., Wandeffekte bei dispers-plastischen Materialien; Rheologica Acta, 25, pp. 618-631, 1986.
13. CHENEVERT, M.E., JIN, L., Model for Predicting Wellbore
Pressures in Cement Columns; Paper SPE 19521 presented at the
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, San Antonio, TX,
October 8 11, 1989.
14. WICKER, A., Untersuchungen zur Gelstrkenentwicklung von CaOQuellzementen unter besonderer Bercksichtigung des
Ausdehnungsverhaltens; unverffentlichte Diplomarbeit, Institute of
Petroleum Engineering (ITE), Technical University Clausthal,
pp. 21-30 and 35-37, 1994.
15. STRAHL, F., Weiterentwicklung und Erprobung eines
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ProvenanceOriginal unsolicited manuscript, New Method of

Measuring Gel Strength of Clay-Based Drilling Fluids and the
Determination of their Long-Term Gelation Behaviour,
(97-10-22). Abstract submitted for review October 6, 1997; editorial comments sent to the author(s) May 14, 1999; revised manuscript received June 29, 1999; paper approved for pre-press July 5,
1999; final approval April 27, 2000.

48

Authors Biographies
Reza Ghofrani received an M.Eng. in mining from the Technical University
Clausthal. After completing a Ph.D. in
petroleum engineering at the same
University, he worked for a period of four
years in Tehran as professor and director of
the Institute of Mining, Tehran
Polytechnic, and as the president of the
College of Construction and Interior
Design. Since 1979 he has been working at
the Institute of Petroleum Engineering
(ITE), Technical University Clausthal. In addition to teaching in
deep well planning, drilling fluids, and well cementing, at ITE he
leads the Researchers Team in the fields of drilling fluids and oilwell cements. Regarding research, his special interests are in
drilling fluids, formation damage, rheology, drilling waste disposal, conversion of drilling fluids to cements, and CaO- and MgOswelling cements. He is a member of the German Society for
Petroleum and Coal Science and Technology (DGMK) and the
Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE).
Fedor Strahl received an M.Eng. in petroleum engineering from
the Technical University Clausthal in 1996. Currently he is working with Wintershall Corporation, Germany, as drilling engineer
for drilling and service operations. His special interests in research
are in the fields of drilling fluids, rheology, and feasibility of offshore mining operations.
Vincent Bosch graduated in 1994 from the Delft University of
Technology, The Netherlands, with an M.Sc. degree in petroleum
engineering. He has been awarded with fellowship of The
European Communities within the framework Human Capital
and Mobility for a duration of two years to participate in the
ITEs research training project New Developments in Drilling
Fluids and Well Cements. Currently he is working for Baroid
Drilling Fluids in Aberdeen.

Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology