Chapter 1-Magnetic Circuits PDF

MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
Chapter 1
Prof. Adel Gastli
Electrical Machines Chapter1: Magnetic Circuits
Introduction
In
all
electrical
machines,
magnetic
materials are used to
shape and direct the
magnetic fields that act
as a medium in the
energy
conversion
process.
Magnetic material
A major advantage of using magnetic material in

electrical machines is the fact that high flux density
can be obtained in the machine, which results in
large torque or large machine output per unit
machine volume.
In other words, the size of the machine is greatly
reduced by the use of magnetic materials.
Prof. Adel Gastli
CHAPTER CONTENT
Prof. Adel Gastli
1.1
Magnetic Circuits
1.2
Hysteresis
1.3
Sinusoidal Excitation
1.4
Permanent Magnet
CHAPTER CONTENT
Prof. Adel Gastli
1.1
Magnetic Circuits
1.2
Hysteresis
1.3
1.4
Permanent Magnet
1.1 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

In electrical machines, the
magnetic circuits may be
formed by ferromagnetic
materials only (as in
transformers)
or
by
ferromagnetic materials in
conjunction with an air
medium (as in rotating
machines).
In most electrical machines,
except permanent magnet
machines, the magnetic field
(or flux) is produced by
passing an electrical current
through coils wound on
ferromagnetic materials.
Prof. Adel Gastli
1.1.1 iH RELATION
We shall first study how the current in a
coil is related to the magnetic field intensity
(or flux) it produces.
H
Coil
Prof. Adel Gastli
1.1.1 iH RELATION
The direction of magnetic flux lines or
magnetic field intensity H can be determined
by what is known as the Thumb Rule or Right
Hand Grip Rule.
Prof. Adel Gastli
1.1.1 iH RELATION
The relationship between current and field intensity
can be obtained by using Ampres circuit law.
Which states that the line integral of the magnetic
field intensity H around a closed path is equal to the
total current linked by the contour.
Illustration of Ampres
circuit law

H dl i i1 i2 i3
H dl cos i
Prof. Adel Gastli
1.1.1 iH RELATION
For the circular path case, at each
point on this circular contour, H and
dl are in the same direction, that is,
=0.
Because of symmetry, H will be the
same at all points on this contour.
Hdl H dl i
H 2r i
H
Prof. Adel Gastli
i
2r
1.1.2 BH RELATION
The magnetic field intensity H produces a
magnetic flux density B everywhere it exists.
These quantities are functionally related by:
B H
Weber/m
B 0 r H
or Tesla
or T
Wb/m
is a characteristic of the medium and is called the

permeability of the medium.
0 is the permeability of free space and is 4107
henry/meter.
r is the relative permeability of the medium.
Prof. Adel Gastli
10
1.1.2 BH RELATION
For free space or electrical conductors (such
as aluminum or copper) or insulators, the
value of r is unity.
However, for ferromagnetic materials such as
iron, cobalt, and nickel, the value of r varies
from several hundred to several thousand.
For materials used in electrical machines, r
varies in the range of 2000 to 6000.
A large value of r implies that a small current
can produce a large flux density in the
machine.
B 0 r H
Prof. Adel Gastli
11
1.1.3 MAGNETIC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

Example: Toroid Magnetic
Circuit.
Assumptions:
When current i flows
through the coil of N turns,
magnetic flux is mostly
confined in the core
material.
The flux outside the toroid, Toroid magnetic circuit
called leakage flux, is so
small that for all practical
purposes
it
can
be
neglected.
Prof. Adel Gastli
12

Consider a path at a radius r.
The magnetic field intensity on
this path is H and, from Ampres
circuit law:

H dl Ni
Hl Ni
H 2r Ni F
Hl Ni
Ni
H
(At/m)
l
Prof. Adel Gastli
The quantity Ni is called the magnetomotive

force (mmf ) F, and its unit is ampere-turn.
Ni
l
(T)
13

Magnetic Flux:
If no leakage flux:
B dA
BA (Web)
where B is the average flux density in the core
and A is the area of cross section of the toroid.
Ni
Ni
Ni F
l
l / A R R
l
1
R
A P
Prof. Adel Gastli
R is called reluctance of the magnetic path, and

P is called the permeance of the magnetic path.
14

Previous equations suggest that the driving force
in the magnetic circuit is the magnetomotive
force F =Ni, which produces a flux against a
magnetic reluctance R.
The magnetic circuit of the toroid can therefore
be represented by a magnetic equivalent circuit
as shown below:
Prof. Adel Gastli
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Prof. Adel Gastli
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Relation between Magnetic Field

and its Flux Density
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TDa6mW1c5kU
Prof. Adel Gastli
1:37
17
1.1.4 MAGNETIZATION CURVE

If the magnetic field intensity
in the core of the previous
toroid circuit is increased by
increasing current, the flux
density in the core changes in
the way shown in the figure.
The flux density B increases
almost linearly in the region
of low values of the magnetic
field intensity H.
B H
l
A
BH curve or Magnetization curve
However, at higher values of H, the change of B is

nonlinear.
The magnetic material shows the effect of saturation.
The BH curve is also called the magnetization curve.
Prof. Adel Gastli
18
1.1.4 MAGNETIZATION CURVE

The reluctance of the magnetic path
is dependent on the flux density. It
is low when B is low, and high
when B is high.
The magnetic circuit differs from the
electric circuit in this respect;
resistance is normally independent
of current in an electric circuit,
whereas reluctance depends on the
flux density in the magnetic circuit.
The BH characteristics of 3
different types of magnetic cores
cast iron, cast steel, & silicon sheet
steelare shown in next figure.
Note that to establish a certain level
of flux density B* in the various
magnetic materials, the values of
current required are different.
Prof. Adel Gastli
19
1.1.5 MAGNETIC CIRCUIT WITH AIR GAP

In electric machines, the rotor is
physically isolated from the stator
by the air gap.
Practically the same flux is
present in the poles (made of
magnetic core) and the air gap.
To maintain the same flux density, the air gap will require
much more mmf than the core.
If the flux density is high, the core portion of the magnetic
circuit may exhibit a saturation effect.
However, the air gap remains unsaturated, since the BH
curve for the air medium is linear ( is constant).
Prof. Adel Gastli
20

A magnetic circuit having two or more media is known as
a composite structure.
For the purpose of analysis, a magnetic equivalent circuit
can be derived for the composite structure.
Let us consider the following simple composite structure
with its equivalent electric circuit:
Prof. Adel Gastli
21

The driving force in this magnetic circuit is the mmf, F=Ni,
and the core medium and the air gap medium can be
represented by their corresponding reluctances:
lc
Rc
c Ac
Prof. Adel Gastli
Rg
lg
0 Ag
22

Ni
Rc Rg
BC
Ac
Prof. Adel Gastli
Ni H c lc H g l g
Bg
Ag
23

In the air gap the magnetic flux lines bulge
outward somewhat; this is known as fringing
of the flux.
The effect of the fringing is to increase the
cross-sectional area of the air gap.
For small air gaps the fringing effect can be
neglected.
Fringing flux.
If the fringing effect is neglected, the cross-sectional areas

of the core and the air gap are the same and therefore:
Ag Ac
Prof. Adel Gastli
Bc Bg
Ac
24
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25
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(c) Current in the coil without air gap:
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10A
FIGURE E1.3
Prof. Adel Gastli
31
10A
Prof. Adel Gastli
32
10A
Prof. Adel Gastli
33
Prof. Adel Gastli
34
Equivalent Circuit Practice

H
Coil
Length l
x1 +
Magnetic field H
x2
x1
+
Prof. Adel Gastli
F Hl
Rc
x2 -
35

i1
i2
N1i1 N 2i2
N1
1 ?
Rc
N2
N1i1
N 2i2
?
t ?
Prof. Adel Gastli
36

i1
i2
N1i1 N 2i2
N1
Rc
N2
N1i1
N 2i2
-
t
Prof. Adel Gastli
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i1
i2
N1i1 N 2i2
N1
1 ?
Rc
N2
N1i1
N 2i2
?
t ?
Prof. Adel Gastli
38

i1
i2
N1i1 N 2i2
N1
Rc
N2
N1i1
N 2i2
+
t
Prof. Adel Gastli
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i1
i2
N1i1 N 2i2
N1
1 ?
Rc
N2
N1i1
N 2i2
?
t ?
Prof. Adel Gastli
40

i1
i2
N1i1 N 2i2
N1
Rc
N2
N1i1
N 2i2
+
t
Prof. Adel Gastli
41

i1
i2
N1i1 N 2i2
N1
1 ?
Rc
N2
N1i1
N 2i2
?
t ?
Prof. Adel Gastli
42

i1
i2
N1i1 N 2i2
N1
Rc
N2
N1i1
N 2i2
-
t
Prof. Adel Gastli
43
1.1.6 INDUCTANCE
A coil wound on a magnetic core, such as that shown
below, is frequently used in electric circuits.
This coil may be represented by an ideal electric
circuit element, called inductance, which is defined
as the flux linkage of the coil per ampere of its
current.
=N
Inductance of a coilcore assembly.

(a) Coilcore assembly. (b) Equivalent inductance.
Prof. Adel Gastli
44
1.1.6 INDUCTANCE
Flux linkage N
Inductance L
=N
(Henri, Flux
linkage per
ampere)
N N ( BA) N ( H ) A
NHA
L
i
i
i
( Hl / N )
Ni Hl
2
N
N
L
l / A R
Prof. Adel Gastli
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Prof. Adel Gastli
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Prof. Adel Gastli
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N 250
rinner 20 cm
i 2 .5 A
Prof. Adel Gastli
router 25 cm
48
Prof. Adel Gastli
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Mean Radius
Core
Radius
Inner Radius
Core
cross
Area A
Outer Radius
Prof. Adel Gastli
50
N2
L
Rcore
Rcore
N2
250 2
L
0.2404 H 204.4 mH
2
Rcore 2599.64 10
Prof. Adel Gastli
51
CHAPTER CONTENT
Prof. Adel Gastli
1.1
Magnetic Circuits
1.2
Hysteresis
1.3
1.4
Permanent Magnet
52
1.2 HYSTERESIS
Consider the following coil
core assembly.
Assume that the core is initially
unmagnetized.
If the magnetic intensity H is
now increased by slowly
increasing the current i, the flux
density will change according
to the curve 0a.
The point a corresponds to a
particular value of the
magnetic intensity, say H1
(corresponding current is i1).
Prof. Adel Gastli
53
1.2 HYSTERESIS
If the magnetic intensity
is now slowly decreased,
the BH curve will follow
a different path, such as
abc.
When H is made zero, the
core has retained flux
density Br, known as the
residual flux density.
If H is now reversed (by reversing the current i),
the flux in the core will decrease, and for a
particular value of H, such as Hc, the residual
flux will be removed.
Prof. Adel Gastli
54
1.2 HYSTERESIS
This value of the magnetic field
intensity (Hc) is known as the
coercivity or coercive force of
the magnetic core.
If H is further increased in the
reverse direction, the flux
density will increase in the
reverse direction.
For current i1, the flux density will correspond to point e.
If H is now decreased to zero and then increased to the
value H1, the BH curve will follow the path efga. The loop
does not close.
If H is varied for another cycle, the final operating point is a.
Prof. Adel Gastli
55
1.2 HYSTERESIS
The operating points a and a are
closer together than points a and a.
After a few cycles of magnetization,
the loop almost closes, and it is
called the hysteresis loop.
The loop shows that the relationship
between B and H is nonlinear and
multivalued.
Note that at point c the iron is magnetized, although the

current in the coil is made zero.
Throughout the whole cycle of magnetization, the flux
density lags behind the magnetic intensity.
This lagging phenomenon in the magnetic core is called
hysteresis.
Prof. Adel Gastli
56
1.2 HYSTERESIS
Smaller hysteresis loops are
obtained by decreasing the
amplitude of variation of the
magnetic intensity.
The locus of the tip of the
hysteresis loop (shown dashed) is
called the magnetization curve.
If the iron is magnetized from an initial unmagnetized
condition, the flux density will follow the magnetization
curve.
In some magnetic cores, the hysteresis loop is very narrow.
If the hysteresis effect is neglected for such cores, the BH
characteristic is represented by the magnetization curve.
Prof. Adel Gastli
57
1.2.1 HYSTERESIS LOSS

The hysteresis loops are obtained by
slowly varying the current i of the
coil over a cycle.
When i is varied through a cycle,
during some interval of time, energy
flows from the source to the coil
core assembly, and during some
other interval of time, energy
returns to the source.
However, the energy flowing in is
greater than the energy returned
back.
Prof. Adel Gastli
58

Therefore, during a cycle of variation of i
(hence H), there is a net energy flow from
the source to the coilcore assembly.
This energy loss goes to heat the core.
The loss of power in the core due to the
hysteresis effect is called hysteresis loss.
It will be shown that the size of the
hysteresis loop is proportional to the
hysteresis loss.
Prof. Adel Gastli
59

Assume that the coil has no
resistance and the flux in the
core is .
The voltage e across the coil,
according to Faradays law, is:
d
eN
dt
The energy transfer during an interval of time t1

to t2 is:
t2
t2
t2
t1
t1
t1
W pdt eidt
Prof. Adel Gastli
2
d
N
idt Nid
1
dt
60

BA
Hl
i
N
B2
B1
B2
Hl
N
AdB lA HdB
B1
N
B2
W Vcore HdB
B1
where Vcore =Al represents the volume of

the core.
The integral term in this equation
represents the hatched area.
The energy transfer over one cycle of
variation is:
W
Prof. Adel Gastli
cycle
Vcore HdB Vcore area of B-H loop VcoreWh

61

Wh HdB
is the energy density in the core

(= area of the BH loop).
The power loss in the core due to the hysteresis effect is:
Ph VcoreWh f
Frequency of variation
of the current i.
Note: It is difficult to evaluate the area of the hysteresis

loop, because the BH characteristic is nonlinear and
multivalued, and no simple mathematical expression can
describe the loop.
Prof. Adel Gastli
62

Charles Steinmetz of the General Electric Company
performed a large number of experiments and found that
for magnetic materials used in electric machines an
approximate relation is:
n
Area of B-H loop KBmax
where Bmax is the maximum flux density, n varies in the

range 1.5 to 2.5, and K is a constant.
Both n and K can be empirically determined.
Ph VcoreWh f
Ph K h B
n
max
Higher f
higher Ph
where Kh is a constant whose value depends on the

ferromagnetic material and the volume of the core.
Prof. Adel Gastli
63
1.2.2 EDDY CURRENT LOSS

Another power loss occurs in a
magnetic core when the flux density
changes rapidly in the core.
The cross section of a core through
which the flux density B is rapidly
changing is shown in this figure.
Consider a path in this cross section.
Voltage will be induced in the path
because of the time variation of flux
enclosed by the path.
Consequently, a current ie, known as
an eddy current, will flow around the
path.
Prof. Adel Gastli
d
e
dt
Faradays law
64

Because core material has resistance, a power loss i2R
will be caused by the eddy current and will appear as
heat in the core.
The eddy current loss can be reduced in two ways.
1. A high-resistivity core material may be used. Addition
of a few percent of silicon (say 4%) to iron will increase
the resistivity significantly.
2. A laminated core may be used. The
thin laminations are insulated from
each other. The lamination is made in
the plane of the flux. In transformers
and electric machines, the parts that
are made of magnetic core and carry
time-varying flux are normally
laminated.
Prof. Adel Gastli
65

The eddy current loss in a magnetic core
subjected to a time-varying flux is:
Pe K e B
2
max
where Ke is a constant whose value depends on

the type of material and its lamination thickness.
The lamination thickness varies from 0.5 to 5 mm
in electrical machines and from 0.01 to 5 mm in
devices used in electronic circuits operating at
higher frequencies.
Prof. Adel Gastli
66
1.2.3 CORE LOSS

Hysteresis Loss
Pc Ph Pe
Core Loss
Eddy Current Loss
Static Loop (hysteresis loop):

Obtained for slow current
variation (f small).
Dynamic Loop (hysteroeddy
current loop): Obtained for
fast current variation (f large).
Prof. Adel Gastli
67
1.2.3 CORE LOSS

When current changes rapidly, Eddy
current flows in the core.
Eddy current produces an mmf which

tends to change the flux.
To maintain a given value of flux, the coil
current must be increased by the amount
necessary to overcome the effect of eddy
current mmf.
This makes the Dynamic

loop broader than the
Static loop.
Prof. Adel Gastli
Therefore, point a on the static loop will be

replaced by point a on the dynamic loop
that results from a rapidly changing coil
current.
68
1.2.3 CORE LOSS

Pc Vcore f
HdB
Dynamic
Loop
(volume of core)(frequency)(area of dynamic loop)

Using a wattmeter, core loss can easily be measured.
However, it is not easy to know how much of the loss is
due to hysteresis and how much is due to eddy currents.
Fortunately, it is not necessary to know the losses
separately.
In electrical machines that have a magnetic core and a
time-varying flux, core loss occurs and the loss appears as
heat in the core.
This loss will be taken into account while discussing the
behavior of electric machines in subsequent chapters.
Prof. Adel Gastli
69
CHAPTER CONTENT
Prof. Adel Gastli
1.1
Magnetic Circuits
1.2
Hysteresis
1.3
1.4
Permanent Magnet
70
1.3 SINUSOIDAL EXCITATION

In ac electric machines as well as many
other applications, the voltages and fluxes
vary sinusoidally with time.
Consider the following coilcore assembly:
Prof. Adel Gastli
71

Assume that the core flux (t) varies
sinusoidally with time.
(t ) max sin t
max is the magnitude of the core flux

=2f is the angular frequency
f is the frequency
From Faradays law, the voltage

induced in the N-turn coil is:
90o
Prof. Adel Gastli
d
e(t ) N
dt
N max cos t
Emax cos t
72

The root-mean-square (rms) value of the
induced voltage is:
Erms
Emax N max 2
Nf max
2
2
2
Erms 4.44 Nf max

Note: This is an important equation and will be
referred to frequently in the theory of ac machines.
Prof. Adel Gastli
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Prof. Adel Gastli
74
Erms 4.44 Nf max
H max
Prof. Adel Gastli
Bmax
r 0
75
Prof. Adel Gastli
76
Solution
100V
e
E=100V
+max
1/60
t
-100V -max
d
eN
dt
N d e dt
N E t
During half a cycle, the flux will vary from negative

max flux value (-max) to positive maximum value
(max).
E T / 2
E
2 max
N
2 fN
100
max
0.833 10 3 Wb
2 60 500 2
Prof. Adel Gastli
77
Prof. Adel Gastli
78
1.3.1 EXCITING CURRENT

If a coil is connected to a
sinusoidal voltage source, a
current flows in the coil to
establish a sinusoidal flux in the
core.
This current is called the exciting current, i.
If the BH characteristic of the ferromagnetic core
is nonlinear, the exciting current will be
nonsinusoidal.
Current waveforms differ!
Without Hysteresis
Prof. Adel Gastli
With Hysteresis
79

Without Hysteresis Loop:
4
3
4
3
2
3
2
5
13
6
7
12
7 1 , 13
9 11
12
10
12
9
11
11
9
10
10
FIGURE 1.18 Exciting current for no hysteresis: i characteristic and exciting current.
Prof. Adel Gastli
80

Without Hysteresis Loop:
The exciting current i is nonsinusoidal, but it is in phase with the
flux wave and is symmetrical with respect to voltage e.
The fundamental component i1 of the exciting current lags the
voltage e by 90o. Therefore no power loss is involved.
FIGURE 1.18 Exciting current for no hysteresis. (a) i characteristic and exciting
current. (b) Equivalent circuit. (c) Phasor diagram.
Prof. Adel Gastli
81

With Hysteresis Loop:
The exciting current is nonsinusoidal as well as nonsymmetrical
with respect to the voltage waveform.
The exciting current can be split into two components, one (ic) in
phase with voltage e accounting for the core loss and the other (im)
in phase with and symmetrical with respect to e, accounting for
the magnetization of the core.
FIGURE 1.18 Exciting current with hysteresis loop. (a) i loop and exciting
current. (b) Phasor diagram. (c) Equivalent circuit..
Prof. Adel Gastli
82

With Hysteresis Loop:
The magnetizing component im is the
same as the exciting current if the
hysteresis loop is neglected.
The exciting coil can therefore be
represented by a resistance Rc, to
represent core loss, and a
magnetizing inductance Lm, to
represent the magnetization of the
core.
Usually, in the phasor diagram only
the fundamental component of the
magnetizing current im is considered.
Prof. Adel Gastli
83
CHAPTER CONTENT
Prof. Adel Gastli
1.1
Magnetic Circuits
1.2
Hysteresis
1.3
1.4
Permanent Magnet
84
1.4 PERMANENT MAGNET

A permanent magnet is capable of maintaining a
magnetic field without any excitation mmf provided
to it.
Permanent magnets are normally alloys of iron,
nickel, and cobalt.
They are characterized by a large BH loop, high
retentivity (high value of Br), and high coercive force
(high value Hc).
These alloys are subjected to heat treatment,
resulting in mechanical hardness of the material.
Permanent magnets are often referred to as hard
iron, and other magnetic materials as soft iron.
Prof. Adel Gastli
85
1.4.1 MAGNETIZATION OF PERMANENT

MAGNETS
Assume that the magnet material is initially
unmagnetized.
A large mmf is applied, and on its removal the
flux density will remain at the residual value Br on
the magnetization curve, point a.
FIGURE 1.20 Permanent magnet system and its BH locus.

Prof. Adel Gastli
86
Relation between Magnetic Field

and its Flux Density
(Ferromagnetic Material)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TDa6mW1c5kU
Prof. Adel Gastli
1:37
87
Permanent Magnets Explained
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FfmZvdwAils
Prof. Adel Gastli
5:50
88

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MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

Prof. Adel Gastli

Electrical Machines Chapter1: Magnetic Circuits

A major advantage of using magnetic material in

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Prof. Adel Gastli

Prof. Adel Gastli

1.1 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

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is a characteristic of the medium and is called the

Electrical Machines Chapter1: Magnetic Circuits

Prof. Adel Gastli

Electrical Machines Chapter1: Magnetic Circuits

1.1.3 MAGNETIC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

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The quantity Ni is called the magnetomotive

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1.1.3 MAGNETIC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

R is called reluctance of the magnetic path, and

1.1.3 MAGNETIC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

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1.1.3 MAGNETIC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

Prof. Adel Gastli

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Relation between Magnetic Field

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1.1.4 MAGNETIZATION CURVE

BH curve or Magnetization curve

However, at higher values of H, the change of B is

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1.1.5 MAGNETIC CIRCUIT WITH AIR GAP

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1.1.5 MAGNETIC CIRCUIT WITH AIR GAP

Prof. Adel Gastli

Electrical Machines Chapter1: Magnetic Circuits

1.1.5 MAGNETIC CIRCUIT WITH AIR GAP

Prof. Adel Gastli

Electrical Machines Chapter1: Magnetic Circuits

1.1.5 MAGNETIC CIRCUIT WITH AIR GAP

Prof. Adel Gastli

Electrical Machines Chapter1: Magnetic Circuits

1.1.5 MAGNETIC CIRCUIT WITH AIR GAP

If the fringing effect is neglected, the cross-sectional areas

Prof. Adel Gastli

Electrical Machines Chapter1: Magnetic Circuits

Prof. Adel Gastli

Electrical Machines Chapter1: Magnetic Circuits

(c) Current in the coil without air gap:

Prof. Adel Gastli

Electrical Machines Chapter1: Magnetic Circuits

Prof. Adel Gastli

Electrical Machines Chapter1: Magnetic Circuits

Prof. Adel Gastli