1

Research Methods
The study of conducting research is
Research Methodology.
Research: The

word

research

is

composed of two syllables Re and

Search.
Re is the prefix meaning Again or
over again or a new and Search is the
latter meaning to examine closely and
carefully or to test and try.
Together
systematic,

they

form,

patient

study

careful,
and

investigation in some field of knowledge

undertaken to establish principles /

policies.
Research can also be defined as
1.Search for knowledge
2.Systematic and scientific search for
getting relevant answers on any taken
up specific topic.
3.Scientific enquiry into a subject.
4.Research is a movement from the
unknown to the known.
5.It is the voyage of discovery
Acc to Bulmer,
Research is primarily committed to
establishing systematic, reliable and valid
knowledge about the social world.
Acc. To Clifford Woody,

Research comprises of
Defining and redefining problems.
Formulating hypothesis (basic idea)
Collecting
Organizing
Evaluating datas
Making decisions
Suggesting solutions

Reaching conclusions

Finally,

carefully

testing

the

conclusions
To determine whether they fit the
formulated Hypothesis.
Research Methods:

May

be

understood as all those methods or

techniques that are used by a researcher

for conducting a Research depending
upon the methods.
(1)

Library Research:analysis

of

historical records and documents.

- Statistical compilation, references,
abstracts,

guides

manipulation

(handle with skill)

(2)

Field Research:

Observation,

questionnaires, personal, Group or

telephonic interviews, case study.
(3)

Laboratory Research:

Group (team) study, use of audio

visual tools.

Research Methodology:

is the way do

systematically

the

solve

research

problem.
In it we study the various steps that
are generally adopted by a researcher in
studying his research problem logically.
When

we

talk

of

Research

Methodology, we not only talk of research

methods but also consider the logic
behind the methods we use in the context
of our research study and explain why we
are using a particular method or we are
not

using

particular

method

or

technique so that research results are

capable of being evaluated either by the
researcher or others.
Steps:

1)

Why a particular research study

has been undertaken?

2)

How the Research problem has

been defined?
3)

What way and why the hypothesis

(basic idea) has been formulated?

4)

Why a particular technique of

analyzing data is used? (or) How the

data were collected?
5)

How the collected data were

interpreted?
6)

What deletion was made?

7)

What was the conclusion?

Finally what was the solution for the

Research problem?

Importance of knowing the subject

research Methodology:
1)

A student preparing himself for a

career of carrying out research as his

profession
- Will be trained better to do research
- Will help him develop disciplined
thinking
- Will help him observe the field
objectively.
- Will

enable

thoroughly

to

understand the logic behind the

research problem.
- Will increase the ability to evaluate
the results.

- Face the evaluated results with

confidence.
- Useful in various fields such as
Govt.

Business,

administration,

community development & social

work.
To qualify a Research or study:
To be a Good or perfect one,
The

Research

adapted

process certain characteristics,

It must as far as possible be

1)

Controlled
2) Rigorous
3) Systematic
4) Valid
5) Verifiable
6) Empirical

should

7) Critical
1. Controlled: The

research

problem

should not be affected or influenced by

external factors (i.e. variables other than
the participating facts).
2. Rigorous:

The procedures followed

to find answers to questions should be

relevant, appropriate & justified. But the
degree of rigiour may vary from one
problem to another problem.
3. Systematic: The investigation should
follow a certain logical sequence (Not in a
haphazard manner)
4. Valid & Verifiable: The

findings

should be valid & can be verified by you

or others at any time.

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5. Empirical: The conclusions drawn

should be based on hard evidence,
gathered from real life experiences or
observations.
6. Critical: The process of investigation
must

be

foolproof

and

free

from

drawbacks. The process adapted and the

procedures

used

must

be

able

withstand any critical scrutiny.

Types of Research
Research can be classified from the
view point or perspectives as,
From the view point

Application
Inquiry mode

objective

to

11

1) Pure Research

1) Descriptive 1)

Quantitative Research
2) Applied Research

2) Correlative

2) Qualitative Research
3) Exploratory
4) Explanatory
1) Pure Research: (Basic or
Fundamental Research)
Gathering, knowledge is termed as
pure or basic research. Just to gather
knowledge in order to formulate or
generalize theories or policies.
Eg) Research on mathematics.

12

This types of research adds

knowledge to the already existing
organized body.
Applied Research:

To find an

immediate solution for a pressing

practical problem.
Eg: Social, economical and political
trends prevailing in a country.
Applied Vs Fundamental Based on the
objectives of Research:
1)

Descriptive Research:
Survey or fact finding enquires
of different kinds. It describes
the actual prevailing state of
affairs, existing at present.

13

Otherwise known as ex post

facts means existing position
of facts / issues.
Here the variable influencing
the research has no control or
the researcher has no control
over the variables.
Eg: Frequency of shopping,
customer preference etc.
2)

Correlative Research:
Goes on to discover the
existing relationship or
interdependence between two
or more aspects / variables.
Otherwise known as
comparative study.

14

Investigates association
between variables.
Eg: Sum of humour and job
satisfaction, (related variable)
Research problem is workers turnover

Analytical Research:
The researcher has to use facts /
information already existing and analyze
these data to make a critical evaluation.
Eg: document study / historical
evidence.
Descriptive Vs Analytical Research:
Explanatory Research:

15

Attempts to clarify or explain why and

how, any particular research problem
arises and can be solved.
4. Exploratory Research: Study
undertake to explore a new area or an
unknown destination.
III. Based on the Inquiry Mode:
1)

Quantitative Research:
Relates to aspects that can be
quantified and expressed in terms
of quantity.
Otherwise known as structured
Research.
In this type of Research, the
objectives, design, sample and all

16

the other factors influencing the

research is pre determined.
The research problem and its solution
will be expressed in terms of quantity and
hence statistical and economic analysis is
adapted in this type of Research.
Quantitative Research:
Otherwise known as unstructured
research.
The aspects related to quality /
kind or texture.
Eg: Behaviour science
Apart from the above, other types of
Research are,
Conceptual Research: Research related
to some abstract idea or theory

17

Used by philosophers or thinkers for

developing new concepts.
Empirical research
(based on experiments or experience)
Otherwise known as experimental
type of Research.
The result obtained by adapting
Empirical Research is considered to
be most powerful (evidence
enclosed)
Based on the time consumed to
complete a particular research,
a) one time Research: restricted to a
single time period.
b) Longitudinal Research: Conducted
over several time period.

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Qualities of a Researcher
Top 10 qualities of a Researcher
1)

Ananalytical mind:
Constant analysis on a variety of

factors.
2)

A people person :

For

respondents to get the best out of

interviews / focus groups.
3)

The ability to stay calm:

especially when you have

pressing deadlines. Keep well focused

and think logically there will always be
an end point.
4)

Intelligence :

Researcher

requires critical analysis, but most of

all common sense.

19

5)

Curiosity: Have curiosity and be

passionate about developing deeper

to unearth more insight.
6)

Quick thinker:

Things dont

always go as you plan, so you need to

be able to think fast.
7)

Commitment:Research is a

tough job, the hours may be long, the

deadlines short.
8)

Excellent written and verbal

communication skills:

So that

different audience can clearly

understand the findings.
9)

Sympathetic:

Having a

sympathetic ear when listening to

some respondents (cry etc) is a good
skill, to have.

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10) Systematic:

Check, check and

check again. Spending a proper

amount of time for checking always
pays.
According to Micheal Foster,
1)

Truthful data / facts desire for

accuracy of observation.
2)

No expressions like

approximately, almost or nearly.

3)

Should poccess alert mind.

Nature is constantly changing, be

keen and watchful to notice such
changes, no matter how small or
insignificant they may.
4)

Scientific inquiry desire for

knowledge it requires moral

courage, Steadfast (constant / not

21

changing) endurance (to tolerate the

difficulty, suffer patiently)
- When a research scientist feel
defeated or completely lost, he
needs immense courage and the
sense of conviction (found guilty)
Significance or Importance of Search
1)

Doubt is better than over

confidence for it leads to inquiry,

inquiry leads to invention. Process or
the three stages of research to bring
out economic policies.
1) Investigation of prevailing
economic structure with the
available

facts.

2) Analyse or diagnose the data.

22

3) Prediction for future

developments.
2)

Research encourages scientific

and inductive thinking.

Eg:- Role of Research in :
1) Econ omics:
Researches

done

on

applied

(production and sales of goods in a

profitable manner) economics is
increasing in modern days. Govt. &
business sectors have become more
complex,

they

face

several

operational problems to solve this

problems,

Research

is

carried on.
To

frame

policies.

Govt.

economic

23

Govt.

budget

formulation

depends on the analysis of

needs & desires of the people,
available of revenues needs
research.
Decision making requires
proper research.
Allocation of a countries scarce
resource also needs research.
2) Business Decisions:
In business sectors there are
both planning and operational
problems.
a)

Problems Research:
Investigation

present

of

structure

the
and

development of the market

24

relating

to

purchase,

production, promotion and

sales.
b)

Operational

Research:

Relates to application of
logical,

mathematical

and

analytical techniques to
solve market problems there
by minimize cost and profit
maximization.
c)

Motivational

Research:

Helps to determine people

behavior

or

consumer

response.
All the above three are responsible for
business decision making.

25

3) Social sectors: To gain knowledge

on

unknown

something

aspects

better

and

and

do

more

efficiently.
Social scientist gain their knowledge
for their own sake and for the
development of the society.
1. Formulating the Research problem:a) The formulation of a general topic
into a specific Research problem thus
constitutes the first step in a scientific
inquiry.
Two steps are involved in formulating
the Research problem,
a) Understanding
thoroughly.

the

problem

26

b) Rephrasing

the

same

into

meaningful terms from an analytical

point of view.
1.Identify a broad field or subject area
of interest to you.
2.Dissect the broad area into small
area.
3.Select what is of most interest to you.
4.Raise Research questions.
5.Formulate objectives
6.Assess your objectives
7.Double check
The best way to understand the
problem is to discuss with his
own colleague or guide.

27

Examine all available literatures

to get himself acquainted (get
used to ) with the selected
problem.
Review two types of literature
Conceptual literature :
Concerning concepts & theories
Empirical Literature : Concerning
studies made earlier which are similar to
the one proposed.
Outcome of the review will be the
knowledge so as to pre determine
what data or materials are available
for operational purposes.

28

Next step the Researcher rephrases

the

problem

into

Analytical

or

operational terms.
PUT THE PROBLEM INTO SPECIFIC
TERMS
This step is of greatest importance in
the entire research process.
The problem to be investigated must
be defined unambiguously or clearly.
Prof W.A. Neiswanger States,
The statement of the objective of the
Research problem is of basic
importance because,
(i) It determines the data which are
to be collected

29

(ii) Characteristics of the relevant

data
(iii) Choice of techniques to be used
in these explorations
(iv) Frame a Final report
Step II
Extensive Literature Survey:
A brief summary of the problem
should be written down.
Make extensive literature survey

Sources of survey can be, journals,

bio-graphics, Govt. reports, books,
conference proceedings etc.
Based on the nature of the problem.

30

Earlier study if any which is similar to

the study in hand should be carefully
studied.
A good library will be a great help to
the researcher at this stage.
Stage III:
Developing Hypothesis : (Development
of working Hypothesis)
State in clear terms the working
hypothesis (Basic Idea of the
Research problem)
It is a tentative assumption in order to
test to logical or empirical
consequences.
Provide the focal point for research.

31

Hypothesis should be very specific

and very well limited to the place of
research in hand because it has to be
tested.
Hypothesis guides the researched by
limiting the area of Research and
keep him on the right track.
It sharpens his thinking and focuses
attention on important facets of the
problem.
It indicates the type of data required
for the study.
Type of methods of data analysis
done.
How to develop working Hypothesis?

32

1)

Discuss with collogues / experts,

about the problems, its origin, its

objectives and solutions.
2)

Examination of data/ records if

available.
3)

Review similar studies / similar

problems.
4)

To secure greater insight into the

practical aspects of the problem

conduct personnel investigation or
field interviews.
STEP IV:
Preparing the Research Design:
Research design is the conceptual
structure

within

which

research

is

conduction. It constitutes the blue print

33

for the collection, measurement and

analysis of data.
The function of the Research design
is to provide relevant evidence with
minimal expenditure of effort, time and
money. It provides an outline of what the
researcher is going to do in terms of 1)
Framing the hypothesis, 2) its operational
implications and 3) finally data analysis
The

Research

design

highlights

certain decision,
1) The nature of the study
2) Purpose of the study
3) Location where the study would
be conducted
4) The nature of data required

34

5) From where the data would be

collected
6) The techniques of data collection
that would be used
7) What time period the study would
cover
8) The type of sample design that
would be used
9) The method of data analysis that
would be adapted
10) The manner in which the report
would be prepared
Type of Research Design :
1)

4 types

Sampling Research Design :

Deal with selection of relevant

items

35

2)

Observational Research Design:

Deals with the observations (field

observations) that is to be made.

3)

Statistical

Research

design:

Deals with the information on the

data collected & analysed.
4)

Operational Research Design:

How the above three are carried

out.
Determining sample Design:
All the items considered in any field of
inquiry constitutes a universe or
population.

Study

of

the

entire

population without leaving out a

single item is known as Census
Study

36

This

type

of

census

study

is

practically not possible.

So we select few items from the entire
population for our study purpose.
The items so selected constitutes
what is technically called sample.
The way of selecting such a sample
is known as the Sample Design.
These samples can be either probability
samples or non probability samples.
Probability: Each

item

in

the

population has on equal chance of

being selected for the study.
1) Simple random sampling
2) Systematic random sampling
3) Stratified random sampling

37

4) Cluster / area random sampling.

Non Probability sampling: All the items
do not have an equal chance of being
selected for the study.
The selection depends upon the
convenience

&

judgment

of

the

Researcher.
Mixed sampling:

When more than

one type of sampling technique is used

for a study, it is mixed sampling.
The sample design to be used in a
Research study must be decided by the
researcher considering the nature of the
study.
6. Collecting the Data:

38

Gathering

appropriate

data

which are made use in Research study.

Data can be collected in several ways
either through (1) Experiment (or) (2)
through surveys.
In experimental means, when a
researcher conducts a research,
some quantitative measurements
are observed, based on which, he
examines

the

truth

of

the

underlying hypothesis.
In case of surveys, data are
collected by
1) By observations
2) Through personnel interview
3) Through telephone interviews

39

4) By mailing of questionnaires
5) Through

schedules

enumerators
The Researcher should select one of
these methods of collecting the data
taking in account the
1) Nature of investigation
2) Objective & scope of Inquiry
3) Financial Resources
4) Time frame
5) Desired degree of Accuracy.
6) Execution of the Project:
(Putting a plan)
Important step in Research study.

40

See that the project is executed in

a systematic manner and in time.
Eg) If the survey done in a project
is via Questionnaire the answers
can

be

machine

coded

processed
If interview were conducted, make
sure that the interviewers is well
trained to keep the survey as
much as realistic as possible.
8. Analysis of Data :
After the data are collected the
researcher turns to the task of
analyzing the data the analysis of
data

require

closely

related

operations, like coding, Editing &

Tabulation.

41

The wide data collected should be

condensed into small manageable
groups, for easy analysis.
Coding: The collected data are
transformed into symbols that may
be tabulated or counted.
Editing: Unwanted & irrelevant data
will be removed.
Tabulation: Technical

procedure

where the data are put in the form

of tables.
Research Design:
The

most

important

step

after

defining the Research problem is

preparing the Research Design

42

Research design is the conceptual

structure within which the research is
conducted.
It constitutes the BLUE PRINT for
collection, measurement and analysis
of data.
Research design provides an answer
to the question, what the Researcher
is going to do with regards to framing
hypothesis,

its

operational

implications and how to analyse the

data?
Research Design: - Decisions
Highlights certain decisions,
1) Nature of the study
2) Purpose of the study

43

3) Location where the study would

be conducted
4) Nature of DATA required
5) From where the DATA can be
collected
6) Time period of the study
7) Type of sample design to be used
8) Techniques of data collection
9) Methods of Data Analysis
10) Preparation of Report.
Research Design
May be sub divided into,
1) Sampling design:

Deals with, the

method of selecting items for the study.

44

2) Observational design:

Relates to the

condition under which the observations

are to be made.
3) Statistical Design:

Deals with the

no of items selected or the study and

how the selected data will be analysed.
4) Operation design:

The technique

by which the sampling, observational and

statistical designs can be carried out.
Research Design Features :
1) Helps to identify the type and source of
information needed for the study.
2) Specifies the methods to be adopted in
collecting & analyzing data.

45

3) Specifies the time schedule of the

research and the monetary budget
involved.
Concepts Relating to Research Design
1) Dependent and Independent
variables :
Variables : A magnitude that varies is
known as variable
Continuous variable :

Values that can

be expressed even in decimal poins are

known as continuous variables
Eg: age (4 years 3 months)
Height (5.2 cm)
Weight (45.3 kg)

46

Non continuous Variables: Value that

can be expressed only in integer values
are called Non continuous variables
Eg: No. of students in a class ( 45)
No. of children in a family (3)
Statistically known as discrete variables
Dependent or Endogenous variables :
When the change in one variable
depends on the change in other variable,
it is known as dependent or Endogenous
variable.
Demand

----- Price

(independent)
Independent or Exogenous variable

47

The variable that causes the change

in the dependent variable is known as
independent or exogenous variable.
Demand (Dependent) ------Price ,Income
Here demand is a dependent variable
while price / income is an independent
variable.
Extraneous variable :
The independent variable which is
not directly related to the purpose of the
study but affects the dependent variable
is know as Extraneous variables.
The

influence

caused

by

the

extraneous variable on the dependent

value

is

technically

Experimental Error

known

as

48

A research study or a Research design

should always be framed in such a
manner

that

Extraneous

the

influence

variables

on

of
the

dependent variable is completely

controlled and the influence of the
independent

variable

is

clearly

design

should

evident.
Control:
Good
minimize

Research
the

effect

for

Extraneous

variables.
Confounded Relationship
The relationship between dependent
and independent variable is said to be
confounded by an extraneous variables.
Research Hypothesis:

49

When the formulated hypothesis is

tested by adopting scientific methods, it
is known as Research Hypothesis.
Experimental & Non Experimental
Hypothesis testing:
When the objective of the Research is
to test the hypothesis, it is Research
hypothesis.
Research in which the independent
variable are (handled with skill)
manipulated,

it

is

experimental

hypothesis testing.
When

the

variables

are

not

manipulated, it is non experimental

hypothesis testing.
Experimental & Control Groups:

50

When a group is exposed to usual

conditions

in

an

experimental

hypothesis, research it is control

Groups.
When the group is exposed to special
or certain new conditions, it is
experimental groups.
8. Treatments:
The different conditions to which the
experimental & control groups are subject
to is known as treatments.

9. Experiment:

Fertilizers and crops)

Process of verifying the truth.

Absolute Experiment:
Determine the fact

51

Comparative Experiment:
Determine

the

impact

in

comparison with another fact.

10. Experimental units
Pre-determined block to which
different treatments are applied.
Eg : animal testing
Types of Research Design
There are three different types of
Research design,
1)

Exploratory Research Design:

Is a Formulative Research
design
Main purpose is the discovery of
ideas & insights

52

Should be flexible enough

considering different dimensions
of the problem under study.
2)

Descriptive and Diagnostic

Research Design:
Descriptive Research Design is
concerned with describing the
characteristics of a particular
individual or a group.
Study concerned with narration of
facts or characters related to an
individual, group or institution are
descriptive research studies.
Diagnostic Research design
determines the frequency with
which a variable occurs or its

53

relationship with another

variables.
Both the Research designs should
be planned carefully.
Research design should be Rigid
(No flexibility)
3)

Hypothesis testing Research

Design:
Test the hypothesis of causal
relationship between two or more
variables.
Adopt procedure that not only
reduce bias but enhance
reliability and facilitates deriving
Inferences (results) about the
Research problem.

54

Importance of Research Design:

Facilitates the smooth flow of the
various stages of Research.
Helps yield maximum information
with minimum effort, time and
money.
Helps to plan in advance data
collecting and analysis techniques.
Prepare with utmost care to avoid
errors.
Attain reliability
Characteristics of a Good Research
Design
Posses the qualities of being flexible,
suitable efficient & economical.

55

Should minimize bias and maximize

reliability of data collection &
Analysis.
No experimental error should be
allowed
Should yield maximum information
Research problem should be viewed
from different angles or dimensions.
The choice of Research design depends
on,
Nature of the Research problem
Objectives of the Research problem
Skills / ability of the Researcher
Methods of gathering information
Availability of monetary support

56

Time schedule

HYPOTHESIS
A Research hypothesis is a predictive
statement, which is capable of being
tested using scientific methods, which
involves independent and dependent
valuables.

(eg) the female

students

perform as well as the male students.

This statement is a hypothesis that
can be objectively tested and verified.
It is a proposition that can be put to
test in order to examine its validity.
Characteristics of Hypothesis

57

1)

A hypothesis should be precise

and clear. If not clear, the inferences

will not be reliable.
2)

It must be capable of being put to

test.
3)

It should state the relationship

between

the

variables,

in

case

relational hypothesis.
4)

It should be stated in a simple

language.
5)

It

should

be

consistant

and

derived from all known facts.

6)

Hypothesis must be amenable to

testing within a reasonable period of

time

58

7)

Hypothesis should explain what it

actually to explain. (the solution for

the

Research

problem).

The

explanation should be on empirical

reference.
Concepts Relating to Testing of
Hypothesis
1)

Null Hypothesis & Alternative

Hypothesis (Statistical Analysis)

Null Hypothesis: Denoted by H0. If both

the variables (say male or female) or
(Head or Tail) are equally good, it is Null
Hypothesis.
Alternative Hypothesis:

Denoted by Ha

or H1. If one variable is considered

superior to other or vice versa or if there
is a difference, it is alternative hypothesis.

59

Mean Population (u) or (p)

Total / No. of variables
Null Hypothesis
Ho :

u = 100

Alternative Hypothesis
Ha :

u = 100

Ha :

u > 100

Ha :

u < 100

Aspects to be considered
formulating Null Hypothesis
1)

while

The researcher always tries to

reject

Null

hypothesis

since

Alternative Hypothesis should be

proved.

60

2)
Null hypothesis when it is actually
true, when rejected involves great
risk, the level of significance should
be considered.
3)
Null hypothesis should be very
specific (No approximation)
The level of significance:
Important
testing.

concept

of

hypothesis

It is a certain percentage chosen with

great care, reason and thought
(eg) let us consider the level of
significance to be 5%. It means the
Researcher takes a risk of rejecting
Null hypothesis (Ho) by 5% when Ho
is actually true.
3. Decision Rule
The

researcher

should

make

decision, if to accept or Reject Ho.

61

The decision rule should be decided

on the number of items to be tested
and the basic of which to accept or
reject.
4. Type I and Type II Errors
(i) Researcher may reject Ho, when it is
true Type I Error (which must have
been accepted).
(ii) Researcher may accept Ho, when it is
false Type II Error (which must have
been rejected)
5. One tailed and Two tailed Tests:
(i) One tailed test rejects the Null
hypothesis when the sample mean is
either greater or lower than the
hypothesized value of the population
mean.

62

Two tailed Test: When the sample

mean is both greater and lower than
the

hypothesized

value

of

the

population mean.
Procedure for Hypothesis Testing:
1.Testing hypothesis refers whether the
formulated hypothesis is valid or not
2.Whether to Accept or Reject Null
Hypothesis.
(i) Making a formal statement:
Making a formal statement of the
null

hypothesis

and

alternative

hypothesis.
(ii) Selecting a significant level of testing
A

pre-determined

level

significance should be specified.

of

63

Either 5% or 1% level can be

considered for the purpose.
(iii) Deciding the Distribution to use:
Choice should be made generally
relates to Normal distribution or tdistribution.
(iv) Selection

of

random

sample

&

computing an Appropriate value

Selection of Random sample
Computing suitable value
Drawing a sample for furnishing
Empirical data.
(v) Calculation of Probability:
The diverged results from the
expected results, when Ho is true.

64

(vi) Comparing the probability:

By making a comparison with the
assumed significance level.
If the value is less than or equal to
Ho, in case of one-tailed test, Ho is
rejected. Here type I error is
committed.
If the value is greater than the
mean, Ho is accepted. Were type-I
error is committed.
compile, compare & compute the
data

and

come

out with the

inference.
Null Hypothesis: The null hypothesis is
the proposition or proposal that implies
no effect on the phenomena.

65

Alternative Hypothesis: is

the

one

predictive statement that implies some

effect on the phenomena.
Concepts

Relating

to

Testing

Hypothesis:

SAMPLE SURVEY
Sampling Design:
An art of obtaining a sample from a
given population. The technique or
procedure the researcher adopts for
selecting items for the sample from the
population or universe.
Steps in sampling Design
Type of Universe:

of

66

1)

The first step in sampling design,

is to clearly define the total number of

items / cases to be studied, which is
technically known as UNIVERSE
Finite
Universe
Infinite
Finite Universe: The number of items
is certain.
Eg: No. of students in a class.
No. of workers in a factory.
Infinite Universe: The number of items
is infinite. (No idea about the number of
items)
Eg: Chennai population, No. of stars
2)

Sampling Unit:
A geographical area like a state,
district or village.

67

Family, religious community or a

school.
Individual (Researcher can select
one or two such units).
3)

Source List:

Otherwise known

as Sampling Frame
Consists of names of all items of a
universe.
If not available the researcher has
to prepare a Source list.
It

must

comprehensive,

be

reliable,

correct

and

appropriate.
It should be the representative of
the population / universe.
4)

Size of sample:

68

Refers to the number of items to

be chosen from the universe.
Size of sample must be optimum.
An optimum sample may defined
as the one that satisfies.
The

requirements

of

representatives.
Flexibility
Efficiency
Reliability
Costs

or

budget

should

considered.
Factors Influencing size of sample :
Parameters of Interest:

be

69

The items or parameters are selected

based

on

the

researchers

own

interest.
Budgetary constraint :
Cost consideration exercises a major
influence.
a) Sampling Procedure:
The type or technique used by the
researcher to select the items.

The technique should be selected so

that for a given sample size & budget,
the sampling error must be very small
or negligible.

Sampling Error: may be caused (In

case of Non probability sampling) due to
(1) Interviewer Bias

70

(2) Mistakes
(3) Non response problems
(4) Questionnaire design flaws
(5) Data processing & analysis
errors
In case of probability sampling,
(homogenous items ) the sampling error
is negligible since the sample is more
accurate.
Characteristics of a Good sample :
Should bind a truly representative
sample.
Small sampling error
Should

fit

constraints.

into

the

budgetary

71

Result

should

be

applicable

in

general.
Characteristics of sample techniques :
1) Much cheaper
2) Saves time
3) Much reliable
4) Suitable for carrying out different
surveys
5) Scientific in Nature
Advantages of sampling:
1) Very accurate
2) Economical in Nature
3) Very reliable
4) Suitable for different surveys
5) Less time consumption

72

6) In case of large universe, sampling

method is the only practical method
for collecting the data.
Different types of sample Design:
Classified

under

two

general

categories.
1) Probability sampling
2) Non Probability sampling.
Probability sampling:
Otherwise

known

as

choice

sampling or random sampling.

Every item has an equal chance of
being included in the sample.
Eg: Lotteries (or) subscribers
When done

property,

probability

sampling ensures that the sample has

73

a similar composition and profile as

that of the entire population.
7

different

types

of

probability

sampling,
1) Simple Random sampling
2) Stratified Random sampling
3) Cluster sampling
4) Systematic sampling
5) Area sampling
6) Multi stage sampling
7)

Sampling

with

propotional to size
(1) Sample Random Sampling

probability

74

The sample is drawn so that each

person or item has an equal chance of
being drawn during the selection.
Eg: Lotteries (in a ball box)
(2) Stratified Random sampling: (strata
layers)
- Stratified sampling technique is
generally used when the population
is heterogeneous.
- The entire population is divided
into sub population (sub groups)
(i.e. the sub population being
homogenous).
- Items

are

stratum.

selected

from

each

75

- This method is more reliable &

accurate.
- Eg:

50 students of a school having

1000 students on a total were

selected & interviewed on the
interest in music.
The students were grouped based on
their age, 7 years, 8 years, 9 years, 10
years & 11 years.
From each age group, 5 students were
chosen and totally 50 students were
interviewed.
(3) Cluster sampling:
The entire population is sub divided
into mutually exclusive groups or
clusters

76

Simple Random sampling is applied

and the need clusters are selected for
the study.
If all the elements found in the
selected cluster is taken for the study,
then it is one stage cluster sampling.
If random sampling is applied in
selecting elements found within the
clusters, it is two stage cluster
sampling.
(4) Systematic sampling:
- Selecting every nth element for the
study.
1st,

5th,

10th,

15th,

20th

77

(5) Area sampling: when the clusters are

in the form of some geographical sub
divisions.
(6) Multi stage sampling:
- If the researcher selects elements or
items at different stages, it is multi
stage sampling.
-

Eg: Survey of work efficiency in

nationalized baulks

- Stage level
- District level
- Towns
- Villages
Items are selected at four stages / levels.
(7) Sampling

with

proportional to size:

probability

78

- The probability of inclusion into the

study is directly proportional to the
size of the clusters.
- This technique is used when the no.
of elements present in each cluster
varies.
- Depending on requirement of the
researcher the cluster which is more
appropriate can be selected for the
study.
II. Non Probability sampling:
- Each item does not have an equal
chance of being included in the
sample.
- 3 types of non probability samplings
are,

79

1) Convenience sampling
2) Quota sampling
3) Judgmental sampling
1) Convenience sampling:
- Choosing

items

at

the

convenience of the Researcher.

Eg: Street interviews (sampling of
people who are at easy access)
Drawback: Lack of accuracy
2. Quota sampling
The

researcher

simply

assume

quotas, with certain restrictions imposed

on how they should be selected.
Eg: Caste basic

80

Benefits:

less

expensive,

very

convenient
3. Judgment sampling : (otherwise
known as purposive sampling)
Researcher employs his own Expert
judgment about who to include in the
sample frame.
Disadvantages of sampling:
1)

Inadequacy of samples

2)

Chances of bias

3)

Problems of accuracy

4)

Difficulty of getting the

representative sample.
5)

Untrained Manpower.

6)

Absence of Informants

81

7)

Chances of committing errors.

Sampling Error: Sampling error is the

deviation of the selected sample from the
true characteristics, traits, behavior,
qualities or figures of the entire
population.
Data Collection
Data Collection is the systematic
gathering of information (data) for a
particular purpose from various sources.
(Various sources can be questionnaires,
interviews, observations existing records
and electronic devices).
Two Important sources of Information
are,
(i) Primary Data
(ii) Secondary Data
Primary Data:

82

Refers to the data collected for the

first time (Original data)
Example: Proceedings from conferences
meetings, Students records.
Secondary Data:
Refers to the data that have already
been collected and used earlier by
somebody or some agency.
Example: Online database, Historical
books etc.
Example:
Taking
census
(total
population) of Government of India
Primary Data.
When research is done by some other
scientist on the basis of this data, it is
secondary data.
Selecting A particular source of Data
depends on,
(1)Purpose & Scope of the study.
(2)

Availability of time.

83

(3)

Availability of Resources.

(4)

The degree of Accuracy

desired.
(5)Statistical tools to be used.
(6)

Sources of Information (data).

1. Purpose & Scope of Data Collection:

Should be clearly stated at the very
beginning of the study.
A statement indicating the Research
problem and the type of information
needed for the study in order to solve
the Research Problem, is needed.
Its purpose is to establish a factual
information for making decisions.
Scope of the enquiry means the
coverage with regard to the type of

84

information, the subject matter and

geographical area.

(b) Availability of Time:The investigation should be done

within a reasonable period of time.
Taking

which

the

information

collected may become outdated.

Example: Demand of a new product
launched is studied, if the result
comes out after 2 years, by the time
the producer may attain great lose.
So, make sure the investigation is
carried out within a reasonable period
of time.

(c) Availability of Resources:

85

Investigation or data collection greatly

depends, on resources available like,
1.No. of skilled personnel
2.The Financial Position.
If the no.of skilled personnel to carry
our the enquiry is sufficient and the
availability of funds is not a problem,
the datas can be collected from a big
area covering a good number of
samples.
(d) The desired/expected Degree of
Accuracy:Deciding the degree of accuracy is a
must for the investigator.
Because Absolute Accuracy is not
possible in statistical works.

86

Statistics

Since

estimates,

is

tools

based
used

on
for

measurements in not always perfect &

there may be unintentional bias on
the

part

of

the

investigator,

enumerator or informant.
Generally the degree of accuracy
depends upon the objections of the
enquiry.
Example: During purchase of Gold, even
1/10th gram in its weight is significant.
But it is not the same in case of
purchasing rice or wheat.

(e) Statistical Tools to be used:

87

Well defined or identifiable object or

group

of

objects

that

can

be

measured or counted in a statistical

investigation is called statistical Unit.
In the absence of a clear and precise
Statistical Unit Serious errors may
be committed by collecting irrelevant
data. This will ultimately lead to
fallacious (Wrong) conclusions.
(f) Sources of Information:
The researcher has to decide about
the

source

from

which

the

information can be obtained or

collected.
1. First hand data.

88

2.

The data from other published

sources.

(Publications,

Journal,

Magazines etc.)
(g) Method of Data Collection:1. Primary Data.
2. Secondary Data.
Primary Data:First hand data.

Either

Census

or

Sample

technique is to be used.
Census:

Total no.of items have to be

investigated.
Sample: Selected representatives from
the

total

investigated.

population

have

to

be

89

CENSUS

SAMPLE

Total No. of items, Selected

100%
attained,
consuming,
Expensive
Labour.

Accuracy Representations,
Time 100%

Accuracy

cannot be attained,
More Less time taken, Less
expensive,

Less

Laborious.
Should be very cautious and careful
while choosing a particular method.
Methods of Collecting Primary Data:
May be obtained by applying any of
the following methods,
1. Direct Personal Interviews.
2. Indirect Oral Interviews.

90

3. Information from Correspondents.

4. Mailed questionnaire methods,
5. Schedule sent through Enumerators.
1. Direct Personal Interviews:
A face to face contact is made with
the informants.
Interviewer

asks

them

questions

regarding the study and tries to get

the desired information.
The information thus collected is first
hand and original.
Merits:
(i) Response is encouraging when
personally contacted.
(ii) Information are more accurate (if
not found accurate, he can be
reexamined

or

Cross-examined,

91

there

by

try

to

obtain

the

information).
(iii) Provides

hope

for

getting

supplementary information, which

may be of greater use latter.
(iv) A

delicate

situation

(Some

Personnel Questions) can usually

be handled more effectively by a
personnel

interview

than

other

survey techniques.
(v) The interviewer can adjust the
language according to the status
and educational level of the person
interviewed,

thereby

inconvenience
misinterpretation.
Demerits:

can

avoid
and

92

(i) Expensive when the no. of

informants is large.
(ii) Greater chance of personnel bias
and prejudice. (taking a decision
before finding the full facts).
(iii) Interviewer should be thoroughly
trained & experienced. (untrained
personal will spoil the work)
(iv) Time consuming (Interviewers can
be

contacted

only

at

the

convenience of the informants)

Conclusion:
Direct personal Interviews can be
used in Intensive Field Survey rather
than Extensive Field Survey.
The

present

advancement

day
in

of

extreme

communication

system, a good number of survey, can

93

be conducted by News papers &

television

channels

by

replying

through e.mails & SMS.

They are less expensive & extremely
quick.
Defects No Phone or Television,
delicate & sensitive Questions cannot
be asked, value answers.
2. Indirect Oral Interviews:
The investigator contact a third party
called Witnesses who is capable of
supplying necessary information.
Generally

adopted

when

the

information to be obtained is complex

or the informer is not willing to reveal
the answers.
Example: When a drug addicted person is
interviewed, he will not be willing to

94

response directly, so the information are

gathered via agents (may be relatives).
The accuracy of this method depends
on,
(i) The

proven

integrity

of

the

Agency/Person.
(ii) Ability of the interviewer to act the
right information from the witness.
(iii) Bribery or other reasons may twist
the witness to give false information
there

by

bringing

wrong

conclusion.
Conclusion:
(i) Let more care should be taken in the
selection of Witness because it is on
their views, the final conclusion is
reached.

95

3. Information From Correspondents:

The investigator appoints local agents
or correspondents in different places
to collect information under this
method.
These correspondents collect the
information and transfer or transmit
the information to the central office
where the data are processed.
Example: News paper Agencies.
Generally these Agencies are paid
staff, sometimes honorary.
Advantages:
1.Cheap
2.

Can

be

used

to

get

regular

information at regular intervals (daily,

weekly or monthly).

96

Disadvantages:
(i) Lacks Accuracy.

4. Mailed Questionnaire Method:

A list of questions pertaining to the
survey is known as Questionnaire. It
is prepared and sent to various
informants by post.
The questionnaire contains questions
and provides space for answers.
A request is made to the informants
through a covering letter to fill up the
questionnaire and sent it back within
a specified time.
The questionnaire studied can be
classified as,

97

1)

The

degree

questionnaire

to

is

which

the

formalized

or

structure.
2)

The disguise/lack of disguise of

the questionnaire.
3)

The

communication

method

used.
4)

When no formal questionnaire is

used, interviewers adopt other tactics

like

showing

pictures

on

which

respondents comments.
When a research follows a prescribed
sequence

of

Questions

it

is

structured study.
When no prescribed sequence of
Question exists, the study is NonStructured.

98

When

the

questionnaire

is

constructed in such a way that the

Objective

is

clear

(the

questionnaire) it is known as Nondisguised.

When the objective is not clear, the
questionnaire is a Disguised one.
On this basis, 4 types of studies can
be distinguished,
(i) Non-disguised Structured.
(ii) Non-disguised Non-structured.
(iii) Disguised Structured.
(iv) Disguised Non-Structured.
Merits: Questionnaire Methods,
(1)

Easily

adopted

in

large

populations and when the informants

are

wide

spread

geographical area.

over

large

99

(2)
(3)

Relatively cheap & timely.

Information pertaining to personnel

life or family or confidential matters
will be revealed in written rather than
personal interviews or telephones.

Demerits:
(1)

Applicable only among literate

people.
(2)

Uncertainty of the Respondents

lacks co-operation.
(3)

Lacks

Accuracy

because

the

information may not be correct.

Guideline to make this method more
Effective:
(i) Prepaid postage stamp should be
affixed.
(ii) Sample should be large.

100

(iii) Questionnaire

should

be

interesting.
(iv) Legal Compulsion should be made
to provide in formations.
5.

Schedules

sent

through

Schedules

through

Enumerators:Sending

enumerators or interviewers.
The

enumerators

informants,

gets

contacts
replied

to

the
the

questions contained in the schedule

and fill them in their own handwriting.
Here the questions are asked face to
face and the response is papered.
Merits:
(1)

Applicable among illiterates.

101

(2)

Very

little

scope

for

Non-

response, as the enumerators go

personally.
(3)

Information are more Reliable &

Accurate.
Demerits:
(1)

Expensive Since enumerators

are paid personals.

(2)

Success

depends

on

the

efficiency of the enumerators.

(3)

Interviewer requires training and

experience.
(4)

Variations in answers must be

removed to avoid variations.

Secondary Data:
Are those data which have already
been collected and analyzed by some

102

earlier agency for its own use and later

the same data

is used by a different

agency.
Sources of Secondary Data:
(1)

Published Sources.

(2)

Unpublished Sources.

1. Published Sources:
The Government, Inter National and
local agencies publish statistical data.
Chief Among them,
(i) Inter National Publications:Inter National Institutions & bodies
like I.M.J.(International Monetary Fund),
I.B.R.D.

(International

Reconstruction

and

Bank

of

Development),

I.C.A.F.E. (International Conference on

103

Agriculture & Food Engineering) and

U.N.O.

United

Nations

Organization

publish regular & occasional reports on

Economics & Statistical matters.
(ii) Official Publications of Central &
State Governments:
Several departments of the Central
and State Governments publish reports
on different subjects.
Example:- Publications are,
(a)

Reserve Bank of India Bulletin.

(b)

Census of India.

(c)

Statistical Abstract of the states.

(d)

Agricultural Statistics of India.

(e)

Indian Trade Journal.

(iii) Semi Official Publications:

(a)

Indian Statistical Institute (I.S.I)

104

(b)

Indian Council of Agricultural

Research (I.C.A.R.)
(c)

Indian

Agricultural

Statistics

Research Institute (I.A.S.R.I.)

Publish the findings of their research
programs.
(iv)

Publications

of

various

commercial and financial institutions.

(v) Reports of various committees &
commissions

appointed

by

the

Government.
(a)

Raj

Committees

Report

on

Agricultural Taxation.
(b) Wanchoo Committees Report on
Taxation & Black Money.

105

(vi) Journals & News Papers:Powerful source of secondary data.

Current & important matter can be
obtained.
From Journals & News papers like
Economic Times, Commerce Capital,
Indian Finance, etc.,
Unpublished Sources:
Records maintained by Government &
Private Offices.
Theses of Research Scholars from
universities & institutions.
Precautions in the use of secondary
Data:
Proper scrutiny is made before they
are used by investigator.

106

Be

Extra-Cautious

while

using

secondary data.
Should not be accepted as such
because the secondary data may
process,
(Bias, Inadequate Size, Substitution,
errors of definition or arithmetical
errors)
Factors to be Considered before using
the secondary Data:
(i) Suitability of Data:
make sure that the data available is
suitable for the purpose of enquiry.
(ii) Adequacy of Data:
Make sure that the data are sufficient
or adequate for the present analysis.
(iii) Reliability of Data:

107

The reliability of data is must, without

which there is no meaning in the
research.
The reliability of data can be tested by
finding the agency that has collected
the data, if the agency has used
proper methods for collection the
data.
EDITING:
Once data have been obtained from
primary or secondary sources the next
step in a statistical investigation is to edit
the data. (to Scrutinize).
Objective, editing is to detect possible
errors and irregulations.
Editing
attention.

needs

great

care

and

108

Editing Secondary data is simple but

the

data

(Primary

collected
Data)

from

need

survey

excessive

editing.
Editing Primary Data,
(i) The data should be complete in
every respect.
(ii) The data should be accurate.
(iii) The data should be consistant.
(iv) The data should be homogenous
1. Editing For Completeness:
The editor should see that each
schedule

or

questionnaire

is

complete in all respects.

Answers
furnished.

to

every

questions

is

109

If not answered, try to meet them in

person to get the answers.
If not just mark No Answer.
2. Editing For Accuracy:
The reliability of conclusions depends
on the correctness of in formations.
If the information is wrong, the
conclusion can never be valid.
Editor

should

formations

see

are

that

accurate

the

in

in

all

respects.
Arithmetic errors can be detected
easily & corrected.
If the error is due to fault information
supplied, it may be difficult to verify.
3. Editing For Consistency:

110

Editor should see that the answer to

questions are not contradictory in
nature.
Example: Are you a student? No which
class do you study? X
The answers are contradictory
and such answers should be classified.
4. Editing For Homogeneity:
Understand the questions in the same
sense.
Check uniform interpretation and
make sure the information supplied
by

the

various

informants

are

homogenous & uniform.

Example:

Income

Weekly, Daily)

(Yearly,

Monthly,

111

Choice Between Primary & Secondary

Data:
A proper choice between the type of
data (Primary or Secondary) needed for a
particular statistical investigations is to be
made

by

considering

the

nature,

objective, scope of the study, time frame

& finances and the degree of precision
aimed at, and the status of the Agency.
Now, Secondary data are generally
used from fairly reliable published
data

by

Government,

Private

organizations and research agencies,

periodicals magazines etc.,
In fact, primary data are collected
only if there do not exist any
secondary data.

112

In some cases both Primary &

Secondary data may be used.

QUESTIONNAIRE

Questionnaire can be defined as a

group of questions designed to collect
information from a specific subject.
(or)
List of questions sent to a number of
persons for getting answers and which
obtains standardized results that can be
tabulated and treated statistically.
(or)
Media of communication between the
investigator and the respondent.

113

Generally used in social research

when the population is varied, large,
diverse & Scattered.
Should be designed with utmost care
& caution so that all the needed
information are collected without any
difficulty.
Drafting

Good

questionnaire

Requires Care, Skill, Wisdom,

efficiency and experience.
Points to Remember: While Drafting A
Questionnaire
(1) Size of the Questionnaire:
(a) No. of questions should be as small as
possible depending on the nature,
objectives & scope of the study.

114

(b) Large no.of questions may irritate the

informants and may be difficult to Edit or
Scrutinize by the investigator.
(c) Avoid irrelevant and unimportant
questions.
(d) Average No. of questions should be 15
to 25 (at the most).
(e) If it is more than 25, divide it into
various sections.
2. The Questions should be Clear:
Should

be

Easy,

Brief,

Unambiguous(Clear in meaning), Non

offending,

courteous

in

tone,

corroborative (Supportive) in nature

& to the point.
3. The Questions should be arranged in
a Logical Sequence:

115

When arranged Logically, the answers

can be easily tabulated or coded
and does not leave any chance of
omissions.
Example:

To find if a person owns a

television.
4. Questions should be simple to
understand:
Vague & Double meaning words
should be avoided.
Example:

Price/Cost/Rate/

Capital

Income/Salary.
5.

Questions

should

be

Comprehensive(Includes Everything)
and Easily Answerable:

116

Questions should be comprehensive

(i.e.) it should include all the needed
in formations.
Easy

to

be

answered.

Avoid

mathematical calculations like Ratios,

Percentages etc.,
6. Questions of Personal And Sensitive
Nature Should Not Be Asked:
Avoid personal questions which the
respondent may feel shy or irritated to
answer.
Example: Do do drink ?
If such questions are unavoidable, a
highest amount of politeness should
be used.
7. Types of Questionnaire:
(a) Shut Questions:

117

Where

possible

answers

are

suggested by the frames & the

respondents are requested to the tick
one of them.
Two types of shut Questions.
(i) Simple Alternative Questions:
(Otherwise known as Dichotomous
questions) Choose from two clear cut
alternatives Yes or No/ Right or Wrong.
(ii) Multiple Choice Questions:
When it is difficult to define a clear
cut

alternative,

additional

Questions

between Yes & No is inserted,

Example: To find if a person smokes? Do
you smoke?
(a) Yes, Regularly (

118

(b) No, Never

(c) Occasionally

(d) Seldom (rarely) (

Easy & Convenient to answer.

Save Time.
Easy to tabulate.
8.

Leading

Questions

should

be

Avoided:
Long Questions leading to several
answers should be avoided. It should
be framed into short questions.
Example: Why do you use a particular
type of car, say Maruti Car, Avoid this
continuous questions.
Instead ask,
Which car do you use ?

119

Why do you prefer it ?

9. Cross Checks:
Should

be

designed

to

provide

internal checks on the accuracy of the

in

formations

given

by

the

respondents.
10. Pre-Testing the Questionnaire:
Try out the Questionnaire on a small
scale before using in a large scale.
The drawbacks, short comings and
problems faced in the small scale
informants

can

be

improved

or

modified when used in large scale.

11. A Covering Letter:
A Covering Letter should be enclosed
for the purpose regarding definitions,
concepts & purpose.

120

Attach a self addressed envelope in

case of mailed questionnaire.
Mentions about Awards or incentives
for quick reply.
Promise to send a survey copy of the
report.
--------------

SAMPLING
A carefully designed sample may
actually be better than a poorly planned
and executed census.
Merits:
1. It saves time:

121

Saves time because fewer items are

collected and processed.
2. It Reduces Cost:
Since only few items are studied,
there is reduction in cost & reduction in
man power.
3. More Reliable Results can be
Obtained:
Sampling is more Reliable because
(i) fewer chance of sampling error.
(ii) Experience, Trained & Technical
people can be employed to process &
analyze the data.
4.

It

provides

formations:-

more

detailed

in

122

More detailed information can be

obtained by sample survey.
5. Only Sampling Method to depend
upon:
When the population is large and
finite, the only method applicable is
sampling.
6. Administration Convenience:
The organization and administration
is easy in sample survey.

7. More Scientific:
Results can be tested since more
scientific.
Shortcomings (or) Demerits
1. Illusory (False) Conclusion:

123

If sampling is not carefully planned &

executed, the conclusions may be false.
2. Sample Not Representative:
If the sample taken from the
population is not the right representative,
the result may be false or misleading.

3. Lack of Experts:
If there is a lack of experts to plan,
execute and analyze the samples, the
result would be unsatisfactory.
4. Personal Bias:
There may be personal bias &
prejudice in choosing the sampling
techniques.

124

5. Size of Sample:
If the size of the sample is not
appropriate, it leads to untrue
conclusions.
Essentials of Sampling:
1. It must be the right representative:
The Sample selected should process
the similar characteristics of the original
universe.

2. Homogeneity:
Selected samples should be
homogenous with the samples & the
universe.
3. Adequate Samples:

125

A good number of items should be

included for the study.
4. Optimization:
A proper size of sample should be
maintained to have optimized results in
terms of cost & efficiency.
Statistical Laws:
Induction:
The logical process of drawing a
general conclusion from the study of
representative items is called Induction.
Sampling
fundamental

is

based

principles

on
of

two

Statistics

theory
(i) Law of Statistical Regularity

126

(ii) The Law of Inertia of Large

Numbers.
The Law of Statistical:
Regularity: (Mathematical Theory of
Probability), States,
A moderately large number of items
chosen at random from a very large group
are

almost

sure

to

have

the

characteristics of the large group.

Proof:
1. Average income of 1,000 people is to be
found out,
2. We take a sample of 100 people & find
the average.
3. Another person takes 100 people & find
the average.

127

The Average income found by both

the persons will have least difference.
If the average income of the same
1000 people is found out by census, the
result will be more or less the same.
2. Law of Inertia of Large Numbers:
It States, Other Using being equal, as
the sample size increases, the results
tend to be more accurate & reliable.
Sampling Error:
The deviations or difference between
the actual population and the sample
representative.
Reasons For Sampling Error:
1. Faulty Selection of Sample
2. Substitution

128

3. Faulty Demarcation (Demographic

limit) of sampling Unit:
In case of Area sampling the sampling
units at the borders should be decided if
to take it or reject it.
4. Faulty estimation techniques:
Wrong selection of sampling techniques.

Types of Sampling Errors:

(i) Bias Error:
Caused due to bias or prejudice on
the part of the informant.

(ii) Unbias Error:

129

Error caused due to the Normal

Course of investigation.
Reducing Sampling Error:
Sampling Error can be reduced by
increasing the size of the sample.
--------

EXPERIMENTS
Experiment

is

the

process

of

examining the truth of a statistical

Hypothesis related to some research
problem.
Experiments are of two types,
1. Absolute Experiment.
2. Comparative Experiment.

130

Absolute Experiment:
When

researcher

wants

to

determine the impact of a fertilizer on the

yield of a crop, it is a case of Absolute
Experiment.
Comparative Experiment:
When

researcher

wants

to

determine the impact of one fertilizer as

compared to the impact of some other
fertilizer, it will be called as Comparative
Experiment.
Research Design are of three types,
1. Research design in case of descriptive
& diagnostic studies.
2. Research design in case of exploratory
Research studies.

131

3. Research design in case of Hypothesis

Testing Research Studies.
Research Design In case of Hypothesis
Testing Research Studies:
Hypothesis testing research studies
are generally known as Experimental
studies.
The

researcher

test

the

casual

relationship between the variables.

Professor Fisher is considered as the
pioneer of this type of studies.
(Experimental Studies)
He performed this study when he was
working at a Agricultural Research
Station in London.
His found out that, by dividing plots
into different blocks and then by

132

conducting experiments in each of

these blocks, whatever in formations
is collected and inference drawn from
them can be more reliable Professor
Fisher

laid

three

principles

of

Experimental Designs,
1. The Principal of Replication
2. The Principal of Randomization.
3. The Principal of Local Control.
The Principal of Replication :
The Experiment should be repeated
more than once.
The treatment is applied to many
experimental units.
The information collected and the
inference

drawn

from

these

experimental units will be more

reliable and statistically accruable.

133

Aim: To examine the effect of two

varieties of paddy.
Example: A paddy field is divided into 2
parts. Grow one variety in one part and
the other variety in the other. Then we
compare the yield of the two parts.
Draw conclusion on that basis.

No Principle of Replication is

Part I

rrrrr
rrrrr
rr

rrrrr
rrrrr
rr

rrrrr
r

rrrrr
r

Field
Part I
Treatment

Compare the yield of the two parts.

One variety Another

134

of Paddy

Paddy.

Variety of

When Principle of Replication is used:

First divide the field into several
parts.
Grow one variety in half of the parts
and the other variety in the remaining
parts.
Collect the information of the two
varieties and draw the conclusion by
comparing both.
The Results so obtained will be more
reliable and accurate compared to the
results drawn without using the principle
of Replication.
The

Experiment

several times.

can

be

repeated

135

Field
rr rr R r r
rr rr R r r

Treated

rr rr R r r
rr rr R r r
drawn.

Conclusion

rr rr R r r
Parts

2. The Principle of Randomization:

Principle of Randomization
Provides us a protection against the
effects of Extraneous Variables.
The variations or effects caused by
these extraneous variables can be
combined under the heading
Chance.

136

Example:

When the researcher grows

one variety of paddy in the first half of the

field and the other variety in the next half
of the field, there may be a possibility or
chance that the soil fertility of the first
half of the field may be different in
comparison to the next half.
In this case, he may go on to cultivate
the two varieties of paddy in different
parts of the field on the basis of some
random sampling technique.
(i.e.) He may apply Randomization
principle and protect himself from the
effects of the Extraneous Factors.
By using Randomization Principle a
better estimate can be drawn.

137

rr rr r r r
rr rr r r r
rr rr r r r
rr rr r r r
When

rr rr r r r

treated

Conclusion drawn is more

accurate.
(Can protect Effects of
Extraneous Variables)

138

3. The Principle of Local Control:

The extraneous variable which is a
known source of variability can be
made

to

vary

extensively

or

deliberately over a wide range.

Now the variability it causes can be
measured and eliminated.
In short, through the principle of
Local Control, we can eliminate the
variability due to extraneous factors
from the experimental error.
The extraneous variable is brought to
a control.

139

Kinds of Experimental Design:

Experimental Design refers to the
framework of the structure of an
experiment.
Classified into 2 Broad Categories,
1.Informal Experimental designs.
2.Formal Experimental designs,
Informal Experimental Designs:
Designed based only on the
difference between the magnitudes or
performance.
Three Types,

140

1.Before and after without

control design.
2.After Only with Control
design.
3.Before and after with control
design.
Before and after without control
design:
Consider a test group,
Step.1: The dependent variable is
measured before introduction of the
treatment.
Step.2: The treatment is introduced.
Step.3: The dependent variable is
measured after the treatment has been
introduced.
Step.4: Inference:

141

The effect of the Treatment : The level o

the phenomenon after the treatment.
The level of the phenomenon before
the treatment.
Test Area
Level of Phenomenon
Treatment Level of Phenomenon
Introduced
Before Treatment (X)
After Treatment (Y)
Effect of the Treatment = (Y) (X)
Demerit:

142

With the passage of time, several

extraneous variable may be there in the
treatment effect.
(2) After only with control Design:

Step.1: Two Areas are selected, the

control Area & the test area.

143

Step.2: The treatment is introduced in

the test area alone.
Step.3: The dependent variable in both
the areas are measured, at the same time.
Step.4: Treatment Effect is calculated by
subtracting the value of the dependent
variable in the control area from its value
in the test area.
Treatment: 1
Effect = Value of dependent variable in
the
control Area Value of Dependent
Variable in the test area.

144

Test Area
Treatment Introduced
Level of Phenomenon (Y)
Control Area
Level of Phenomenon (Z)

No

Treatment
(3) Before And After with Control
Design:
Step.1: In this design, two areas are
selected and the dependent variables in
both the areas are measured for an
identical time period before treatment.
Step.2: Treatment is introduced only in
the test area.
Step 3 : The dependent valuable is
measured on both the areas (control
area & test area) for an identical time
period.

145

Setp4 : The effect of the treatment is

determined by subtracting the change in
the dependent valuable in the control
area with the charge in the dependent
valuable of the test area.

146

Treatment :Effect = ((Y) (X)) ((Z)-(A))

Merits: Avoids Extraneous variables resulting
from passage of time and non
comparability of control and test areas.
II Formal Experimental Design:
Offer relatively more control and use
specific statistical procedures for analysis
types,
1) Complete Randomized design
(Generally called C.R. Design)
2) Randomized Block Design (R.B.
Design)
3) Latin Square Design (L.S. Design)
4) Factorial Designs .

147

(1) Completely Randomized Design :Involves two principals, the principle of

replication and the principle of
Randomized of the experimental designs.
The items are randomly assigned do
experimental treatments.
This design is simpler and easier.
Example: It the research has 2 items of 20
parts and if he wishes to test to under
treatment B, this completely randomized
design gives every possible group of 10
items selected from a set of 20, an equal
chance of being assigned to treatment A
& treatment B.
One way analysis of variance (one way
ANOVA) is used to analyze such a design.

148

2. Randomizes Block Design:The subjects or items are first divided into

groups, known as Blocks
See that, the items in each group or black
is homogenous.
Randomly select items from each given
block and assign treatment.
Extraneous variables can be fixed and
can be measured.
The main feature of this study is, each
treatment appears the same no of times
in each block.

149

This design is analyzed two way analyses

of variance (two way ANOVA) technique.
3. Latin Square Design:Used in Agricultural Research.
L.S Design is used when two or more
extraneous variables is found.
Example: Effect of fertilizer on the field of
wheat is do be determined.
Here along with the effect of fertilizer,
the fertility of the soil must be
considered.
If the facility of the soil is not
considered along with the fertilizer the
result obtained may be dependable.

150

Similarly the impact of the various

seeds used many also vary the yield.

To over come this difficulty L.S design

is used.
Each fertilizer (X1, X2, X3, X4, X5) will
appear 5 items but will be used only
once in each row and in each coloumn.
Example: No treatment occurs more
than once.
I

II

III IV

X1 A B C D E
X2 B C D E A
X3 C D E A B
X4 D E A B C
X5 E A B C D
Conclusion :

151

The field is divided into several blocks (I,

II, III, IV & V) and there are variety of
fertilizer (X1, X2, X3, X4, X5).
But each fertilizer is used in each block
only once.

a two way ANOVA technique.

4. Factorial Design :
Are used in experiments where the effect
of the depended variable, when affected
by more than one variable is to be
determined.

152

Used in social & economic studies where

usually large no of factors affect a
particular problem.
Factorial design are of two types:
I . Simple Factorial design
II. Complex Factorial designs.
Simple Factorial Design :
When the effect of the dependent
variable is affect by only two factors, it is
simple factorial designs.
Otherwise known as TWO factors
Factorial Design.
Complex Factorial Design :

153

This design is used when more than two

factors at a time affects the dependent
variable.
Or the design considers three or more
independent variable.
The greater the no of independent
variable, the higher the order of
interaction, analysis possible.
Advantage :
Accuracy

Can determine the effects of more

variable in a single experiment.

154

OBSERVATION
Observation is defined as a planned
method of watching that involves constraints
(steps) to improve accuracy.
Characteristics of Observation :
i. Observation are direct
ii. takes place in natural situations
iii. Less Structured.
iv. Makes only quantitative study.

155

Applicable in :
1. Life styles
2. Encounters / Settlement.
3. Relationships
4. Groups / Organization.
Acc. to Block & Camion :
1. Observed in natural surroundings
2. Understands events affecting social
relations.
3. Identifies regulatives in social life.
4. Hypothesis free enquiry.

156

5. Avoids manipulations of independent

variable.
6. Recording is not selective.
Differentiate Experimental Technique &
Observation Technique :
Experimental
Technique

Observation
Technique

No such controls

Few Controls.

Not Always

Observation is natural
Conducted in smaller conducted in large
unit. Fewer subjects
units
are watched for long
No so. Study is
period .Study is
towards sharpening
directed towards
the judgment.
sensitizing the
No so.
observer / events.
Behavior observed is

157

more different.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

Probability: IS a measure of the expectation

that an certain event will occur.
Probability value ranges from 0-1.

158

The Main terms pertaining to probability

theory:1.Random Experiment: An experiment
which can be repeated under the same
conditions and the outcome cannot be prod
iced is known as Random Experiment.
Example:- When a coin is tossed, we cannot
predict whether head or tail is going to occur.
2.Sample Space:- A set of possible outcomes
of a random experiment is know as sample
space.

159

Example: When a coin is tossed twice the

possible outcomes are HH, HT, TH & TT, IT is
represented,
S = (HH, HT, TH, TT)
3.An Event: Any possible outcome of an
experiment is know as an event.
Example: When a coin is tossed twice, HH is
an event.
An event can be classified as,
a. Simple Event: Which has only one sample
point
Example: HH, TT.

160

b. Compound Event: Which has more than

one sample point.
Example : TH.
d. Complimentary Event : A and A are
complementary events, if A consists of all the
sample point which is not included in A than
the sum of the probability of the sample
space is equal to 1.Hence P(A)-P(A) P(A)
+P(A) = 1 P(A) = 1 P(A).
Example: When a dice is thrown, the
probability of odd Numbers turn up are
complimentary to even number turn up.
A = 1,3,5

161

A1 = 2,4,6
e. Mutually Exclusive Event: A and B two
mutually exclusive event, if A prevents the
occurrence of B.
Example: When a coin is tossed once the
occurrence of Head prevents the occurrence
of Tail.
If A and B are mutually exclusive events than
the probability of occurrence of A or B is the
sum of their individuals probability.
P(AUB) = P(A) + P(B).
If A and B is joint sets, than the addition
theorem of probability can be stated as.

162

P(AUB) = P(A) + P(B) P(AB)

f. Independent Event: A and B are in
dependant event, if the occurrence of A does
not influence the occurrence of B these two
events are called independents events.
Example: When a coin is tossed twice the
occurrence of head in the first toss dose not
influence the toss in the second coin.
Product of A and B is the product of their
individuals probability P(AB) = P(A) X P(B).
Probability Distribution: IF X is total no of
success discrete Random variables which
takes the value of X1,X2, X3........... Xn,

163

P1,P2,Pn then follows the probability

distribution.
Properties of probability Distribution / 2
Main properties:
1.P(X1) is greater than or equal Zero and
less than or equal / one (Expressed in
fractions).
2. The sum of all be probability distribution
will be equal to one.
Example: When a coin is tossed Twice the
probability distribution is, X( probability of
obtaining hed) = 0,1,2 P(X1) = , , = .

164

Expectation of Probability: Let X be the

discrete Random Variable, which takes the
value X1, X2, X3..........Xn
Respective probability is P1, P2, P3 ............
Pn
Expectation of Probability distribution: P1X1
+ P2X2............PnXn.
Probability Distribution = (0 x 1/4) + (1 x 1/2)
+ (2 x ) = 1.
Binomial Distribution: A Binomial experiment
is a statistical experiment. It has the following
properties,

165

(i) The experiment consists of n repeated

trials.
(ii) Each trail can result in just two possible
outcomes. We call one of this outcomes
as Success and the other Failure .
(iii) The probability of success is denoted
by P, in every trail and the probability
of failure is denoted by l p or q.
(iv) The trials are independent.
(v) The outcome on one trail dose not
affect the outcome of other trials.
Notations: X The number of successes
that result from the Binomial Experiment.

166

n - The no of trail in the binomial

experiment.
P The probability of success on
an individual trial.
C - No of coefficient .
Binomial Formula : Suppose a Binomial
experiment consists of n ------- and result in
X successes & if the probability of success
on an individuals trial is P, then the Binomial
probability is B (x, n, p) = nCx X Px X (1 P)
4

Coefficient of Binomial Distribution: The

binomial coefficients are the coefficients in
the expansion of two terms (x + 1)n.

167

The coefficient of xr in (x+1)n is denoted by

nCr or (n/r).
Example: The coefficient of (x+1)2 = (x+1)
(x+1)
= 1x2 + x +x+1
= 1x2 + 2x +1
The Confidents are = 1+2+1
The coefficient of (x+1)3

= (x+1) (x+1)

(x+1)
= (x2+2x+1) (x+1)
= x3 + x2 +2x2 +2x
+x+1

168

= x3 + 3x2 +3x +1
The Coefficient is

= 1. 3 .3 1

The Pascal triangle lists out all the

Binomial Coefficient.
1
1 1
1 2 1
(x+1)2
1 3 3

(x+1)3
1 4

4 1

(x+1)4
1 5 10 10 5 1
(x+1) 5

169

1 6 15 20 15 6 1
(x+1)6
1 7 21 35 35 21 7
1 (x+1)7
Example: A coin is tossed Four Times what is
the probability of obtaining two or more
heads? .
Step I : When a coin is tossed One time, the
probability of Head of tail is equal,
(ie) P = q =1/2.
Step II : The various possibilities of Head
and tail events will be,
(p+q)4 = 1p4 + 4p3q +6p3q + 6p2q2 + 4pq3
+1q4
------------------------------------------------------------

170

1p4 = (1/2) where P = 1/2) (q = 1/2.)

= x x x 1/2
= 1/16
4p3q = 4x(1/2)3 x = 4 x x x x
6p2q2 = 6 x(1/2 x x x1/2 = 3/8
Therefore, the probability of obtaining 2 or
more heads is,
3/8 + + 1/16 = 11/16
2. POSSION DISTRIBUTION:
When P is very small (Success rate is
extremely small) and n is very large (total
no of trail items of events is large) then
POISSON distribution is used.

171

P O (Successes approach zero) (np = m is

finite)

The experimental result in outcomes that

can be classified as Successes or failure).
X The Actual Number of successes that
occurs in a specific region.
P (x, u) = (eu) (ux)
-----------------------x1

172

This is Poisson formula here we conduct

a Poisson experiment in which the average
number of successes within a given region is
U. Then the Poisson probability is as above .
Where x is the Actual number of
successes.
e is equal to 2.71828.
u is the mean of the distribution.
The average number of successes (u)
that occurs in a specified region is known.
The probability of success is proportional
to the size of the region.

173

The probability of successes occurring in

an extremely small region virtually zero.
Notations:
e = A constant equal to approximately
2.71828.
u = The mean (average) no of success that
occurs in a specific region.
Example: The average no of homes sold by A
really company is 2 Homes per day. What is
the probability that exactly 3 homes will be
sold tomorrow?.
u = 2 (Average of 2 homes sold per day)

174

x = 3 (3 homes will be sold tomorrow)

e = 2.71828 (Constant)
Poisson Formula:
P (x, u) = (eu) (ux)
-----------------------x
P(3, 2) = (2.72828) (2)
------------------------------1x2x3
= (0.13534) (8)/6

= 0.180

Normal Distribution and its properties:

175

Normal distribution refers do a family of

continuous probability distribution described
by the normal equation.

Normal Equation:
The value of the random variable Y is (x u) /2
1
Y=

C (Coefficient)

Where X is a normal Random variable.

u is the mean

176

is the standard deviation

is constant (3.14159)

e is constant (2.71828)
Standard Deviation:
Represented by it means how much
variance (difference) or dispersion exist from
the average.
Example:

= Variance (Root of its variance

let us consider a population has eight values,

2,4,4,4,5,5,7,9.
Mean: 2+4+4+4+5+5+7+9
------------------------8

177

= 40/8 = 5 1) difference between the mean &

the mean & the valiance value is
taken.

Standard Deviation 25 square the value.

(2 - 5) = (-3) = 9 ( 4 5) = (-1) =1 (5 5)
= 0 = 0
(4 5) = -1
= 2 = 4

= 1 ( 4 5) = (-1) =1 (7 5)
(5 5) = (0) = 0

Rate of 9+1+1+1+0+0+4+16 38
---------------------------- = =
4/8
8
Example: An average light bulb
manufactured by Acme Corporation lasts

178

300days with a standard deviation of 50 days.

Assuming that the bull life is normally
distributed what is the probability that an
Acme light bulb will last at most 365 days?
Answer: The value of the normal Random
valuable (X) = 365 days.
The mean (u) = 300 days standard
deviation = 50 days.
Normal Distribution Y = 1 x e(xu)
2
1
=
502 x 3.14159 x 2.71828 (365 300) /2 x
50

179

1
=
50 x 6013 x 2.71828/100 = 1/306.5 x 271 =
884//
Y = .88 or 88%
Hence there is an 88% chance that the
bulb will last most 365 days.

180