TYPES OF FOUNDATION

SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
DEEP FOUNDATIONS
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS (SOMETIMES CALLED 'SPREAD FOOTINGS') INCLUDE PADS ('ISOLATED
FOOTINGS'), STRIP FOOTINGS AND RAFTS.
DEEP FOUNDATIONS INCLUDE PILES, PILE WALLS, DIAPHRAGM WALLS AND CAISSONS.
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
PAD FOUNDATIONS
STRIP FOUNDATIONS
RAFT FOUNDATIONS
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS ARE THOSE FOUNDED NEAR TO THE FINISHED GROUND SURFACE;
GENERALLY WHERE THE FOUNDING DEPTH (DF) IS LESS THAN THE WIDTH OF THE FOOTING AND
LESS THAN 3M. THESE ARE NOT STRICT RULES, BUT MERELY GUIDELINES: BASICALLY, IF
SURFACE LOADING OR OTHER SURFACE CONDITIONS WILL AFFECT THE BEARING CAPACITY OF
A FOUNDATION IT IS 'SHALLOW'. SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS (SOMETIMES CALLED 'SPREAD
FOOTINGS') INCLUDE PADS ('ISOLATED FOOTINGS'), STRIP FOOTINGS AND RAFTS.
SHALLOWS FOUNDATIONS ARE USED WHEN SURFACE SOILS ARE SUFFICIENTLY STRONG AND
STIFF TO SUPPORT THE IMPOSED LOADS; THEY ARE GENERALLY UNSUITABLE IN WEAK OR
HIGHLY COMPRESSIBLE SOILS, SUCH AS POORLY-COMPACTED FILL, PEAT, RECENT LACUSTRINE
AND ALLUVIAL DEPOSITS, ETC.
PAD FOUNDATIONS
PAD FOUNDATIONS ARE USED TO SUPPORT AN INDIVIDUAL POINT LOAD SUCH AS THAT DUE TO
A STRUCTURAL COLUMN. THEY MAY BE CIRCULAR, SQUARE OR REACTANGULAR. THEY
USUALLY CONSIST OF A BLOCK OR SLAB OF UNIFORM THICKNESS, BUT THEY MAY BE STEPPED
OR HAUNCHED IF THEY ARE REQUIRED TO SPREAD THE LOAD FROM A HEAVY COLUMN. PAD
FOUNDATIONS ARE USUALLY SHALLOW, BUT DEEP PAD FOUNDATIONS CAN ALSO BE USED.
STRIP FOUNDATIONS
STRIP FOUNDATIONS ARE USED TO SUPPORT A LINE OF LOADS, EITHER DUE TO A LOADBEARING WALL, OR IF A LINE OF COLUMNS NEED SUPPORTING WHERE COLUMN POSITIONS ARE
SO CLOSE THAT INDIVIDUAL PAD FOUNDATIONS WOULD BE INAPPROPRIATE.
RAFT FOUNDATIONS
RAFT FOUNDATIONS ARE USED TO SPREAD THE LOAD FROM A STRUCTURE OVER A LARGE
AREA, NORMALLY THE ENTIRE AREA OF THE STRUCTURE. THEY ARE USED WHEN COLUMN
LOADS OR OTHER STRUCTURAL LOADS ARE CLOSE TOGETHER AND INDIVIDUAL PAD
FOUNDATIONS WOULD INTERACT.
A RAFT FOUNDATION NORMALLY CONSISTS OF A CONCRETE SLAB WHICH EXTENDS OVER THE
ENTIRE LOADED AREA. IT MAY BE STIFFENED BY RIBS OR BEAMS INCORPORATED INTO THE
FOUNDATION.
RAFT FOUNDATIONS HAVE THE ADVANTAGE OF REDUCING DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENTS AS THE
CONCRETE SLAB RESISTS DIFFERENTIAL MOVEMENTS BETWEEN LOADING POSITIONS. THEY
ARE OFTEN NEEDED ON SOFT OR LOOSE SOILS WITH LOW BEARING CAPACITY AS THEY CAN
SPREAD THE LOADS OVER A
DEEP FOUNDATIONS
PILES

DEEP FOUNDATIONS ARE THOSE FOUNDING TOO DEEPLY BELOW THE FINISHED GROUND
SURFACE FOR THEIR BASE BEARING CAPACITY TO BE AFFECTED BY SURFACE CONDITIONS,
THIS IS USUALLY AT DEPTHS >3 M BELOW FINISHED GROUND LEVEL. THEY INCLUDE PILES,
PIERS AND CAISSONS OR COMPENSATED FOUNDATIONS USING DEEP BASEMENTS AND ALSO
DEEP PAD OR STRIP FOUNDATIONS. DEEP FOUNDATIONS CAN BE USED TO TRANSFER THE
LOADING TO A DEEPER, MORE COMPETENT STRATA AT DEPTH IF UNSUITABLE SOILS ARE
PRESENT NEAR THE SURFACE.
PILES ARE RELATIVELY LONG, SLENDER MEMBERS THAT TRANSMIT FOUNDATION LOADS
THROUGH SOIL STRATA OF LOW BEARING CAPACITY TO DEEPER SOIL OR ROCK STRATA HAVING
A HIGH BEARING CAPACITY. THEY ARE USED WHEN FOR ECONOMIC, CONSTRUCTIONAL OR SOIL
CONDITION CONSIDERATIONS IT IS DESIRABLE TO TRANSMIT LOADS TO STRATA BEYOND THE
PRACTICAL REACH OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS. IN ADDITION TO SUPPORTING STRUCTURES,
PILES ARE ALSO USED TO ANCHOR STRUCTURES AGAINST UPLIFT FORCES AND TO ASSIST
STRUCTURES IN RESISTING LATERAL AND OVERTURNING FORCES.
PIERS ARE FOUNDATIONS FOR CARRYING A HEAVY STRUCTURAL LOAD WHICH IS
CONSTRUCTED INSITU IN A DEEP EXCAVATION.
CAISSONS ARE A FORM OF DEEP FOUNDATION WHICH ARE CONSTRUCTED ABOVE GROUND
LEVEL, THEN SUNK TO THE REQUIRED LEVEL BY EXCAVATING OR DREDGING MATERIAL FROM
WITHIN THE CAISSON.
COMPENSATED FOUNDATIONS ARE DEEP FOUNDATIONS IN WHICH THE RELIEF OF STRESS DUE
TO EXCAVATION IS APPROXIMATELY BALANCED BY THE APPLIED STRESS DUE TO THE
FOUNDATION. THE NET STRESS APPLIED IS THEREFORE VERY SMALL. A COMPENSATED
FOUNDATION NORMALLY COMPRISES A DEEP BASEMENT.
2 BASIC TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS:

SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS ARE THOSE THAT TRANSFER THE LOAD TO THE EARTH AT THE
BASE OF THE COLUMN OR WALL OF THE SUBSTRUCTURE.

DEEP FOUNDATIONS TRANSFER THE LOAD AT A POINT FAR BELOW THE SUBSTRUCTURE.
FOUNDATION IS THAT PORTION OF THE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS THAT CARRY OR SUPPORT
THE SUPERSTRUCTURE OF THE BUILDING.
FOOTING IS THAT PORTION OF THE FOUNDATION OF THE STRUCTURE WHICH DIRECTLY
TRANSMIT THE COLUMN LOAD TO THE UNDERLYING SOIL OR ROCK, FOOTING IS THE LOWER
PORTION OF THE FOUNDATION STRUCTURE.
FOUNDATION BED - REFERS TO THE SOIL OR ROCK DIRECTLY BENEATH THE FOOTING.
PILE FOUNDATION WHEN A FOUNDATION BED IS TOO WEAK TO SUPPORT A RAFT FOOTING,
THERE IS AN URGENT NEED TO PROVIDE A SUITABLE MATERIALS WHERE TO TRANSFER THE
EXCESS LOAD TO A GREATER DEPTH WHEREIN PILES IS THE ANSWER.
PILE IS A STRUCTURAL MEMBER OF SMALL CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA WITH REASONABLE
LENGTH DRIVEN DOWN THE GROUND BY MEANS OF HAMMERS OR VIBRATORY GENERATOR.
PILE IS DISTINGUISHED FROM A CAISSON BY BEING DRIVEN INTO PLACE RATHER THAN
DRILED & POURED.
PILES ARE GENERALLY DRIVEN CLOSELY TOGETHER IN CLUSTERS CONTAINING FROM TWO
TO TWENTY-FIVE PILES. EACH CLUSTER IS LATER JOINED AT THE TOP BY A REINFORCED
CONCRETE PILE CAP.
PILE CAP DISTRIBUTES THE LOAD OF THE COLUMN OR WALL EQUALLY AMONG THE PILES.
CAISSONS IS SIMILAR TO A COLUMN FOOTING IN THAT IT SPREADS THE LOAD FROM A
COLUMN OVER A LARGE ENOUGH AREA OF SOIL.

FOUNDATION WALL THAT PART OF THE BUILDING FOUNDATION WHICH FORMS THE
PERMANENT RETAINING WALL OF THE STRUCTURE BELOW GRADE.
GRADE BEAM THAT PART OF A FOUNDATION SYSTEM W/C SUPPORTS THE EXTERIOR
WALL OF THE SUPERSTRUCTURE AND BEARS DIRECTLY ON THE COLUMN FOOTING.
RETAINING WALL A WALL OR LATERALLY BRACED, THAT BEARS AGAINST AN EARTH OR
OTHER FILL SURFACE AND RESISTS LATERAL AND OTHER FORCES.
CANTILEVER WALL A REINFORCED CONCRETE WALL WHICH RESIST OVERTURNING BY
THE USE OF CANTILEVER FOOTING.
GRAVITY WALL A MASSIVE CONCRETE WALL THAT RESIST OVERTURNING BY VIRTUE
OF ITS OWN WEIGHT.
BEARING WALL A WALL CAPABLE OF SUPPORTING AN IMPOSED LOAD.

TYPES OF WALLS
BUILDING WALL
BUILDING WALLS PURPOSES ARE TO SUPPORT ROOFS, FLOORS AND CEILINGS, ENCLOSE A
SPACE AS PART OF THE BUILDING ENVELOPE, ALONG WITH A ROOF TO GIVE BUILDINGS
FORM, AND TO PROVIDE SHELTER AND SECURITY. IN ADDITION, THE WALL MAY HOUSE
VARIOUS TYPES OF UTILITIES SUCH AS ELECTRICAL WIRING OR PLUMBING. WALL
CONSTRUCTION FALLS INTO TWO BASIC CATEGORIES: FRAMED WALLS OR MASS-WALLS. IN
FRAMED WALLS THE LOAD IS TRANSFERRED TO THE FOUNDATION THROUGH POSTS,
COLUMNS OR STUDS. FRAMED WALLS MOST OFTEN HAVE THREE OR MORE SEPARATE
COMPONENTS: THE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS (SUCH AS 24 STUDS IN A HOUSE WALL),
INSULATION, AND FINISH ELEMENTS OR SURFACES (SUCH AS DRYWALL OR PANELLING).
MASS-WALLS ARE OF A SOLID MATERIAL INCLUDING MASONRY, CONCRETE INCLUDING
SLIPFORM STONEMASONRY, LOG BUILDING, CORDWOOD CONSTRUCTION, ADOBE, RAMMED
EARTH, COB, EARTHBAG CONSTRUCTION, BOTTLES, TIN CANS, STRAW-BALE
CONSTRUCTION, AND ICE.
CURTAIN WALL
IN ARCHITECTURE AND CIVIL ENGINEERING, CURTAIN WALL REFERS TO A
BUILDING FACADE THAT IS NOT LOAD-BEARING BUT PROVIDES DECORATION, FINISH,
FRONT, FACE, OR HISTORICAL PRESERVATION.
MULLION WALL
MULLION WALLS ARE A STRUCTURAL SYSTEM THAT CARRIES THE LOAD OF THE FLOOR SLAB ON
PREFABRICATED PANELS AROUND THE PERIMETER.
PARTITION WALL
A PARTITION WALL IS A WALL THAT SEPARATES ROOMS, OR DIVIDES A ROOM. PARTITION WALLS
ARE USUALLY NOT LOAD-BEARING. PARTITION WALLS ARE CONSTRUCTED OF MANY
MATERIALS, INCLUDING STEEL PANELS, BRICKS, BLOCKS OF CLAY, TERRACOTTA, CONCRETE, OR GLASS BLOCKS.
SOME PARTITION WALLS ARE MADE OF SHEET GLASS. GLASS PARTITION WALLS ARE A SERIES
OF INDIVIDUAL TOUGHENED GLASS PANELS MOUNTED IN WOOD OR METAL FRAMING. THEY
MAY BE SUSPENDED FROM OR SLIDE ALONG A ROBUST ALUMINIUM CEILING TRACK. THE
SYSTEM DOES NOT REQUIRE THE USE OF A FLOOR GUIDE, WHICH ALLOWS EASY
OPERATION AND AN UNINTERRUPTED THRESHOLD.
A TIMBER PARTITION CONSISTS OF A WOODEN FRAMEWORK, SUPPORTED ON THE FLOOR OR
BY SIDE WALLS. METAL LATH AND PLASTER, PROPERLY LAID, FORMS A REINFORCED

PARTITION WALL. PARTITION WALLS CONSTRUCTED FROM FIBRE CEMENT BACKER BOARD
ARE POPULAR AS BASES FOR TILING IN KITCHENS OR IN WET AREAS LIKE BATHROOMS.
GALVANIZED SHEET FIXED TO WOODEN OR STEEL MEMBERS ARE MOSTLY ADOPTED IN
WORKS OF TEMPORARY CHARACTER. PLAIN OR REINFORCED PARTITION WALLS MAY ALSO
BE CONSTRUCTED FROM CONCRETE, INCLUDING PRE-CAST CONCRETE BLOCKS. METAL
FRAMED PARTITIONING IS ALSO AVAILABLE. THIS PARTITION CONSISTS OF TRACK (USED
PRIMARILY AT THE BASE AND HEAD OF THE PARTITION) AND STUDS (VERTICAL SECTIONS
FIXED INTO THE TRACK TYPICALLY SPACED AT 24", 16", OR AT 12").
INTERNAL WALL PARTITIONS, ALSO KNOWN AS OFFICE PARTITIONING, IS USUALLY MADE OF
PLASTERBOARD (DRYWALL) OR VARIETIES OF GLASS. TOUGHENED GLASS IS A COMMON
OPTION, AS IS LOW-IRON GLASS (BETTER KNOWN AS OPTI-WHITE GLASS, WHICH
INCREASES LIGHT AND SOLAR HEAT TRANSMISSION.
WALL PARTITIONS ARE CONSTRUCTED USING BEADS AND TRACKING THAT IS EITHER HUNG
FROM THE CEILING OR FIXED INTO THE GROUND. THE PANELS ARE INSERTED INTO THE
TRACKING AND FIXED. SOME WALL PARTITION VARIATIONS SPECIFY THEIR FIRE
RESISTANCE AND ACOUSTIC PERFORMANCE RATING.
PARTY WALL
PARTY WALLS ARE WALLS THAT SEPARATE BUILDINGS OR UNITS WITHIN A BUILDING. THEY
PROVIDE FIRE RESISTANCE AND SOUND RESISTANCE BETWEEN OCCUPANTS IN A BUILDING.
THE MINIMUM FIRE RESISTANCE AND SOUND RESISTANCE REQUIRED FOR THE PARTY WALL
IS DETERMINED BY A BUILDING CODE AND MAY BE MODIFIED TO SUIT A VARIETY OF
SITUATIONS. OWNERSHIP OF SUCH WALLS CAN BECOME A LEGAL ISSUE.IT IS NOT A LOAD
BEARING WALL AND MAY BE OWNED BY DIFFERENT PEOPLE
INFILL WALL
AN INFILL WALL IS THE SUPPORTED WALL THAT CLOSES THE PERIMETER OF A BUILDING
CONSTRUCTED WITH A THREE-DIMENSIONAL FRAMEWORK STRUCTURE.
FIRE WALL
FIRE WALLS RESIST SPREAD OF FIRE WITHIN OR SOMETIMES BETWEEN STRUCTURES TO
PROVIDE PASSIVE FIRE PROTECTION. A DELAY IN THE SPREAD OF FIRE GIVES OCCUPANTS
MORE TIME TO ESCAPE AND FIRE FIGHTERS MORE TIME TO EXTINGUISH THE FIRE. SUCH
WALLS HAVE NO WINDOWS, AND ARE MADE OF NON-COMBUSTIBLE MATERIAL SUCH AS
CONCRETE, CEMENT BLOCK, BRICK, OR FIRE RATED DRYWALLAND HAVE WALL
PENETRATIONS SEALED WITH SPECIAL MATERIALS. A DOORWAY IN A FIREWALL MUST HAVE
A RATED FIRE DOOR. FIRE WALLS PROVIDE VARYING RESISTANCE TO THE SPREAD OF FIRE,
SOME INTENDED TO LAST ONE TO FOUR HOURS. FIREWALLS, GENERALLY, CAN ALSO ACT AS
SMOKE BARRIERS WHEN CONSTRUCTED VERTICALLY FROM SLAB TO ROOF DECK AND
HORIZONTALLY FROM AN EXTERIOR WALL TO EXTERIOR WALL SUBDIVIDING A BUILDING
INTO SECTIONS. WHEN CONSTRUCTED IN THIS MANNER THE FIRE WALL CAN ALSO BE
REFERRED TO AS AN AREA SEPARATION WALL.
SHEAR WALL
SHEAR WALLS RESIST LATERAL FORCES SUCH AS IN AN EARTHQUAKE OR SEVERE WIND.
THERE ARE DIFFERENT KINDS OF SHEAR WALLS SUCH AS THE STEEL PLATE SHEAR WALL.
KNEE WALL
KNEE WALLS ARE SHORT WALLS THAT EITHER SUPPORT RAFTERS OR ADD HEIGHT IN THE TOP
FLOOR ROOMS OF HOUSES. IN A ONE-AND-ONE-HALF STORY HOUSE, THE KNEE WALL
SUPPORTS THE HALF STORY.

CAVITY WALL
CAVITY WALLS ARE WALLS MADE WITH A SPACE BETWEEN TWO "SKINS" TO INHIBIT HEAT
TRANSFER.
PONY WALL
PONY WALL IS A GENERAL TERM FOR SHORT WALLS, SUCH AS:
A HALF WALL THAT ONLY EXTENDS PARTWAY FROM FLOOR TO CEILING, WITHOUT
SUPPORTING ANYTHING
A STEM WALLA CONCRETE WALL THAT EXTENDS FROM THE FOUNDATION SLAB TO THE
CRIPPLE WALL OR FLOOR JOISTS
A CRIPPLE WALLA FRAMED WALL FROM THE STEM WALL OR FOUNDATION SLAB TO
THE FLOOR JOISTS
MOVABLE PARTITIONS
MOVABLE PARTITIONS ARE WALLS THAT OPEN TO JOIN TWO OR MORE ROOMS INTO ONE LARGE
FLOOR AREA. THESE INCLUDE:
SLIDINGA SERIES OF PANELS THAT SLIDE IN TRACKS FIXED TO THE FLOOR AND
CEILING, SIMILAR SLIDING DOORS
SLIDING AND FOLDING DOORS SIMILAR TO SLIDING FOLDING DOORS, THESE ARE
GOOD FOR SMALLER SPANS
FOLDING PARTITION WALLS - A SERIES OF INTERLOCKING PANELS SUSPENDED FROM
AN OVERHEAD TRACK THAT WHEN EXTENDED PROVIDE AN ACOUSTICAL SEPARATION,
AND WHEN RETRACTED STACK AGAINST A WALL, CEILING, CLOSET, OR CEILING POCKET.
SCREENSUSUALLY CONSTRUCTED OF A METAL OR TIMBER FRAME FIXED WITH
PLYWOOD AND CHIPBOARD AND SUPPORTED WITH LEGS FOR FREE STANDING AND
EASY MOVEMENT
PIPE AND DRAPEFIXED OR TELESCOPIC UPRIGHTS AND HORIZONTALS PROVIDE A
GROUND SUPPORTED DRAPE SYSTEM WITH REMOVABLE PANELS
SOLAR ENERGY
A TROMBE WALL IN PASSIVE SOLAR BUILDING DESIGN ACTS AS A HEAT SINK.
BOUNDARY WALL
BOUNDARY WALLS INCLUDE PRIVACY WALLS, BOUNDARY-MARKING WALLS ON PROPERTY, AND
TOWN WALLS. THESE INTERGRADE INTO FENCES. THE CONVENTIONAL DIFFERENTIATION IS
THAT A FENCE IS OF MINIMAL THICKNESS AND OFTEN OPEN IN NATURE, WHILE A WALL IS
USUALLY MORE THAN A NOMINAL THICKNESS AND IS COMPLETELY CLOSED, OR OPAQUE.
MORE TO THE POINT, AN EXTERIOR STRUCTURE OF WOOD OR WIRE IS GENERALLY CALLED
A FENCEBUT ONE OF MASONRY IS A WALL. A COMMON TERM FOR BOTH IS BARRIER,
WHICH IS CONVENIENT FOR STRUCTURES THAT ARE PARTLY WALL AND PARTLY FENCE
FOR EXAMPLE THE BERLIN WALL. ANOTHER KIND OF WALL-FENCE AMBIGUITY IS THE HA-HA
WHICH IS SET BELOW GROUND LEVEL TO PROTECT A VIEW, YET ACTS AS A BARRIER (TO
CATTLE, FOR EXAMPLE).
BORDER WALL
SOME WALLS FORMALLY MARK THE BORDER BETWEEN ONE POPULATION AND ANOTHER.
A BORDER WALL IS CONSTRUCTED TO LIMIT THE MOVEMENT OF PEOPLE ACROSS A
CERTAIN LINE OR BORDER. THESE STRUCTURES VARY IN PLACEMENT WITH REGARD TO
INTERNATIONAL BORDERS AND TOPOGRAPHY. THE MOST FAMOUS EXAMPLE OF BORDER
BARRIER IN HISTORY IS PROBABLY THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA, A SERIES OF WALLS THAT

SEPARATED THE EMPIRE OF CHINA FROM NOMADIC POWERS TO THE NORTH. THE MOST
PROMINENT RECENT EXAMPLE IS THE BERLIN WALL, WHICH SURROUNDED
THE ENCLAVE OF WEST BERLIN AND SEPARATED IT FROM EAST GERMANY FOR MOST OF
THE COLD WAR ERA.
RETAINING WALL
IN AREAS OF ROCKY SOILS AROUND THE WORLD, FARMERS HAVE OFTEN PULLED LARGE
QUANTITIES OF STONE OUT OF THEIR FIELDS TO MAKE FARMING EASIER AND HAVE
STACKED THOSE STONES TO MAKE WALLS THAT EITHER MARK THE FIELD BOUNDARY, OR
THE PROPERTY BOUNDARY, OR BOTH. RETAINING WALLS RESIST MOVEMENT OF EARTH,
STONE, OR WATER. THEY MAY BE PART OF A BUILDING OR EXTERNAL. THE GROUND
SURFACE OR WATER ON ONE SIDE OF A RETAINING WALL IS TYPICALLY HIGHER THAN ON
THE OTHER SIDE. A DIKE IS A RETAINING WALL, AS IS A LEVEE, A LOADBEARING FOUNDATION WALL, AND A SEA WALL.
SHARED WALL
SPECIAL LAWS OFTEN GOVERN WALLS THAT NEIGHBOURING PROPERTIES SHARE. TYPICALLY,
ONE NEIGHBOUR CANNOT ALTER THE COMMON WALL IF IT IS LIKELY TO AFFECT THE
BUILDING OR PROPERTY ON THE OTHER SIDE. A WALL MAY ALSO SEPARATE APARTMENT OR
HOTEL ROOMS FROM EACH OTHER. EACH WALL HAS TWO SIDES AND BREAKING A WALL ON
ONE SIDE WILL BREAK THE WALL ON THE OTHER SIDE.
PORTABLE WALL
PORTABLE WALLS, SUCH AS ROOM DIVIDERS OR PORTABLE PARTITIONS DIVIDE A LARGER
OPEN SPACE INTO SMALLER ROOMS. PORTABLE WALLS CAN BE STATIC, SUCH AS CUBICLE
WALLS, OR CAN BE WALL PANELS MOUNTED ON CASTERS TO PROVIDE AN EASY WAY TO
RECONFIGURE ASSEMBLY SPACE. THEY ARE OFTEN FOUND INSIDE SCHOOLS, CHURCHES,
CONVENTION CENTERS, HOTELS, AND CORPORATE FACILITIES.
TEMPORARY WALL
A TEMPORARY WALL IS CONSTRUCTED FOR EASY REMOVAL OR DEMOLITION. A TYPICAL
TEMPORARY WALL CAN BE CONSTRUCTED WITH 12" (6 MM) TO 58" (16 MM) SHEET ROCK
(PLASTERBOARD), METAL 2 3S (APPROX. 5 7 CM), OR 2 4S, OR TAPED, PLASTERED AND
COMPOUNDED. MOST INSTALLATION COMPANIES USE LATTICE (STRIPS OF WOOD) TO
COVER THE JOINTS OF THE TEMPORARY WALL WITH THE CEILING. THESE ARE SOMETIME
KNOWN AS PRESSURIZED WALLS OR TEMPORARY PRESSURIZED WALLS.
WALLS IN POPULAR CULTURE
WALLS ARE OFTEN SEEN IN MANY POPULAR CULTURES, REPRESENTING BARRIERS
PREVENTING PROGRESS OR ENTRY. FOR EXAMPLE, THE PROGRESSIVE/PSYCHEDELIC
ROCK BAND PINK FLOYD USED A METAPHORICAL WALL TO REPRESENT THE ISOLATION FELT
BY THE PROTAGONIST OF THEIR 1979 CONCEPT ALBUM THE WALL. AMERICAN POET
LAUREATE ROBERT FROST DESCRIBES A POINTLESS ROCK WALL AS A METAPHOR FOR THE
MYOPIA OF THE CULTURE-BOUND IN HIS POEM "MENDING WALL", PUBLISHED IN 1914. IN A
REAL-LIFE EXAMPLE, THE BERLIN WALL, CONSTRUCTED BY THE SOVIET UNION TO DIVIDE
BERLIN INTO NATO AND WARSAW PACT ZONES OF OCCUPATION, BECAME A WORLDWIDE
SYMBOL OF OPPRESSION AND ISOLATION.
IN SOME CASES, A WALL MAY REFER TO AN INDIVIDUAL'S DEBILITATING MENTAL OR PHYSICAL
CONDITION, SEEN AS AN IMPASSABLE BARRIER.

ANOTHER COMMON USAGE IS AS A COMMUNAL SURFACE TO WRITE UPON. FOR INSTANCE THE
SOCIAL NETWORKING SITE FACEBOOK PREVIOUSLY USED AN ELECTRONIC "WALL" TO LOG
THE SCRAWLS OF FRIENDS UNTIL IT WAS REPLACED BY THE "TIMELINE" FEATURE.
IN TERMS OF THEIR FUNCTION, ALL WALLS ARE EITHER LOAD BEARING OR NON LOAD BEARING
WALLS. A LOAD BEARING WALL IS PART OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE BUILDING - IT HOLDS
THE BUILDING UP. A NON-LOAD BEARING WALL IS ONLY A PARTITION THAT DIVIDES THE
VARIOUS ROOMS OF A BUILDING. YOU CAN DEMOLISH A WALL IF IT IS A NON-LOAD BEARING
WALL; YOU CANNOT MOVE OR DEMOLISH A LOAD BEARING WALL.
IT IS NOT EASY FOR A LAYMAN TO DETERMINE WHETHER A WALL IS LOAD BEARING OR NOT.
YOU MUST RELY ON THE ADVICE OF AN EXPERIENCED, LICENSED STRUCTURAL ENGINEER.
MOST MODERN MULTI-STOREY BUILDINGS ARE CONSTRUCTED WITH STRUCTURAL FRAMES
AND NON-LOAD BEARING WALLS. MOST RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS IN THE US, AND NEARLY
ALL WOOD FRAMED BUILDINGS ARE CONSTRUCTED WITH LOAD BEARING WALLS OF THE
PLATFORM FRAME OR BALLON FRAME TYPES.
COMMON TYPES OF WALLS ARE:
MASONRY WALLS: THESE ARE WALLS MADE OF BRICK OR CEMENT BLOCKS HELD
TOGETHER WITH CEMENT MORTAR AND ARE OFTEN PLASTERED WITH CEMENT
PLASTER ON BOTH SURFACES. CEMENT BLOCKS CAN ALSO BE CALLED CONCRETE
MASONRY UNITS OR CMUS, AND COME IN A VARIETY OF TYPES, INCLUDING
SOLID CONCRETE BLOCKS
HOLLOW CONCRETE BLOCKS
LIGHTWEIGHT AERATED CONCRETE BLOCKS
FLYASH CONCRETE BLOCKS
MASONRY WALLS ARE HEAVY, AND REQUIRE LOTS OF SKILLED LABOUR, WHICH MEANS THAT
THEY ARE FALLING OUT OF FAVOR IN MOST COUNTRIES IN WHICH LABOUR IS EXPENSIVE.
THEIR WEIGHT IS ALSO A PROBLEM IN HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS.
OTHER MATERIALS FOR WALLS INCLUDE STONE OR FURNACE (CERAMIC) BRICKS. STONE
THAT IS CUT INTO CUBOIDS WITH SMOOTH FACES IS CALLED DRESSED STONE, AND WALLS
CONSTRUCTED WITH THIS TYPE OF STONE ARE CALLED ASHLAR MASONRY WALLS. WALLS
THAT ARE MADE WITH ROUGH (UNDRESSED) PIECES OF STONE ARE CALLED RANDOM
RUBBLE WALLS.
FOR BRICK WALLS, A COMMON THICKNESS IS 230MM(9"), AND FOR CONCRETE BLOCK
WALLS, COMMON THICKNESSES ARE 200MM(8"), 150MM(6") AND 100MM(4"). IN THE BUILDING
TRADE, THE THICKNESS OF THE WALLS EXCLUDES THE PLASTER, SO IF A WALL IS
PLASTERED ON BOTH SIDES, ITS ACTUAL THICKNESS WILL BE 1" OR 1.5" MORE THAN ITS
STATED THICKNESS IN AN ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING OR CONTRACT.
TO RUN ELECTRICAL, OR ANY OTHER WIRES OR PIPES IN A BRICK WALL, YOU HAVE TO
FIRST CHASE THE WALL.CHASING IS CUTTING A LONG GROOVE IN THE WALL IN WHICH YOU
CAN INSTALL YOUR SERVICES. THEN YOU CAN INSTALL A CONDUIT - A PLASTIC PIPE - IN THE

WALL, FILL IN THE GAP AROUND THE CONDUIT WITH CEMENT PLASTER, AND THEN PULL
YOUR ELECTRICAL WIRES THROUGH THE CONDUIT. THIS TAKES TIME AND EFFORT.
MASONRY WALLS CANNOT BE CONSTRUCTED TO AN UNLIMITED HEIGHT - BROADLY
SPEAKING, MOST ARE CONSIDERED STABLE ONLY TO A HEIGHT OF 10-15 FT (3 - 4M). TO
CONSTRUCT A MASONRY WALL HIGHER THAN THAT, YOU HAVE TO DESIGN A SPECIAL WALL
THAT HAS INTERMEDIATE STRUCTURAL MEMBERS TO SUPPORT THE WALL.
ONE PROBLEM WITH MASONRY WALLS IS THAT THEY RELY MAINLY ON THEIR WEIGHT TO
KEEP THEM IN PLACE; EACH BLOCK OR BRICK IS ONLY LOOSELY CONNECTED TO THE NEXT
VIA A THIN LAYER OF MORTAR. THIS IS WHY THEY DO NOT PERFORM WELL IN
EARTHQUAKES, WHEN ENTIRE BUILDINGS ARE SHAKEN HORIZONTALLY. MANY COLLAPSES
DURING EARTHQUAKES OCCUR IN BUILDINGS THAT HAVE LOAD-BEARING MASONRY WALLS.

TYPES OF WALL BONDS

BRICK MASONRY IS BUILT WITH BRICKS BONDED TOGETHER WITH MORTAR. FOR TEMPORARY
SHEDS MUD MORTAR MAY BE USED BUT FOR ALL PERMANENT BUILDINGS LIME OR
CEMENT MORTARS ARE USED.
THE VARIOUS TYPES OF BONDS GENERALLY USED IN BRICK MASONRY ARE
1. STRETCHER BOND
2. HEADER BOND
3. ENGLISH BOND AND
4. FLEMISH BOND
1. STRETCHER BOND
A STRETCHER IS THE LONGER FACE OF THE BRICK AS SEEN IN THE ELEVATION. IN THE BRICK
OF SIZE 190 MM 90 MM 90 MM, 190 MM 90 MM FACE IS THE STRETCHER. IN STRETCHER
BOND MASONRY ALL THE BRICKS ARE ARRANGED IN STRETCHER COURSES AS SHOWN IN
FIG-1. HOWEVER CARE SHOULD BE TAKEN TO BREAK VERTICAL JOINTS. THIS TYPE OF
CONSTRUCTION IS USEFUL FOR THE CONSTRUCTION HALF BRICK THICK PARTITION WALL.
2. HEADER BOND
A HEADER IS THE SHORTER FACE OF THE BRICK AS SEEN IN THE ELEVATION. IN A STANDARD
BRICK IT IS 90 MM 90 MM FACE. IN HEADER BOND BRICK MASONRY ALL THE BRICKS ARE
ARRANGED IN THE HEADER COURSES AS SHOWN IN FIG-2. THIS TYPE OF BOND IS USEFUL
FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ONE BRICK THICK WALLS.
3. ENGLISH BOND
IN THIS ALTERNATE COURSES CONSIST OF HEADERS AND STRETCHERS. THIS IS CONSIDERED
TO BE THE STRONGEST BOND. HENCE IT IS COMMONLY USED BOND FOR THE WALLS OF ALL
THICKNESSES. TO BREAK CONTINUITY OF VERTICAL JOINTS A BRICK IS CUT LENGTHWISE
INTO TWO HALVES AND USED IN THE BEGINNING AND END OF A WALL AFTER FIRST HEADER.
THIS IS CALLED QUEEN CLOSER. (REFER FIG-3). FIG-3 SHOWS TYPICAL ONE BRICK AND ONE
AND HALF BRICK THICK WALL WITH ENGLISH BOND.
ENGLISH BOND CONSISTS OF ALTERNATE COURSE OF HEADERS AND STRETCHES. IN THIS
ENGLISH BOND ARRANGEMENT, VERTICAL JOINTS IN THE HEADER COURSES COME OVER
EACH OTHER AND THE VERTICAL JOINTS IN THE STRETCHER COURSE ARE ALSO IN THE
SAME LINE. FOR THE BREAKING OF VERTICAL JOINTS IN THE SUCCESSIVE COURSE IT IS
ESSENTIAL TO PLACE QUEEN CLOSER, AFTER THE FIRST HEADER IN EACH HEADING

COURSE. THE FOLLOWING ADDITIONAL POINTS SHOULD BE NOTED IN ENGLISH BOND

CONSTRUCTION:
(1) IN ENGLISH BOND, A HEADING COURSE SHOULD NEVER START WITH A QUEEN CLOSER AS IT
IS LIABLE TO GET DISPLACED IN THIS POSITION.
(2) IN THE STRETCHER COURSE, THE STRETCHERS SHOULD HAVE A MINIMUM LAP OF 1/4TH
THEIR LENGTH OVER THE HEADERS.
(3) WALLS HAVING THEIR THICKNESS EQUAL TO AN EVEN NUMBER OF HALF BRICKS, I.E., ONE
BRICK THICK WAIL, 2 BRICK THICK WALL, 3 BRICK THICK WALL AND SO ON, PRESENT THE
SAME APPEARANCE ON BOTH THE FACES, I .E. A COURSE CONSISTING OF HEADERS ON
FRONT FACE WILL SHOW HEADERS ON THE BACK FACE ALSO.
(4) IN WALLS HAVING THEIR THICKNESS EQUAL TO AN ODD NUMBER OF HALF BRICK, I.E. 1
BRICK THICK WALLS OR 2 BRICK THICK WALLS AND SO ON, THE SAME COURSE WILL SHOW
STRETCHERS ON ONE FACE AND HEADERS ON THE OTHER.
(5) IN THICK WALLS THE MIDDLE PORTION IS ENTIRELY FILLED WITH HEADER TO PREVENT THE
FORMATION OF VERTICAL JOINTS IN THE BODY OF THE WALL.
(6) SINCE THE NUMBER OF VERTICAL JOINTS IN THE HEADER COURSE IS TWICE THE NUMBER
OF JOINTS IN THE STRETCHER COURSE, THE JOINTS IN THE HEADER COURSE ARE MADE
THINNER THAN THOSE IN THE STRETCHER COURSE.
4. FLEMISH BOND
IN THIS TYPE OF BOND EACH COURSE COMPRISES OF ALTERNATE HEADER AND STRETCHER
[FIG-4]. ALTERNATE COURSES START WITH STRETCHER AND HEADER. TO BREAK THE
VERTICAL JOINTS QUEEN CLOSERS ARE REQUIRED, IF A COURSE STARTS WITH HEADER.
EVERY HEADER IS CENTRALLY SUPPORTED ON THE STRETCHER BELOW IT.
FLEMISH BONDS MAY BE FURTHER CLASSIFIED AS
DOUBLE FLEMISH BOND
SINGLE FLEMISH BOND.
IN CASE OF DOUBLE FLEMISH BOND, BOTH FACES OF THE WALL HAVE FLEMISH LOOK, I.E. EACH
COURSE CONSIST OF ALTERNATE HEADER AND STRETCHER, WHEREAS SINGLE FLEMISH
BOND OUTER FACES OF WALLS HAVE FLEMISH LOOK WHEREAS INNER FACES HAVE LOOK
OF ENGLISH BOND
IN FLEMISH BOND, EACH COURSE CONSISTS OF ALTERNATE HEADERS AND STRETCHERS. THE
ALTERNATE HEADERS OF EACH COURSE ARE CENTERED OVER THE STRETCHERS IN THE
COURSE BELOW. EVERY ALTERNATE COURSE STARTS WITH A HEADER AT THE CORNER. FOR
THE BREAKING OF VERTICAL JOINTS IN THE SUCCESSIVE COURSES, CLOSERS ARE
INSERTED IN ALTERNATE COURSES NEXT TO THE QUOIN HEADER. IN WALLS HAVING THEIR
THICKNESS EQUAL TO ODD NUMBER OF HALF BRICKS, BATS ARE ESSENTIALLY USED TO
ACHIEVE THE BOND.
FLEMISH BOND IS FURTHER DIVIDED INTO TWO DIFFERENT TYPES NAMELY,
1. SINGLE FLEMISH BOND,
2. DOUBLE FLEMISH BOND.
1. SINGLE FLEMISH BOND.
THIS BOND IS A COMBINATION OF ENGLISH BOND AND FLEMISH BOND. IN THIS WORK THE
FACING OF THE WALL CONSISTS OF FLEMISH BOND AND THE BACKING CONSISTS OF
ENGLISH BOND IN EACH COURSE. THIS TYPE OF BONDING CANNOT BE ADOPTED IN WALLS
LESS THAN ONE AND A HALF BRICK IN THICKNESS. THIS BOND IS ADOPTED TO PRESENT THE

ATTRACTIVE APPEARANCE OF FLEMISH BOND WITH AN EFFORT TO ENSURE FULL

STRENGTH IN THE BRICK WORK.
2. DOUBLE FLEMISH BOND.
IN DOUBLE FLEMISH BOND, EACH COURSE PRESENTS THE SAME APPEARANCE BOTH IN THE
FRONT AND BACK ELEVATIONS. EVERY COURSE CONSISTS OF HEADERS AND STRETCHERS
LAID ALTERNATELY. THIS TYPE OF BOND IS BEST SUITED FROM CONSIDERATIONS OF
ECONOMY AND APPEARANCE. IT ENABLES THE ONE BRICK WALL TO HAVE FLUSH AND
UNIFORM FACES ON BOTH THE SIDES. THIS TYPE OF BONDING IS COMPARATIVELY WEAKER
THAN ENGLISH BOND.
3. STRETCHING BOND:
IN THIS ARRANGEMENT OF BONDING, ALL THE BRICKS ARE LAID AS STRETCHERS. THE
OVERLAP, WHICH IS USUALLY OF HALF BRICK, IS OBTAINED BY COMMENCING EACH
ALTERNATE COURSE WITH A HALF BRICK BAT. STRETCHING BOND IS USED FOR HALF BRICK
WALL ONLY. THIS BOND IS ALSO TERMED AS RUNNING BOND AND IS COMMONLY ADOPTED IN
THE CONSTRUCTION OF HALF BRICK THICK LEAVES OF CAVITY WALLS, PARTITION WALLS,
ETC. SINCE THERE ARE NO HEADERS, SUITABLE REINFORCEMENT SHOULD BE USED FOR
STRUCTURAL BOND.
4. HEADING BOND :
IN THIS TYPE OF BONDING ALL THE BRICKS ARE LAID AS HEADERS ON THE FACES. THE
OVERLAP, WHICH IS USUALLY-OF HALF THE WIDTH OF THE BRICK IS OBTAINED BY
INTRODUCING A THREE-QUARTER BAT IN EACH ALTERNATE COURSE AT QUOINS. THIS BOND
PERMITS BETTER ALIGNMENT AND AS SUCH IT IS USED FOR WALLS CURVED ON PLAN. THIS
BOND IS CHIEFLY USED FOR FOOTINGS IN FOUNDATIONS FOR BETTER TRANSVERSE
DISTRIBUTION OF LOAD.
5.GARDEN WALL BOND:
THIS TYPE OF BOND IS SUITABLY ADOPTED FOR ONE BRICK THICK WALL WHICH MAY ACT AS A
GARDEN WALL OR A BOUNDARY WALL. IN GARDEN WALL BOND, IT IS POSSIBLE TO BUILD
UNIFORM FACES FOR A WALL WITHOUT MUCH LABOUR OR EXPENSE. THIS TYPE OF BOND IS
NOT SO STRONG AS ENGLISH BOND AND ITS USE IS RESTRICTED TO THE CONSTRUCTION
OF DWARF WALLS OR OTHER SIMILAR TYPES OF WALLS WHICH ARE NOT SUBJECTED TO
LARGE STRESSES. ON ACCOUNTS OF ITS GOOD APPEARANCE, THIS BOND IS SOMETIMES
USED FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE OUTER LEAVES OF CAVITY WALLS.
THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF GARDEN WALL BOND,
(A) ENGLISH GARDEN WALL BOND
(B) FLEMISH GARDEN WALL BOND
(A) ENGLISH GARDEN WALL BOND. THE GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF BRICKS IN THIS TYPE OF
BONDING IS SIMILAR TO THAT OF ENGLISH BOND EXCEPT THAT THE HEADING COURSES ARE
ONLY INSERTED AT EVERY FOURTH OR SIXTH COURSE. USUALLY THE ARRANGEMENT
CONSISTS OF ONE COURSE OF HEADERS TO THREE COURSES OF STRETCHERS. A QUEEN
CLOSER IS PLACED NEXT TO THE QUOIN HEADER OF THE HEADING COURSE TO GIVE THE
NECESSARY LAP.
(B) FLEMISH GARDEN WALL BOND. THIS CONSISTS OF ALTERNATE COURSE COMPOSED OF
ONE HEADER TO THREE OR SOMETIMES EVEN FIVE STRETCHERS IN SERIES THROUGHOUT
THE LENGTH OF THE COURSES. EACH ALTERNATE COURSE CONTAINS A THREE QUARTER
BAT PLACED NEXT TO THE QUOIN HEADER AND A HEADER IS LAID OVER THE MIDDLE OF
EACH CENTRAL STRETCHER.

6.FACING BOND:
THIS ARRANGEMENT OF BRICKS IS ADOPTED FOR THICK WALLS, WHERE THE FACING AND
BACKING ARE DESIRED TO BE CONSTRUCTED WITH BRICKS OF DIFFERENT THICKNESS.
THIS BOND CONSISTS OF HEADING AND STRETCHING COURSES SO ARRANGED THAT ONE
HEADING COURSE COMES AFTER SEVERAL STRETCHING COURSES. SINCE THE NUMBER OF
JOINTS IN THE BACKING AND THE FACING DIFFER GREATLY, THE LOAD DISTRIBUTION IS NOT
UNIFORM. THIS MAY SOMETIMES LEAD TO UNEQUAL SETTLEMENT OF THE TWO THICKNESS
OF THE WALL.
7.RAKING BOND:
THIS IS A BOND IN BRICK WORK IN WHICH THE BONDING BRICKS ARE LAID AT ANY ANGLE OTHER
THAN ZERO OR NINETY DEGREES. THIS ARRANGEMENT HELPS TO INCREASE THE
LONGITUDINAL STABILITY OF THICK WALLS BUILT IN ENGLISH BOND. IN THIS ARRANGEMENT
OF BONDING, THE SPACE BETWEEN THE EXTERNAL STRETCHERS OF A WALL IS FILLED WITH
BRICKS INCLINED TO THE FACE OF THE WALL. THIS BOND IS INTRODUCED AT CERTAIN
INTERVALS ALONG THE HEIGHT OF A WALL.
THERE ARC TWO COMMON FORMS OF RAKING BOND ;
(A) HERRING HONE BOND
(B) DIAGONAL BOND.
(A) HERRING-BONE BOND. THIS TYPE OF BOND IS BEST SUITED FOR VERY THICK WALLS
USUALLY NOT LESS THAN FOUR BRICKS THICK. IN THIS ARRANGEMENT OF BRICK WORK,
BRICKS ARE LAID IN COURSE INCLINED AT 45 IN TWO DIRECTIONS FROM THE CENTRE. THIS
BOND IS ALSO COMMONLY USED FOR BRICK PAVINGS.
(B) DIAGONAL BOND. THIS BOND IS BEST SUITED FOR WALLS WHICH ARE 2 TO 4 BRICK THICK.
THIS BOND IS USUALLY INTRODUCED AT EVERY FIFTH OR SEVENTH COURSE ALONG THE
HEIGHT OF THE WALL. IN THIS BOND, THE BRICKS ARC PLACED END TO END IN SUCH A WAY
THAT EXTREME CORNERS OF THE SERIES REMAIN IN CONTACT WITH THE STRETCHERS.
8.DUTCH BOND:
THIS BOND IS A MODIFICATION OF THE OLD ENGLISH CROSS BOND AND CONSISTS OF
ALTERNATE COURSES OF HEADERS AND STRETCHERS. IN THIS ARRANGEMENT OF BRICK
WORK, EACH STRETCHING COURSE STARTS AT THE QUOIN WITH A THREE-QUARTER BAT
AND EVERY ALTERNATE STRETCHING COURSE HAS A HEADER PLACED NEXT TO THE THREEQUARTER BRICK BAT PROVIDED AT THE QUOIN.
9.ENGLISH CROSS-BOND:
THIS IS SIMILAR TO ENGLISH BOND AND CONSISTS OF ALTERNATE COURSE OF HEADERS AND
STRETCHERS. HOWEVER, IN THIS BOND, QUEEN CLOSER ARE INTRODUCED NEXT TO QUOIN
HEADERS AND EACH ALTERNATE STRETCHING COURSE HAS HEADER PLACED NEXT TO
QUOIN STRETCHER. THIS BOND IS SUFFICIENTLY STRONG AND BEARS A GOOD ELEVATION.
10. ZIG-ZAG BOND:
THIS IS SIMILAR TO HERRING-BONE BOND WITH THE ONLY DIFFERENCE THAT IN THIS CASE THE
BRICKS ARE LAID IN A ZIG-ZAG FASHION. THIS IS COMMONLY ADOPTED IN BRICK PAVED
FLOORING.
11. SILVERLOCKS BOND:
THIS IS A FORM OF BONDING BRICK-WORK IN WHICH BRICKS ARE LAID ON EDGE. IT IS
ECONOMICAL BUT WEAK IN STRENGTH AND HENCE IT IS ONLY RECOMMENDED FOR
GARDEN WALLS OR PARTITION WALLS. IN THIS BOND, THE BRICKS ARE LAID AS HEADERS

AND STRETCHERS IN ALTERNATE COURSES IN SUCH A WAY THAT HEADERS ARE LAID ON
BED AID THE STRETCHERS ARE LAID ON EDGE FORMING A CONTINUOUS CAVITY.
DEFINITION OF TRUSS
A TRUSS IS A VERY USEFUL STRUCTURES AS FAR AS WEIGHT OF BUILDING IS CONSIDERED.
ONE MORE DEFINITION IS THAT TRUSS IS A STRUCTURAL MEMBER THAT IS ASSEMBLED IN
SUCH A WAY THAT FORCES ARE APPLIED ONLY ON THE ENDS.

TYPES OF TRUSSES
A TRUSS CAN BE OF TWO TYPES AS FAR AS WORKSPACE IS CONSIDERED;1. PLANAR TRUSS
2. SPACE TRUSS
PLANAR TRUSS IS THAT IN WHICH MEMBERS LIE IN A TWO DIMENSIONAL PLANE WHILE
SPACE TRUSS LIES IN THREE DIMENSION.
A TRUSS IS COMPOSED OF THREE BASIC PARTS, ONE IS TOP CHORD, THE BEAM AT THE TOP
WHICH IS USUALLY IN COMPRESSION, BOTTOM CHORD, BEAM AT THE BOTTOM WHICH IS
USUALLY IN TENSION, WEBS ARE INTERIOR BEAMS.
THERE ARE VARIETY OF TRUSSES AVAILABLE DEPENDING ON THE REQUIREMENT
INCLUDING SPAN LENGTH AND LOADING CONDITION.
BASICALLY TWO TYPES OF TRUSSES EXISTS :
A) BRIDGE TRUSS
B) ROOF TRUSS
BRIDGE TRUSS
1. PRATT BRIDGE TRUSS
IT INCLUDES VERTICAL MEMBERS AND DIAGONALS THAT SLOPE DOWN TOWARDS THE CENTER.
THE DIAGONAL MEMBERS ARE SUBJECTED TO TENSION WHILE VERTICAL MEMBERS ARE
SUBJECTED TO COMPRESSION.
2. HOWE BRIDGE TRUSS
IT INCLUDES VERTICAL MEMBERS AND DIAGONALS THAT SLOPE UP TOWARDS THE CENTER.
3. BALTIMORE BRIDGE TRUSS
A BALTIMORE TRUSS HAS ADDITIONAL BRACING IN THE LOWER SECTION OF THE TRUSS TO
PREVENT BUCKLING IN THE COMPRESSION MEMBERS AND TO CONTROL DEFLECTION.
4. K BRIDGE TRUSS
A TRUSS IN THE FORM OF A K DUE TO THE ORIENTATION OF THE VERTICAL MEMBER AND TWO
OBLIQUE MEMBERS IN EACH PANEL IS KNOWN AS A K BRIDGE TRUSS
5. WARREN BRIDGE TRUSS
IT CONSISTS OF LONGITUDINAL MEMBERS JOINED ONLY BY ANGLED CROSS-MEMBERS,
FORMING ALTERNATELY INVERTED EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE-SHAPED SPACES ALONG ITS

LENGTH.
6. BAILEY BRIDGE TRUSS
IT IS DESIGNED FOR MILITARY USE, THE PREFABRICATED AND STANDARDIZED TRUSS
ELEMENTS MAY BE EASILY COMBINED IN VARIOUS CONFIGURATIONS TO ADAPT TO THE
NEEDS.
ROOF TRUSS
1. PRATT ROOF TRUSS
IT USES VERTICAL MEMBER FOR COMPRESSION AND HORIZONTAL MEMBERS TO RESPOND TO
TENSION AND IS MOST EFFICIENT UNDER STATIC AND VERTICAL LOADING.
2. FINK ROOF TRUSS
THEY ARE USED FOR LONGER SPANS HAVING HIGH PITCH ROOF, SINCE THE WEB MEMBERS IN
SUCH TRUSS ARE SUB-DIVIDED TO OBTAIN SHORTER MEMBERS.
3. HOWE ROOF TRUSS
IT IS A ROOF TRUSS WITH VERTICAL WEB MEMBERS TO TAKE TENSION FORCES AND WITH
ANGLED BRACES TO TAKE COMPRESSION.
4. WARREN ROOF TRUSS
IN WARREN ROOF TRUSS DIAGONAL MEMBERS ARE ALTERNATIVELY IN TENSION AND
COMPRESSION ARE USED IN A BUILDING RANGING FROM 20-100 M IN LENGTH.
5. KING POST ROOF TRUSS
A KING POST EXTENDS VERTICALLY FROM A CROSSBEAM TO THE APEX OF A TRIANGULAR
TRUSS. IT CONNECTS THE APEX OF THE TRUSS WITH ITS BASE, HOLDING UP THE BEAM (IN
TENSION) AT THE BASE OF THE TRUSS.
THERE ARE TWO BASIC TYPES OF TRUSS:
THE PITCHED TRUSS, OR COMMON TRUSS, IS CHARACTERIZED BY ITS TRIANGULAR
SHAPE. IT IS MOST OFTEN USED FOR ROOF CONSTRUCTION. SOME COMMON TRUSSES
ARE NAMED ACCORDING TO THEIR WEB CONFIGURATION. THE CHORD SIZE AND WEB
CONFIGURATION ARE DETERMINED BY SPAN, LOAD ANDSPACING.
THE PARALLEL CHORD TRUSS, OR FLAT TRUSS, GETS ITS NAME FROM ITS PARALLEL
TOP AND BOTTOM CHORDS. IT IS OFTEN USED FOR FLOOR CONSTRUCTION.
A COMBINATION OF THE TWO IS A TRUNCATED TRUSS, USED IN HIP ROOF CONSTRUCTION. A
METAL PLATE-CONNECTED WOOD TRUSS IS A ROOF OR FLOOR TRUSS WHOSE WOOD
MEMBERS ARE CONNECTED WITH METAL CONNECTOR PLATES.
BOWSTRING TRUSS
NAMED FOR THEIR SHAPE, BOWSTRING TRUSSES WERE FIRST USED FOR ARCHED TRUSS
BRIDGES, OFTEN CONFUSED WITH TIED-ARCH BRIDGES.
THOUSANDS OF BOWSTRING TRUSSES WERE USED DURING WORLD WAR II FOR HOLDING UP
THE CURVED ROOFS OF AIRCRAFT HANGARS AND OTHER MILITARY BUILDINGS. MANY
VARIATIONS EXIST IN THE ARRANGEMENTS OF THE MEMBERS CONNECTING THE NODES OF
THE UPPER ARC WITH THOSE OF THE LOWER, STRAIGHT SEQUENCE OF MEMBERS, FROM
NEARLY ISOSCELES TRIANGLES TO A VARIANT OF THE PRATT TRUSS.
LENTICULAR TRUSS

LENTICULAR TRUSSES, PATENTED IN 1878 BY WILLIAM DOUGLAS (ALTHOUGH THE GAUNLESS

BRIDGE OF 1823 WAS THE FIRST OF THE TYPE), HAVE THE TOP AND BOTTOM CHORDS OF
THE TRUSS ARCHED, FORMING A LENS SHAPE. A LENTICULAR PONY TRUSS BRIDGE IS A
BRIDGE DESIGN THAT INVOLVES A LENTICULAR TRUSS EXTENDING ABOVE AND BELOW THE
ROADBED.
TOWN'S LATTICE TRUSS
AMERICAN ARCHITECT ITHIEL TOWN DESIGNED TOWN'S LATTICE TRUSS AS AN ALTERNATIVE TO
HEAVY-TIMBER BRIDGES. HIS DESIGN,PATENTED IN 1820 AND 1835, USES EASY-TO-HANDLE
PLANKS ARRANGED DIAGONALLY WITH SHORT SPACES IN BETWEEN THEM.
VIERENDEEL TRUSS
THE VIERENDEEL TRUSS IS A STRUCTURE WHERE THE MEMBERS ARE NOT TRIANGULATED BUT
FORM RECTANGULAR OPENINGS, AND IS A FRAME WITH FIXED JOINTS THAT ARE CAPABLE
OF TRANSFERRING AND RESISTING BENDING MOMENTS. AS SUCH, IT DOES NOT FIT THE
STRICT DEFINITION OF A TRUSS (SINCE IT CONTAINS NON-TWO-FORCE MEMBERS);
REGULAR TRUSSES COMPRISE MEMBERS THAT ARE COMMONLY ASSUMED TO HAVE PINNED
JOINTS, WITH THE IMPLICATION THAT NO MOMENTS EXIST AT THE JOINTED ENDS. THIS
STYLE OF STRUCTURE WAS NAMED AFTER THE BELGIAN ENGINEER ARTHUR VIERENDEEL,
[22]
WHO DEVELOPED THE DESIGN IN 1896. ITS USE FOR BRIDGES IS RARE DUE TO HIGHER
COSTS COMPARED TO A TRIANGULATED TRUSS.
THE UTILITY OF THIS TYPE OF STRUCTURE IN BUILDINGS IS THAT A LARGE AMOUNT OF THE
EXTERIOR ENVELOPE REMAINS UNOBSTRUCTED AND CAN BE USED
FORFENESTRATION AND DOOR OPENINGS. THIS IS PREFERABLE TO A BRACED-FRAME
SYSTEM, WHICH WOULD LEAVE SOME AREAS OBSTRUCTED BY THE DIAGONAL BRACES.
NORTH LIGHT TRUSS
NORTH LIGHT TRUSSES ARE TRADITIONALLY USED FOR SHORT SPANS IN INDUSTRIAL
WORKSHOP-TYPE BUILDINGS. THEY ALLOW MAXIMUM BENEFIT TO BE GAINED FROM
NATURAL LIGHTING BY THE USE OF GLAZING ON THE STEEPER PITCH WHICH GENERALLY
FACES NORTH OR NORTH-EAST TO REDUCE SOLAR GAIN. ON THE STEEPER SLOPING
PORTION OF THE TRUSS, IT IS TYPICAL TO HAVE A TRUSS RUNNING PERPENDICULAR TO
THE PLANE OF THE NORTH LIGHT TRUSS, TO PROVIDE LARGE COLUMN-FREE SPACES.
SAW-TOOTH TRUSS
A VARIATION OF THE NORTH LIGHT TRUSS IS THE SAW-TOOTH TRUSS WHICH IS USED IN MULTIBAY BUILDINGS. SIMILAR TO THE NORTH LIGHT TRUSS, IT IS TYPICAL TO INCLUDE A TRUSS
OF THE VERTICAL FACE RUNNING PERPENDICULAR TO THE PLANE OF THE SAW-TOOTH
TRUSS.

TYPES OF BEAMS
BEAM - IS A STRUCTURAL MEMBER THAT SUPPORTS THE TRANSVERSE LOAD WHICH
USUALLY REST ON SUPPORTS AT ITS END.
GIRDER IS THE TERM APPLIED TO A BEAM THAT SUPPORTS ONE OR MORE SMALLER
BEAM.
BEAM ARE CLASSIFIED AS :
A)
SIMPLE BEAM
B)
CONTINUOUS BEAM
C)
SEMI CONTINUOUS

SIMPLE BEAM REFERS TO THE BEAM HAVING A SINGLE SPAN SUPPORTED AT ITS END
WITHOUT A RESTRAIN AT THE SUPPORT. SIMPLE BEAMS IS SOMETIMES CALLED AS SIMPLY
SUPPORTED BEAM.
RESTRAINT MEANS A RIGID CONNECTION OR ANCHORAGE AT THE SUPPORT.
CONTINUOUS BEAM IS A TERM APPLIED TO A BEAM THAT REST ON MORE THAN TWO
SUPPORTS.
SEMI-CONTINUOUS BEAM REFERS TO A BEAM WITH TWO SPANS WITH OR WITHOUT
RESTRAINT AT THE TWO EXTREME ENDS.
CANTILEVER BEAM:-IS SUPPORTED ON ONE END AND THE OTHER END PROJECTING
BEYOND THE SUPPORT OR WALL.
T BEAM: -WHEN FLOOR SLABS AND BEAMS. ARE POURED SIMULTANEOUSLY
PRODUCING A MONOLITHIC STRUCTURE WHERE THE PORTION OF THE SLAB AT BOTH SIDES OF
THE BEAM SERVES AS FLANGES OF THE T-BEAM.
A BEAM IS A STRUCTURAL MEMBER USED FOR BEARING LOADS. IT IS TYPICALLY USED
FOR RESISTING VERTICAL LOADS, SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS.
TYPES OF BEAMS:
BEAMS CAN BE CLASSIFIED INTO MANY TYPES BASED ON THREE MAIN CRITERIA. THEY
ARE AS FOLLOWS:
1. BASED ON GEOMETRY:
1. STRAIGHT BEAM BEAM WITH STRAIGHT PROFILE
2. CURVED BEAM BEAM WITH CURVED PROFILE
3. TAPERED BEAM BEAM WITH TAPERED CROSS SECTION
4. BASED ON THE SHAPE OF CROSS SECTION:
i. I-BEAM BEAM WITH I CROSS SECTION
ii. T-BEAM BEAM WITH T CROSS SECTION
iii.
C-BEAM BEAM WITH C CROSS SECTION
2. BASED ON EQUILIBRIUM CONDITIONS:
1. STATICALLY DETERMINATE BEAM FOR A STATICALLY DETERMINATE BEAM,
EQUILIBRIUM CONDITIONS ALONE CAN BE USED TO SOLVE REACTIONS.
2. STATICALLY INDETERMINATE BEAM FOR A STATICALLY INDETERMINATE BEAM,
EQUILIBRIUM CONDITIONS ARE NOT ENOUGH TO SOLVE REACTIONS. ADDITIONAL
DEFLECTIONS ARE NEEDED TO SOLVE REACTIONS.
3. BASED ON THE TYPE OF SUPPORT:
1. SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM
2. CANTILEVER BEAM
3. OVERHANGING BEAM
4. CONTINUOUS BEAM
5. FIXED BEAM
CLASSIFICATION OF BEAMS BASED ON THE TYPE OF SUPPORT IS DISCUSSED IN DETAIL
BELOW:
1. SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM:
A SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM IS A TYPE OF BEAM THAT HAS PINNED SUPPORT AT ONE
END AND ROLLER SUPPORT AT THE OTHER END. DEPENDING ON THE LOAD APPLIED, IT
UNDERGOES SHEARING AND BENDING. IT IS THE ONE OF THE SIMPLEST STRUCTURAL
ELEMENTS IN EXISTENCE.
2. CANTILEVER BEAM:

A CANTILEVER BEAM IS FIXED AT ONE END AND FREE AT OTHER END.

3. OVERHANGING BEAM:
A OVERHANGING BEAM IS A BEAM THAT HAS ONE OR BOTH END PORTIONS EXTENDING
BEYOND ITS SUPPORTS. IT MAY HAVE ANY NUMBER OF SUPPORTS. IF VIEWED IN A DIFFERENT
PERSPECTIVE, IT APPEARS AS IF IT IS HAS THE FEATURES OF SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM AND
CANTILEVER BEAM.
4. CONTINUOUS BEAM:
A CONTINUOUS BEAM HAS MORE THAN TWO SUPPORTS DISTRIBUTED THROUGHOUT ITS
LENGTH.
5. FIXED BEAM:
AS THE NAME SUGGESTS, FIXED BEAM IS A TYPE OF BEAM WHOSE BOTH ENDS ARE
FIXED.

TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF THE PHILIPPINES

QUEZON CITY

AR 312 S1
BUILDING TECHNOLOGY 3

ASSIGNMENT NO. 1

DEFINITIONS OF BUILDING ELEMENTS

SUBMITTED BY:
DAGOOC, REZELLE MAY M.

SECTION:

AR31FA4

SUBMITTED TO:
AR. RHOEL SAMSON

DATE:
JUNE 23, 2016