GUIDES OBSERVATION :-

AEO/ALO SPECIALISATION COURSE: 41: 805 - 808

TECHNICAL LECTURE REPORT ON

LASER NUCLEAR JET PROPULSION

HOF (L)S OBSERVATION :-

SYNDICATE :-

GUIDE :-

LT NIRMAL S

LT CDR K DURAI SANKAR

CONTENTS

SL NO

CHAPTER

PAGE NO

01

Introduction To
Laser Nuclear Jet Propulsion

02

Laser Technology

29

03

Free Electron Laser

10 13

04

Nuclear Fusion

14 20

05

Nuclear Fission

21 27

06

Laser Nuclear Jet Propulsion

28 29

07

Conclusion

30

References

31

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO LASER NUCLEAR JET PROPULSION

Fig. 1.1. Laser Nuclear Jet Engine

1.
Introduction. On 30 Jun 15, the US Patent and Trademark Office approved an
application from Boeing's Robert Budica, James Herzberg, and Frank Chandler for a
laser-and-nuclear driven airplane engine. With airplane makers constantly on the look
out for new and more efficient ways to power their products, this laser engine is the
latest inception of the engineers at Boeing.
2.
Modern airliners such as the Boeing Dreamliner are powered by multiple
turbofan engines. These engines deploy a series of fans and turbines to
compress air and ignite fuel to produce thrust, which is one of the elements a jet
needs to fly the others being lift, drag and weight.
3.
Boeing's newly-patented engine provides thrust in a very different and rather
novel manner. The patent, US 9,068,562, combines inertial confinement fusion, fission,
and a turbine that generates electricity. According to the patent filing, the laser engine
1

may also be used to power rockets, missiles, and even spacecrafts. As of now, the
engine lives only in patent documents [4].

CHAPTER 2
LASER TECHNOLOGY
1.
Introduction. Lasers are devices that produce intense beams of light which are
monochromatic, coherent, and highly collimated. The wavelength (color) of laser light is
extremely pure (monochromatic) when compared to other sources of light, and all of the
photons (energy) that make up the laser beam have a fixed phase relationship
(coherence) with respect to one another. Light from a laser typically has very low
divergence. It can travel over great distances or can be focused to a very small spot
with a brightness which exceeds that of the sun. Because of these properties, lasers are
used in a wide variety of applications in all walks of life [5].
2.
The basic operating principles of the laser were put forth by Charles Townes
and Arthur Schalow from the Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1958, and the first actual
laser, based on a pink ruby crystal, was demonstrated in 1960 by Theodor Maiman at
Hughes Research Laboratories. It has found practical applications in scientific,
industrial, commercial, and military applications and has been growing rapidly.
3.
The term laser is an acronym for (L)ight (A)mplification by (S)timulated
(E)mission of (R)adiation. The term light is generally accepted to be electromagnetic
radiation ranging from 1 nm to 1000 mm in wavelength. The visible spectrum ranges
from approximately 400 to 700 nm. The wavelength range from 700 nm to 10 mm is
considered the near infrared (NIR), and anything beyond that is the far infrared (FIR).
Conversely, 200 to 400 nm is called ultraviolet (UV); below 200 nm is the deep ultraviolet (DUV).
4.
The Bohr Atom.
In 1915, Neils Bohr proposed a model of the atom that
explained a wide variety of phenomena that were puzzling scientists in the late 19th
century. This simple model became the basis for the field of quantum mechanics and,
although not fully accurate by todays understanding, still is useful for demonstrating
laser principles.

Fig. 2.1. The Bohr atom and a simple energy level diagram
5.
In Bohrs model, shown in figure 2.1, electrons orbit the nucleus of an atom.
Unlike earlier planetary models, the Bohr atom has a limited number of fixed orbits that
are available to the electrons. Under the right circumstances an electron can go from its
ground state (lowest-energy orbit) to a higher (excited) state, or it can decay from a
higher state to a lower state, but it cannot remain between these states. The allowed
energy states are called quantum states and are referred to by the principal quantum
numbers 1, 2, 3, etc. The quantum states are represented by an energy-level diagram
[5].
6.
For an electron to jump to a higher quantum state, the atom must receive energy
from the outside world. This can happen through a variety of mechanisms such as
inelastic or semielastic collisions with other atoms and absorption of energy in the form
of electro- magnetic radiation (e.g., light). Likewise, when an electron drops from a
higher state to a lower state, the atom must give off energy, either as kinetic activity
(nonradiative transitions) or as electro- magnetic radiation (radiative transitions). For the
remainder of this discussion we will consider only radiative transitions.
7.
Photons and Energy. In the 1600s and 1700s, early in the modern study of
light, there was a great controversy about lights nature. Some thought that light was
made up of particles, while others thought that it was made up of waves. Both concepts
explained some of the behavior of light, but not all. It was finally determined that light is
made up of particles called photons which exhibit both particle-like and wave-like
properties. Each photon has an intrinsic energy determined by the equation:-

where,
is the frequency of light and h is Plancks constant.
Since, for a wave, the frequency and wavelength are related by the equation:-

where,
is the wavelength of light and c is the speed of light in vacuum.
Rewriting the above equation,

8.
Returning to the Bohr atom: for an atom to absorb light (i.e., for the light energy
to cause an electron to move from a lower energy state En to a higher energy state
Em), the energy of a single photon must equal, almost exactly, the energy difference
between the two states. Too much energy or too little energy and the photon will not be
absorbed. Consequently, the wavelength of that photon must be:-

where,
E = Em En
Likewise, when an electron decays to a lower energy level in a radiative transition, the
photon of light given off by the atom must also have an energy equal to the energy
difference between the two states [5].

Fig. 2.2. Spontaneous & Stimulated Emission

9.
Spontaneous & Stimulated Emission. In general, when an electron is in an
excited energy state, it must eventually decay to a lower level, giving off a photon of
radiation. This event is called spontaneous emission, and the photon is emitted in a
random direction and a random phase. The average time it takes for the electron to
decay is called the time constant for spontaneous emission, and is represented by t [5].
10.
On the other hand, if an electron is in energy state E2, and its decay path is to
E1, but, before it has a chance to spontaneously decay, a photon happens to pass by
whose energy is approximately E2 - E1, there is a probability that the passing photon
will cause the electron to decay in such a manner that a photon is emitted at exactly the
same wavelength, in exactly the same direction, and with exactly the same phase as
the passing photon. This process is called stimulated emission. Absorption,
5

spontaneous emission and stimulated emission are illustrated in figure 2.2.

Fig. 2.3. Amplification by Stimulated Emission

11.
Now consider the group of atoms shown in figure 2.3: all begin in exactly the
same excited state, and most are effectively within the stimulation range of a passing
photon. We also will assume that t is very long, and that the probability for stimulated
emission is 100 percent. The incoming (stimulating) photon interacts with the first atom,
causing stimulated emission of a coherent photon; these two photons then interact with
the next two atoms in line, and the result is four coherent photons, on down the line. At
the end of the process, we will have eleven coherent photons, all with identical phases
and all traveling in the same direction. In other words, the initial photon has been
amplified by a factor of eleven. Note that the energy to put these atoms in excited
states is provided externally by some energy source which is usually referred to as the
pump source.
12.
In any real population of atoms, the probability for stimulated emission is quite
small. Furthermore, not all of the atoms are usually in an excited state; in fact, the
opposite is true. Boltzmanns principle, a fundamental law of thermodynamics, states
that, when a collection of atoms is at thermal equilibrium, the relative population of any
two energy levels is given by:6

where,
N2 and N1 are the populations of the upper and lower energy states, respectively, T is
the equilibrium temperature, and k is Boltzmanns constant [5].
13.
For a normal population of atoms, there will always be more atoms in the lower
energy levels than in the upper ones. Since the probability for an individual atom to
absorb a photon is the same as the probability for an excited atom to emit a photon via
stimulated emission, the collection of real atoms will be a net absorber, not a net emitter,
and amplification will not be possible. Consequently, to make a laser, we have to create
a population inversion.

Fig. 2.4. Four level laser pumping system

14.
Population Inversion. Atomic energy states are much more complex than
indicated by the description above. There are many more energy levels, and each one
has its own time constants for decay. The four-level energy diagram shown in figure 2.4
is representative of some real lasers [5].
7

15.
The electron is pumped (excited) into an upper level E4 by some mechanism (for
example, a collision with another atom or absorption of high-energy radiation). It then
decays to E3, then to E2, and finally to the ground state E1. Let us assume that the time
it takes to decay from E3 to E2 is much longer than the time it takes to decay from E2 to
E1. In a large population of such atoms, at equilibrium and with a continuous pumping
process, a population inversion will occur between the E3 and E2 energy states, and a
photon entering the population will be amplified coherently.

Fig. 2.5. Schematic diagram of a basic laser

16.
Resonator. Although with a population inversion we have the ability to amplify a
signal via stimulated emission, the overall single-pass gain is quite small, and most of
the excited atoms in the population emit spontaneously and do not contribute to the
overall output. To turn this system into a laser, we need a positive feedback mechanism
that will cause the majority of the atoms in the population to contribute to the coherent
output. This is the resonator, a system of mirrors that reflects undesirable (off-axis)
photons out of the system and reflects the desirable (on-axis) photons back into the
excited population where they can continue to be amplified.
17.
Now consider the laser system shown in figure 2.5. The lasing medium is
pumped continuously to create a population inversion at the lasing wavelength. As the
excited atoms start to decay, they emit photons spontaneously in all directions. Some of
the photons travel along the axis of the lasing medium, but most of the photons are
directed out the sides. The photons traveling along the axis have an opportunity to
8

stimulate atoms they encounter to emit photons, but the ones radiating out the sides do
not. Furthermore, the photons traveling parallel to the axis will be reflected back into the
lasing medium and given the opportunity to stimulate more excited atoms. As the onaxis photons are reflected back and forth interacting with more and more atoms,
spontaneous emission decreases, stimulated emission along the axis predominates,
and we have a laser.
18.
Finally, to get the light out of the system, one of the mirrors has a partially
transmitting coating that couples out a small percentage of the circulating photons. The
amount of coupling depends on the characteristics of the laser system and varies from a
fraction of a percent for helium neon lasers to 50 percent or more for high-power lasers
[5].
19.
Categories of lasers. Since the discovery of the laser, literally thousands of
types of lasers have been discovered. As Arthur Shawlow is purported to have said, Hit
it hard enough and anything will lase. However, only a relative few of these lasers have
found broadly based, practical applications.
20.
Lasers can be broadly classified into four categories: gas discharge lasers,
semiconductor diode lasers, optically pumped lasers, and other, category which
includes free electron lasers, chemical lasers, gas-dynamics lasers, x-ray lasers,
combustion lasers, and others developed primarily for military applications.

CHAPTER 3
FREE ELECTRON LASERS

Fig. 3.1. Schematic diagram of a free electron laser

1.
Introduction. Free-electron lasers are radiation sources, based on the coherent
emission of relativistic electrons within an undulator or wiggler. They can be tuned over
the entire spectrum from micrometer to X-ray radiation. The high brightness and the
spectral range of this kind of radiation source allows studying physical and chemical
processes on a femto second scale with angstrom resolution.
2.
Technical Principles. A free-electron laser (FEL) transforms the kinetic energy
of a relativistic electron beam produced by a particle accelerator like a radio frequency
(RF) linear accelerator into electromagnetic (EM) radiation. The transformation occurs
when the beam goes through an alternating magnetic eld, produced by a magnet
called an undulator, that forces the electrons to move in an oscillatory trajectory about
the axis of the system, as shown in Fig 3.1. An electromagnetic wave propagates
together with the electron beam along the undulator axis, and interacts with the
electrons [6].
(a)
The undulator magnet is a periodic structure in which the eld alternates
between positive and negative values and has zero average value. It produces
an electron trajectory having a transverse velocity component perpendicular to
the axis and parallel to the electric eld of the wave, thus allowing an energy
exchange between the two to take place. One can either transfer energy from the
beam to the wave, in which case the device is an FEL, or from the wave to the
beam, in which case it is an inverse FEL (IFEL). In the second case, the system
10

is acting like a particle accelerator and can be used to accelerate the electron
beam to higher energies.
(b)
The energy transfer can take place only if a condition of synchronism
between the wave and the beam oscillations is satised. This condition gives a
relationship between the radiation wavelength , the electron beam velocity z
along the undulator axis (measured in units of the light velocity c), and the
undulator period 0.

(c)

The undulator strength parameter is given by:-

where e is the electron charge, B is the magnetic field, u is the spacial period of
the undulator magnets, me is the electron rest mass, and c is the speed of light,
characterizes the nature of the electron motion. For K << 1, the oscillation
amplitude of the motion is small and the radiation displays interference patterns
which lead to narrow energy bands. If K >> 1, the oscillation amplitude is bigger
and the radiation contributions from each field period sum up independently,
leading to a broad energy spectrum. In this regime of fields the device is no
longer called an undulator; it is called a wiggler.
3.
Because of the dependence of the radiation wavelength on the undulator period,
magnetic eld, and electron-beam, the FEL is a tunable device that can be operated
over a very large frequency range. At present, the range extends from the microwave to
the UV. A new FEL is now under construction in the United States to reach the X-ray
region, about 0.1 nm. A similar program is being developed in Germany, and other FEL
to cover the intermediate region between 0.1 nm and the UV are also being considered
by several countries [6].
4.
The efciency of the energy transfer from the beam kinetic energy to the EM
wave is between 0.1 to a few percent for most FELs, but it can be quite large, up to
about 40%, for specially designed systems. The beam energy not transferred to the EM
wave remains in the beam and can be easily taken out of the system, to be disposed of,
or recovered elsewhere. The time structure of the laser beam mirrors that of the
electron beam. Depending on the accelerator used, one can design systems that are
continuous-wave (cw) or with pulses as short as picoseconds or subpicoseconds.
5.
Tunability, high efciency, and time structure make the FEL a very attractive
source of coherent EM power. Its applications range from purely scientic research in
11

physics, chemistry, and biology to military, medical, and industrial applications.

6.
FELs originate in the work carried out in the 1950s and 1960s on the generation
of coherent EM radiation from electron beams in the microwave region. As scientists
tried to push power sources to shorter and shorter wavelengths, it became apparent
that the efciency of the microwave tubes, and the power they produced, dropped
rapidly in the millimeter region. It was then realized that this problem could be overcome
by using an undulator magnet to modify the beam trajectory, making it possible for the
beam to interact with a wave, away from any metallic boundary.
7.
The current disadvantage of FELs is the greater complexity and cost associated
with the use of a particle accelerator. For this reason, the use and development of FELs
are mainly oriented to the following:(a)
Portions of the EM spectrum, like the far infrared (FIR), or the soft and
hard X-ray region, where atomic or molecular lasers are not available or are
limited in power and tenability.
(b)

large-average power, high-efciency system [6].

Table 3.1. Particle accelerators for FELs

Sl No

Energy

Peak current

Pulse length

Wavelength

Electrostatic
Induction
Linear
accelerator
Storage ring

110 MeV

15 A

120 s

mm to 0.1 mm

150 MeV

110 kA

10100 ns

cm to m

0.110 GeV

1-1000 A

30 ps1 ns

1 m to nm

RF linear
accelerator

0.0125 GeV

100- 5000A

0.130 ps

100 m to 0.1
nm

8.
Physical Principles. An FEL has three fundamental components: an electron
beam of given energy and intensity and the associated accelerator used to produce it;
the undulator magnet; and the EM wave and the associated optical components
controlling its propagation. The accelerators used to provide the electron beam are of
many types: electrostatic induction line, radio-frequency (rf) linear accelerator, pulsed
diode, or storage rings. Some of their basic characteristics, their energy ranges, and the
FEL wavelengths for which they are more commonly used are given in Table 3.1.

12

9.
Undulator magnets are of two main types:- helical and planar. In the rst case,
the magnetic eld vector rotates around the axis as a function of axial distance; in the
second case, its direction is xed, and its amplitude oscillates along the axis. These
magnets can be, and have been, built using a wide variety of technologies: pulsed or
DC electromagnets, permanent magnets, and superconducting magnets. The eld
amplitude can vary from a fraction of a tesla to over 1 T, and the period from 1 cm to
many centimeters. The FEL can be operated as an oscillator, using an optical cavity to
conne the radiation in the undulator region or it can be used as an amplier.
10.
FEL Amplification.
In an FEL, as in an atomic laser, there is a phase
correlation between emitting electrons. This correlation is obtained by modulating the
longitudinal beam density on the scale of the radiation wavelength, a process called
bunching. When electrons are bunched together in a distance that is short compared to
the wavelength of the radiation, they emit in phase, thus increasing the intensity in the
emitted line and simultaneously reducing its width. It is a three step mechanism.
(a)
The modulation of the electron energy due to the interaction with the
radiation eld.
(b)
The change in the longitudinal position of the electrons owing to the path
length difference of the trajectories within the undulator of electrons with different
energies.
(c)
The emission of radiation by the electrons and, thus, growth in the
radiation eld amplitude [6].
11.
The FEL process is either initiated by a seeding radiation eld or by the inherent
uctuation in the electron position at the undulator entrance. The rst classies the freeelectron laser as an FEL amplier, while the latter is called a self-amplifying
spontaneous radiation (SASE) FEL, where the initial radiation level is produced by the
spontaneous radiation.

CHAPTER 4
NUCLEAR FUSION
13

Fig. 4.1. Schematic diagram of a fusion reaction

1.
Introduction. Nuclear fusion is essentially the antithesis of the fission process.
Light nuclei are combined in order to release excess binding energy and they form a
heavier nucleus. Fusion reactions are responsible for the energy of the sun. They have
also been used on earth for uncontrolled release of large quantities of energy in the
thermonuclear or hydrogen bombs. The enormous potential and the problems
associated with controlled use of this essentially nondepletable energy source are the
key to addressing mankinds energy demands for a very long time to come [7].
2.
Fusion reactions. As the nuclei of two light atoms are brought closer to each
other, they become increasingly destabilized, due to the electric repulsion of their
positive charges. Work must be expended to achieve this and so the energy of the two
nuclei increases. If this activation energy is provided to overcome the repulsive forces,
fusion of the two nuclei into a stable heavier nucleus will take place and a large amount
of energy will be released. The net energy output is potentially larger in the case of
fusion than in the case of fission. The reaction describing the fusion of deuterium and
tritium into helium is only one of the possible reactions. The others are the following:-

3.
Deuterium and tritium are the main ingredients in most fusion reactions.
Deuterium is a stable form of hydrogen; it is found in ordinary water. Tritium is
radioactive form of hydrogen, not found in nature. In contrast to the situation with
fission, where tritium is produced (and thus contributes to radioactivity), here it is
14

consumed. As shown above, it can be obtained from lithium, Li-6, a relatively abundant
metal found in mineral ores. A simple calculation, based on the fact that there is one
deuterium atom in every 6500 atoms of hydrogen, shows that in 65,000 pounds of water
there is about one pound of deuterium. Now, water is in general an abundant resource
on our planet. This fact, together with the fact that enormous amounts of energy are
released in fusion reactions, makes fusion an essentially nondepletable energy source.
4.
Fusion reactors. Fusion offers several advantages over fission. One advantage
is that the reserves of fusionable isotopes are much larger than those of fissionable
isotopes; in fact, they are essentially unlimited. Another advantage is that the products
of fusion reactions are less radioactive then the products of fission reactions. Among the
products of the fusion reactions listed above, only tritium and the neutrons are
radioactive. The last advantage of fusion lies in its inherent safety. There would be very
little fusionable material at any given time in the reactor and the likelihood of a runaway
reaction would thus be very small. Furthermore, the reaction is so hard to achieve that
small perturbations in reactor conditions would probably terminate it [7].
5.

The basic challenges of fusion are the following:(a)

Heating of the reacting mixture to a very high temperature, to overcome
the repulsive forces of positively charged nuclei.
(b)
Compressing the mixture to a high density so that the probability of
collision (and thus reaction) among the nuclei can be high.
(c)
Keeping the reacting mixture together long enough for the fusion reaction
to produce energy at a rate that is greater than the rate of energy input (as heat
and compression).

Table 4.1 shows the mind-boggling temperature thresholds (ignition temperatures)

needed to accomplish some of the fusion reactions shown above.

Table 4.1. Heating requirements for selected fusion reactions

Fusion Reaction

Threshold Temperature (C)

D+D= + 3.3 MeV (79 MJ/g)2He3 + n

400,000,000
15

D+D= T+p+ 4.0 MeV (97 MJ/g)

400,000,000

D+T= + 17.6 MeV (331 MJ/g)2He4 + n

45,000,000

D + 2He3 = + 18.3 MeV (353 MJ/g)2He4

+p

350,000,000

where,
D=deuterium; T=tritium; p=proton; n=neutron.
6.
The second and third challenges are collectively referred to as the confinement
problem. It is easily understood that the reacting mixture called plasma at the high
temperatures involved cannot be brought together (or confined) in ordinary vessels.
The presence of solid vessels is ruled out because they would carry away the heat
necessary to reach the very high ignition temperatures. Magnets (magnetic
confinement) and lasers (inertial confinement) are used. Current research efforts in the
development of nuclear fusion technology are focused on achieving the so-called
breakeven point. The production of a plasma at sufficiently high temperature and
particle density, held together long enough to produce at least as much energy as is
being consumed in this process, is being pursued. In addition to the temperature
requirement, the so-called Lawson criterion must be met, meaning that the product of
particle density (in nuclei per cubic centimeter) and confinement time (in seconds) must
exceed 10^14. This criterion can be satisfied, for example, by having 10^14 nuclei/cm3
held together for one second (using magnetic confinement), or by having 10^25
nuclei/cm3 held together for 10-11 seconds (using inertial confinement) [7].
7.
Inertial Confinement Fusion.
The connement times are extremely short
(10^ -10 s), but the particle densities are typically greater than 10^ 2 cm3. In this
scheme a small amount of fusionable material is compressed to very high densities and
temperatures by applying strong external forces through the following phases:-

16

Fig. 4.2. Schematic diagram of a target capsule

(a)
Interaction Phase. This is done by using a capsule consisting of a
spherical shell lled with deuterium-tritium gas (1.0 mg/cm3 ). The shell itself
consists of a high-Z material at the outside and an inner region of DT, which
forms the bulk of the fuel (see Fig 4.2). To reach the conditions of high
temperature and density required for fusion, the capsule needs to be exposed to
an enormous burst of energy applied as symmetrically as possible. The required
energy input to drive this whole process is very high: to heat a 1-mm diameter
capsule of fuel to 10 keV temperatures requires 105 J, which can be supplied by
intense laser light or ion beams. This might not seem so demanding, but the
energy has to be to delivered in a few picoseconds to the outer part of the target
shell. Because of this burst of energy onto the outer part of the target shell, the
shell heats up, ionizes and vaporizes immediately [8].
(b)
Compression Phase. To a large extent, the interaction phase already
determines how successful the compression phase will be (i.e., to what degree
the capsule can be illuminated uniformly on its entire surface). Illumination
nonuniformity occurs on two scales microscopic and macroscopic.
(i)
Macroscopic nonuniformities can, for example, be caused by an
insucient number of beams or the existence of a power imbalance
between the individual beams. One reason for microscopic
nonuniformities is the presence of spatial uctuations within a single beam
17

itself. There are two ways to handle the macroscopic instabilities. The
obvious one is to reduce the macroscopic nonuniformities by taking a
sucient number of beams. This is done in the direct-drive ICF scheme.
However, using many laser beams makes such systems very expensive
and technically challenging.

Fig. 4.3. Schematic diagram of a hohlraum

(ii)
As an alternative to this direct approach, the x-ray or indirect-drive
approach has been developed in which the laser energy is rst absorbed
in a hohlraum, which is essentially an enclosure around the ICF capsule. A
schematic picture of the indirect-drive scheme is shown in Fig 4.3. Here
the laser does not strike the capsule directly but instead the inside of the
enclosure. This enclosure consists of high-Z material and emits x-rays
when it is heated by the laser beams. It is these x-rays that then drive the
implosion of the ICF capsule [8].

(c)
Deceleration Phase. As the outer part of the shell blasts o , the inner
part, essentially the fuel is strongly accelerated toward the center of the sphere
as a consequence of momentum conservation. In some sense the capsule
behaves like a spherical ablation-driven rocket. When the inner part of the fuel
reaches the center of the capsule the deceleration phase begins. The kinetic
energy of the inner part of the fuel is converted into internal energy. The result is
that both temperature and density increase in the center, whereas the main part
18

of the fuel remains relatively undisturbed giving fusion-ignition temperatures at

the center, so that ignition can occur.
(d)
Ignition & Burn Phase. When the temperature and density conditions
are right, ignition occurs. The -particles produced deposit their energy primarily
in this central area and heat it up very quickly. The radiation, the fusion neutrons,
and thermal conduction by the electrons then transports the energy from the hot
spot region to the outer fuel area. The temperature of this outer region increases,
so that fusion reactions can also take place there and the burn propagates
further outward. The entire process takes approximately 10 ps. During this time a
very high pressure builds up that will eventually blow apart the remaining fuel and
thermalized -particles. This is then the end of the ICF cycle [8].
8.
One important consideration is the way the fuel is compressed to high densities
and temperatures. In the early days of fusion research, it was thought that the whole of
the fuel should be compressed to fusion conditions at the end of the compression
phase. This concept is called volume ignition. It turned out that this would require an
unrealistically high driver energy of 60 MJ. The two key points here are that:(a)

It takes more energy to heat fuel than to compress it.

(b)
The compression of hot material is more energy-consuming than for cold
material.
9.
For these reasons, the so-called hot-spot concept is considered more likely to
achieve the fusion goal. In this approach the fuel moves inward with increasing
velocities as the driver deposits its energy. The result of this acceleration is that the
inner part of the fuel is compressed into a higher temperature adiabat (510 keV) than
the outer part of the fuel (1 keV). Both parts will be compressed to high densities, but
the inner hot part is slightly less dense (100 g/cm3 ) than the outer part (800 g/cm3 ).
The lower density of the inner part is due to the fact that the fuel expands toward the
center in the initial acceleration phase.
10.
In the hot-spot concept the burn of the fusion material begins in the central area.
From there a thermonuclear burn front propagates rapidly outward into the main fuel
region producing high gain. Gain is dened here as the ratio between the fusion energy
produced and the total energy put into the driver beams. Because less material needs
to be heated in the hot-spot scheme, it is more energy ecient than volume ignition
(12 MJ) and has the advantage that the external dense fuel layer provides better
connement. Studies show that if the target is constructed in such a way that the central
19

hot- spot contains 2% of the total fuel mass, heating the hot-spot mass and
compressing the remaining fuel will need comparable energy.
11.
Target Chamber. X-rays are also present because not all energy focused onto
the target can be transfered to push the implosion and some of this ends up as x-rays.
These are absorbed by the inner surface of the target chamber and vaporize the top
layer of the surface, thereby creating debris. In addition there is the debris of the ignited
target. The target chamber has to withstand the high velocities of these particles and
strong mechanical forces. In a power plant this debris has to be quickly cleared up by
condensation before the next target can be ignited. Because of the complex processes
of debris deposition, the chamber wall is a key issue in planning an ICF reactor.
12.
There are already a number of conceptual designs for the target chamber walls.
One can distinguish three primary categories: dry wall chambers, solid wall chambers
protected with a liquid lm and neutronically thick liquid walls. Technically complex
walls are considered because the fast-ying neutrons basically knock atoms out of their
location when they hit the wall. This is more damaging to solid material with a more
xed atomic structure than for liquid matter. In the wetted-wall concept a renewable
liquid provides the shielding of the structural components from the damage by neutrons.
Fabrics or thin tubes guide the liquid ow and control the geometry of the liquid. These
are also designed to be easily replaceable. Thin liquid lms or sheets shield x-ray
ablation of ow guiding structures. Here uid mechanical questions replace the question
of the material. In this concept no replacement of the blanket is required.
13.
Safety Hazards. For a reactor, safety issues will inevitably play a major role.
There are several points to consider: the hazard of an accident, spent fuels, activated
dust from plasma-facing components, and radioactivity after the shut-down of such a
machine or the exchange of certain components. The chances of a major accident are
nearly neglible compared to a ssion reactor: melt-down as such cannot occur, because
if anything goes wrong the implosion will be unsuccessful and the fusion reactions are
simply turned o by themselves. The decay heat from activated material is in the worst
case just a few hundred degrees far too little to melt the target chamber [8].

20

CHAPTER 5
NUCLEAR FISSION
1.
Introduction. Refreshing all the physics needed to understand the main issues
surrounding nuclear energy utilization, the simplistic analogy between the chemical
reactions of combustion of fossil fuels and the nuclear reactions of fission of radioactive
isotopes are analysed. The interest in nuclear energy lies in the fact that much more
energy is released per unit mass of a nuclear fuel than per unit mass of a fossil fuel.
This is a mixed blessing. It has led to the development of nuclear weapons. It has also
provided the incentive to convert nuclear energy into abundant electricity that can be
utilized on a variety of platforms.
2.
Principles of Nuclear Fission.
Uranium 235(U- 235) is the principal
constituent of the fuel rods in a nuclear reactor. In 235 grams of U-235 there are as
many as 6x1023 atoms, an important number known as Avogadro's number. All these
atoms can undergo fission, according to the following nuclear equation:

3.
In this fission event, one among billion quadrillion identical ones, the fissionable
uranium atom (nucleus) reacts with a neutron, becomes temporarily unstable and is
fragmented very soon thereafter into a nucleus of barium (Ba) and a nucleus of krypton
(Kr). Note that the number of protons on the left-hand side of a nuclear equation (in this
case, 92+0=92) is equal to the number of protons on the right-hand side (56+36=92);
the number of neutrons is also equal on both sides of the equation (235+1=144+89+3).
Atoms are not conserved, but nucleons are. This is the difference between a chemical
reaction and a nuclear reaction. Atoms are conserved in chemical reactions; they are
just rearranged to form different molecules. In nuclear reactions, nucleons are
rearranged to form different nuclei but they are conserved. What is of greatest interest
to us in the above nuclear reaction is to calculate how much energy is released in each
fission event and to observe that three free neutrons are produced for every neutron
that is consumed [9].
4.
Energy Content of Nuclear Fuels. To understand the fission reaction, and its
difference from fusion, consider the simplistic but instructive analogy with the movement
of marbles on a roller coaster (Figure 5.1). The path of the fission reaction is from left to
right. From bottom to top, the energy of the reacting atoms (or marbles) increases; also,
when these particles are in the valleys, they are relatively stable, and when they are at
21

the crests, they are unstable. The energy of a nucleus of U-235 increases when it
collides with and temporarily absorbs a neutron. This energy buildup makes the nucleus
of U-236 very unstable. Because a neutron is electrically neutral, it does not take much
energy to bring the radioactive U-235 to the top of the hill. Once it overcomes this
activation energy barrier, the very unstable U-236 spontaneously rolls downhill: it
splits into two fissionable fragments and eventually transforms into more stable fission
products [9].

Fig. 5.1. Schematic diagram of a fission reaction

5.
Chain Reaction. As much as 85% of the energy released in the fission process
appears as kinetic energy of the fragments. The rest is referred to as the radioactivity.
As the high-speed fragments collide with surrounding matter, they induce random
motion of the surrounding atoms and molecules; their kinetic energy is thus converted to
heat. This heat is used in turn to produce electricity in a nuclear reactor or is allowed to
cause an explosion in an atomic bomb. The fate of the neutrons produced in the fission
process is the key to understanding the difference between a controlled nuclear
22

reaction, which takes place inside a nuclear reactor, and an uncontrolled nuclear
reaction, which leads to the explosion of an atomic bomb.

Fig. 5.2. Schematic diagram of a chain reaction

6.
Nuclear fission is an example of a chain reaction. This is illustrated in Figure 5.2.
Each one of the three neutrons produced in the first fission event goes on to collide with
other U- 235 nuclei. This new collision event will in turn produce three additional
neutrons; so after two collisions, a total of nine neutrons will be obtained. This increase
in neutron inventory (3-9-27-81-243-729-etc.) is similar to the population rise and is yet
another example of exponential growth. Because this exponential growth is
accompanied by heat release, an exponential build-up of heat occurs at the same time.
There is no way to dissipate or carry away all this heat, so the temperature of the solid
material (within which fission occurs) increases, the material melts and then vaporizes.
This in turn causes a pressure build-up which ultimately results in an explosion [9].
7.
This description of an uncontrolled chain reaction represents the sequence of
events in a nuclear bomb or in a nuclear accident. For an atomic bomb it has been
estimated that approximately 15 billion BTU of heat are released in just 50
microseconds. The control of neutron inventory is the key. Both the quantity and the
quality of neutrons are important for the peaceful and effective utilization of this energy.
We first want to maintain a steady number of neutrons. Ideally, only one of the three
neutrons produced in each collision will be allowed to carry the chain and continue the
fission process until all fissionable material is consumed. Such a process generates a
constant quantity of heat. This heat can be dissipated easily and the temperature of the
material can be maintained below its melting point.
23

Fig. 5.3. Schematic diagram of a controlled chain reaction

This self-sustained chain reaction is illustrated in Figure 5.3. A self-sustained chain
reaction is achieved by the use of a material that is capable of absorbing neutrons. A
typical example of such a material is the element boron. Its reaction with a neutron is
very simple, as shown below:-

8.
In contrast to uranium fission, in which we have a net production of neutrons
(three neutrons produced for every neutron consumed), here we have a net
consumption of neutrons; indeed, no neutrons are produced, as shown on the righthand-side of this nuclear equation. If this material is present together with the
fissionable uranium, it can control the neutron inventory. This is the principle of
operation of the control rods in a nuclear reactor [9].
9.
The kinetic energy of the neutrons and fragments produced in a fission reaction
is so large that they travel through the fissionable material at very high speeds. Yet it
turns out that the neutrons having an intermediate speed are the ones that are most
effective in forming the highly unstable U-236 and thus causing fission of U-235. If the
speed of the neutrons is too low, they may not have sufficient energy to split apart the
nuclei of U-235. It is clear then that the neutrons produced in the fission event need to
acquire a well-defined quality. The moderator in a nuclear reactor is a material (for
example, graphite or water) that has the ability to provide this optimum or moderate
speed to the neutrons: as fast-traveling neutrons collide with the atoms of carbon or
hydrogen, they are slowed down by just the right amount and are not absorbed (or lost).
24

Fig. 5.4. Schematic diagram of a nuclear reactor

10.
Nuclear power plant. It is in all respects similar to a fossil-fuel power plant. The
only difference is that the steam is produced by the heat released during a nuclear
reaction, in a nuclear reactor, instead of being produced by the heat released during
fossil-fuel combustion in a boiler. In other words, the nuclear reactor is a device in which
nuclear energy is converted to thermal energy; it is, indeed, a large, complex and
expensive water boiler. Subsequent conversion of thermal energy to mechanical energy
takes place in a conventional turbine and the conversion of mechanical energy to
electricity takes place in a conventional generator [9]. There are four principal
components in every nuclear reactor:-

(a)

Fuel rods (also called reactor core)

25

(b)
(c)
(d)

Control rods
Moderator
Heat-transfer medium (or coolant)

11.
The heat transfer medium is necessary to carry away the heat generated in the
reactor core. The thermal energy generated is used, either within the core itself or
elsewhere in the reactor, to boil water and produce steam. At the same time, as the
water circulates through the core, it cools the core and prevents it from melting. The
core consists of a large number (assembly) of fuel rods. These are long thin metal
cylinders that contain the individual pellets of the fissionable material, usually uranium235. The material within the pellets is not all U-235. In a typical reactor, only 3% of the
material is U-235; the rest is nonfissionable U-238. The rods can be loaded individually
into the core and removed from it.
12.
The control rods are similar to the fuel rods, except that they contain a neutron
absorbing material instead of the fissionable material. The elements boron (B) and
cadmium (Cd) are commonly used for this purpose. These rods can be moved into the
core and out of it. This allows the operators to control the production of neutrons within
the core. Think of the control rods as being analogous to the accelerator pedal in an
automobile, which controls the injection of fuel into the engine. All nuclear reactors have
a Self-Controlled Remote Automatic Mechanism (SCRAM): in the case of an accident, it
inserts the control rods completely into the core in a very short time. This maximizes the
absorption of neutrons and shuts down the reactor in much the same way as taking the
foot off the accelerator pedal will cause the car to come to a stop.
13.
The moderator material is also placed between the fuel rods. Indeed, it fills most
of the space within the reactor core. As discussed earlier, its function is to slow down
the neutrons emitted during fission and thus maximize the probability of sustaining the
chain reaction. How it accomplishes this can be understood by considering the
collisions between neutrons and nuclei to be analogous to collisions between billiard
balls. A good moderating medium contains atoms with light nuclei, so that each collision
of a neutron with an atom causes only a partial loss of its speed. Ordinary (light) water
contains hydrogen (1H1) atoms, which have the right size to achieve this. After a
trajectory of only about 6 cm through water, the speed of the neutrons (ejected during
fission) becomes adequate for further fission [9]. One problem with the collision of a
neutron and a hydrogen nucleus (proton) is that the neutron may be lost (absorbed) in
the following reaction:-

26

For this reason, other moderators are sometimes used, such as carbon (graphite) or
heavy (deuterated) water (water in which normal, light hydrogen is replaced by
deuterium).
14.
Figure 5.4 shows a simplified view of the reactor core. It helps us to visualize the
sequence of events taking place in the reactor. As the fission reactions occur inside the
fuel rods, high-speed neutrons and fission fragments are ejected from the radioactive
atoms. As the fragments collide with the surrounding atoms within the fuel rods, they
give up their kinetic energy as heat. The neutrons, on the other hand, escape from the
fuel rods and, as they travel outward, they collide with the atoms of the moderator. They
lose kinetic energy in this process. Their speed decreases and the probability of their
splitting another fissionable atom, within another fuel rod, increases. This makes
possible a self-sustained chain reaction. In their path, the neutrons may also encounter
the control rods; when this occurs, they are absorbed and can cause no further fission.
Finally, the heat-transfer medium (water or gas) flows through the spaces between the
rods, cools them, becomes itself hotter and thus carries away the heat that is
generated. The sequence of events described above is common to all nuclear reactors.
Neutron inventory is the key to their normal operation. This normal operation is often
described in terms of a reproduction constant, K. This is the average number of
neutrons from each fission event that will cause another fission event.
(a)
K<1 : Reactor is subcritical (chain reaction stops)
(b)
K=1 : Reactor is critical (self-sustained chain reaction)
(c)
K>1 : Reactor is supercritical (power increases; the chain reaction may
run away and even lead to explosion) [9].
The reproduction constant of a reactor is regulated by the positioning of the control rods
inside the core. It also depends on the quantity of fissionable material inside the core
[8].
15.
Waste Disposal. The spent fuel in a nuclear reactor is simply stored in water
pools. A more permanent disposal involves enclosing the spent fuel within a glass
material, storing the glass within a leak-tight capsule and finally burying the capsules in
a deep salt mine. Such salt deposits are often preferred because their existence
indicates that there has been no active groundwater in the area for centuries.
Otherwise, the salt would have dissolved in it. The absence of water minimizes the risk
of radioactive material being leached out and brought back to the surface.

27

CHAPTER 6
LASER NUCLEAR JET PROPULSION

1.
Laser Nuclear Jet Propulsion. The new jet engine patent is centered
around the firing of high-powered lasers at radioactive material in order to
vaporize that material to create a fusion reaction or small nuclear explosion. The
exhaust by-products of that explosion (Hydrogen) are discharged from the back
of the engine which produces thrust and causes the engine to be propelled
forward.

2.
According to the patent however, the engine can also simultaneously
harvest heat and in theory, the engine could be self-sustaining. The engines
thruster chamber is coated in uranium 235 which reacts with the high-energy
neutrons produced by the fusion reaction and generates heat. On the other side
of that chamber wall, heat-energized coolant would pick up this heat and be sent
through a turbine to make electricity to power the engines lasers [1].

3.
Enumeration. To begin with, consider the silhouette of a big turbofan engine,
like the one on a commercial jetliner. Somewhere in the middle of the engine there is a
fusion chamber, with a number of very strong lasers focused on a single point. A pellet
containing a mix of deuterium and tritium (hydrogen isotopes) is placed at this focal
point.

(a)
Inertial Confinement Fusion. The laser system comprising of
one or more free-electron lasers for providing pulsed laser beams are all turned
on at the same instant to vaporize pellets comprising the propellant [deuterium
and tritium]. As a result of the massive pressure due to compression of the
deuterium and tritium, the gas mixture reaches sufficiently high temperatures
which implodes and causes the hydrogen atoms to fuse. This causes a release
of energy increasing the overall thrust and exhaust velocity.

28

(b)
One of the by-products of hydrogen fusion is lots of fast neutrons. In
Boeing's patented design, there is a shield around the fusion chamber that's coated with
a fissionable material (uranium-235 is one example given). The neutrons hit the
fissionable material, causing a fission reaction that generates lots of heat. Finally,
there's a heat exchanger system that takes the heat from the fission reaction and uses
that heat (via a heated liquid or gas) to drive a turbine. This turbine generates the
electricity that powers the lasers.
4.

Significance.

(a)
Free-electron lasers are like regular lasers, except they use the wiggling of
electrons to generate light, which enables a free-electron laser to be
tuned through a huge range of wavelengths, all the way from microwaves to Xrays.

(b)
At the National Ignition Facility, theyve managed to fuse small pellets of
deuterium and tritium using 192 lasers, reaching breakeven in terms of the
amount of energy deposited into the fuel and the amount of energy that the fuel
releases. Note that the amount of energy deposited into the fuel is only a tiny
fraction of the amount of energy sucked down by the lasers [2].

(c)
As for the specific impulse(an efficiency measurement) that this
hypothetical laser fusion engine would produce, a specific impulse of 100,000250,000 seconds may be provided. The most efficient engine that has ever been
produced (even as a prototype) has a specific impulse of just under 20,000
seconds. It corresponds to an entire order of magnitude more efficient.

5.

Challenges.

(a)
We cannot get inertial fusion to fire more than once in a reasonable
amount of time (much less on the short timescales needed to maintain thrust).
This process requires building-sized lasers, like those found at the National
Ignition Facility in California. These two traits are not conducive to air travel.
29

(b)
Putting aside the difficulties of inertial confinement the challenge of
synchronizing these disparate and rather difficult-to-work-with technologies into a
small chassis that hangs from the wing of a commercial airplane is one to reckon
with.

CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION
1.
Conclusion. The laser-powered fusion-fission jet propulsion system as Boeing
envisions could replace both rocket and turbofan engines, powering everything from
spacecraft to missiles to airplanes. Boeing is at least looking into novel propulsion
methods. Turbofan and rocket engines have done a good job of getting us around the
Earth and into space so far, but if we want hypersonic on-Earth travel or if we want to
send humans to far-flung reaches of the Solar System, we'll need new and advanced
propulsion technologies. The conclusion is drawn with a note on the significant
advantages that the military of a country can tap into.
2.

Military Benefits.

(a)
Unparalleled Flexibility. A recent study by the Navy found the nuclear
option to be superior to conventional fuels in terms of surge ability, moving from one
theater to another, and staying on station without the encumbrances of fuel supply
logistics.
(b)
High-Power Density. The high density of nuclear power, i.e the amount
of volume required to store a given amount of energy, frees storage capacity for impact
assets such as small craft, remote-operated and autonomous vehicles, and weapons
which would otherwise be taken up by air intakes and exhaust trunks in gas turbine30

powered engines. This energy supply is also necessary for new, power-intensive
weapons systems like rail-guns and directed-energy weapons as well as for the
powerful radars that the Navy envisions.
(c)
Energy Independence. The armed forces have acknowledged the
vulnerability that comes from being too dependent on foreign oil. Using nuclear
propulsion for all future major surface combatants will make the Navy more energy
independent.
(d)
Environmentally Clean Source of Energy. More people are starting to
realize the often-overlooked environmental benefits of a nuclear navy. Expanding
nuclear power would help to strengthen military capability. Unlike a conventionally
powered platform, which emits carbon dioxide and other pollutants into the atmosphere,
a nuclear platform is largely emissions-free and has no exhaust stack, decreasing its
visibility to enemy detection [10].

REFERENCES

1. IEEE, Boeing Patents Laser Nuclear Fusion Jet Engine, Evan Ackerman,
10 Jul 15
http://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-talk/energy/nuclear/boeing-patents-laser-nuclear-fusion
jet-engine

2. Business Insider, Boeing just patented a jet engine powered by lasers and
nuclear explosions, Benjamin Zhang, 08 Jul 15
http://www.businessinsider.in/Boeing-just-patented-a-jet-engine-powered-by-lasersand nuclear-explosions/articleshow/47980955.cms

3. ArsTechnica, Boeing patents laser-powered fusion-fission jet engine, Sebastian

Anthony, 13 Jul 15
http://arstechnica.com/cars/2015/07/boeing-patents-laser-powered-fusion-fission-jet
engine-for-airplanes-spacecraft/
31

4. Manorama Year Book, 2016, Laser Nuclear Jet Propulsion (Science &
Technology)

5. Mellesgriot, Basic Laser Principles,

http://www.bgu.ac.il/~glevi/website/Guides/Lasers.pdf

6. Free Electron Lasers,

http://pbpl.physics.ucla.edu/Education/Text/oe_fel.pdf

7. EMS, Nuclear Fusion

http://www.ems.psu.edu/~radovic/Chapter14.pdf

8. An Introduction to Inertial Confinement Fusion, S Pfalzner,

http://kfe.fjfi.cvut.cz/~limpouch/plazma/Pfalzner_Introduction_ICF.pdf

9. EMS, Nuclear Fission

http://www.ems.psu.edu/~radovic/Chapter13.pdf

10. The Advantages of Expanding the Nuclear Navy, Jack Spencer and Baker
Spring, 05 Nov 07
http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2007/11/the-advantages-of-expanding-the
nuclear-navy
32