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WeA04.1
I. INTRODUCTION
102
C1
3.3
C2
10m
Maximum continuous
discharge
Pulse discharge at 10sec
Operative temperature range
Cell weight
3.2
70A
120A
2.8
2.6
-30C to
+60C
70 grams
2.5
100
C3
C1 = 2.3A
C2 = 4.6A
C3 = 6,9A
C4 = 9,2A
90
80
C4
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
SoC [%]
Programmable
load
3
2.9
2.7
Programmable
supply
3.1
Battery cell
Main PC
103
3
Measured current
Required current
Current [A]
1
0
3.
-1
-2
-3
4
time [hour]
Volt [V]
3.5
R0
K
0.07
-0.047288
K1
597.56
K2
32.668
K3
1996.7
measured voltage
2
4
Time [hour]
measured data
simulated data
3.8
R0
3.6
C1
VOCV (SoC)
R2
R1
V0
C2
3.4
3.2
3
2.8
V1
V2
2.6
2.4
45
50
55
time [minutes]
60
65
R1
R2
I
+
V = VOCV (SoC) R0 +
1
+
1
+
sR
C
sR
C
1 1
2 2
(1)
K (1 + sK1 )
I
= VOCV (SoC) R0 I
(1 + sK 2 )(1 + sK3 )
Some notes can be made on the identified components:
1. the model components are not dependant nether on
the current nor on the SoC; the values, accordingly to
notation of Eq. 1, are listed in Table 2;
2. the voltage generator is calculated through an 8th
function of SoC: it was identified using the voltages
104
Ahnom I (t ) dt
SoC (t ) =
Ahnom
100 .
(2)
2.23Ah);
I(t) is the current, which is positive when the cell
is discharged.
Several methods, including those of direct
measurements, book-keeping and adaptive systems are
known in the art of determining the SoC of a cell or a
battery of several cells ([1],[6],[7],[8],[9]). Obviously, an
accurate SoC determination method will improve the
performance and reliability, will ultimately lengthen the
lifetime of the battery and will permit the development of
better algorithm for hybrid and electric vehicle.
In Table 3 a review of literature methods is presented.
Some of them are not feasible in an HEV application,
because they require to disconnect the battery. Some
others, like the one based on voltage measures, are more
suitable in small-power electronic application, where the
required power is usually near to be constant and small. In
such case, a voltage discharge map can be easily used to
estimate the SoC: the drawbacks of this method is that it
requires a long period of constant current (zero current if it
uses an Open-Circuit-Voltage map), which is not common
in an HEV application.
Using neural networks, fuzzy logic and Kalman filter it
is usually possible to have a good SoC estimation: the
drawback is the need of an high computation power,
which is not usually available in an embedded system. The
Coulomb-Counting method (current integration) is still the
most used method and the main information source, since
it provides a simple way to estimate the variation of SoC.
Besides it is impossible, with this method, to have an
initial SoC estimate and any error on the current measure,
most of all offset errors, can highly affect the estimation.
Fuzzy logic
Technique
Discharge
test
Applicatio
n field
Used for
capacity
determinati
on at the
beginning
of life
Coulomb
counting
All battery
systems,
most
application
s
OCV
Lead,
lithium,
Zn/Br
All systems
Impedance
spectroscopy
DC internal
resistance
Lead,
Ni/Cd
Neural
Networks
All battery
systems
Advantages
Drawbacks
Easy and
accurate;
independent
of SOH
Offline, time
intensive, modifies
the battery state, loss
of energy
Accurate if
enough recalibration
points are
available and
with flawless
current
measurement
Online,
cheap, OCV
prediction
Gives
information
about SOH
Gives
information
about SOH
Online
Sensitive to parasite
reactions; needs
regular recalibration
points
105
Kalman
Filters
All battery
systems
Online
Robust
Large amount of
memory in real
world applications
Needs strong
All battery
Accurate
hypothesis on battery
systems,
Flexible
model. Difficult to
even
Online
implement the
strongly
filtering algorithm
dynamic
that considers all
application
features as, e.g., nons (such
normalities and
HEV)
nonlinearities
Table 3 State of art of SoC estimation methods.
1
I (t )dt
Ahnom 0
(3)
where:
I(t) is the measured current;
SoC(0) is the initial SoC value.
The calculation is very easy and the formulation is
directly connected with the SoC definition shown in Eq. 2.
However it presents some drawbacks:
1. SoC(0) needs to be know or estimated;
2. I(t) is the only signal used; so if the measure has flaws
the estimation will be affected and it will need to be
reset periodically.
The second drawback is the most difficult to deal with. A
lot of reason can cause flaws, especially in an HEV where
a lot of electronic systems are fitted all together.
To get a more clear idea of how the current measure can
be in an HEV environment, in Fig. 7 the measured current
during an experiment made on the A123-M1 cell (charge
at 1C) is shown. The current is measured with a standard
current sensor, typically used on EVs or HEVs. It is
compared with the true current, measured with a highaccuracy sensor (which is assumed to have near-zero
noise). Notice that the measurement noise is constituted by
high-frequency components, bursts and spikes, and a lowfrequency trend mainly due to temperature drifts.
0.5
0
Current [A]
-0.5
-1
Measured current
Actual current
-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3
50
100
150
200
Time [minutes]
100
Estimated SoC
Real SoC
80
SOC [%]
nI
60
40
20
Vm
V
+
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
100
Estimated SoC
Real SoC
60
40
20
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
+-
Integral
controller
SoC
+
+
nV
80
SoCI
SOC [%]
Im
106
SOC [%]
80
60
40
20
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
107