I. 1. METHODS OF GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION. PROJECTION SYSTEMS.

Descriptive geometry is a branch of applied mathematics and its objective is the representation of threedimensional objects on a plane, in a two-dimensional system, using the projection method.
The representation on a plane of any three-dimensional object placed in front of this plane is called the
projection of this object on the given plane.
In order to project a point in space on one or more given planes, one must adopt a reference system called
projection system. In this projection system, one must establish a double valued correspondence between the
points in space and their projections, such as the connection between these points can be achieved in both ways.
I. 1. 1. Central Projection (Conic Projection)
[P] plane of projection, O centre of projection, A [P], then |OA| - projecting line, |OA| [P] = {a},
a the central projection of pointA
I. 1. 2. Parallel Projection (Cylindrical Projection)
[P] plane of projection, () projecting direction, A [P],

(Aa) (), |Aa| - projecting line,

|Aa| [P] = {a} a the projection of point A

I. 1. 3. Orthographic Projection
[P] plane of projection,
() projecting direction, () [P]
Orthographic Projection of geometrical figures
A, B, C, D [P]
a, b, c, d the projections of points A, B, C, D
If the plane of the geometrical figure is inclined to [P], the
projection obtained is partially deformed.
If the plane of a geometrical figure is parallel to [P], the
projection of the figure on [P] is the true size of the the figure (no deformation).
If the plane of a geometrical figure is normal to [P], the projection of the figure on [P] is a line segment (total
deformation).

Orthographic Projection of angles

The angles between two sides of a polygon modify their values or not, depending on the position of the
polygon relative to [P] (parallel or not).

Orthographic Projection of right angles

The projection of a right angle on [P] represents the true
size of the angle if at least one of the angle sides is parallel to
[P] and none of them is normal to [P] (The theorem of the
right angle).

I. 1. 4. Dimensioned Projection
1. 1. 5. Double Ortographic Projection
[H] horizontal plane of projection
[V] vertical plane of projection
[H] [V],
A (a, a)

[H] [V] = (Ox)

a the horizontal projection of A, a the vertical projection of A

1. 1. 6. Triple Orthographic Projection

[L] profile plane of projection
[L] [H], [L] [H] = (Oy)
[L] [V], [L] [V] = (Oz)
A (a, a, a) a the profile projection of A

I. 2. THE POINT
I. 2. 1. Projecting a Point on Two Planes of Projection
[H] horizontal plane of projection,

z = d (A [H]) the elevation of point A;

[V] vertical plane of projection;

y = d (A [V]) the ordinate of point A.

[H] [V],
A (a, a)

[H] [V] = (Ox).

a the horizontal projection of A,

a the vertical projection of A;

By revolving plane [H] (clockwise) about (Ox)

until it becomes the extension of plane [V], one obtains
a 2D representation called orthographic (ortogonal)
drawing of point A. In the orthographic drawing, points
a and a are situated on common perpendicular to the
axis (Ox).

Dihedral angle
Coordinate

II

III

IV

Ordinate (y)

Elevation (z)

I. 2. 4. Projecting a Point on Three Planes of Projection

[H] the horizontal plane of projection,

A (a, a, a)

a the horizontal projection of A,

[V] the vertical plane of projection,

a the vertical projection of A,

[L] - the profile plane of projection;

a the profile projection of A;

[H] [V], [H] [V] = (Ox)

[L] [H], [L] [H] = (Oy)
[L] [V], [L] [V] = (Oz)

Coordinates of a point
A(x, y, z) x = d (A [L]) the abscissa of point A
y = d (A [V]) the ordinate of point A
z = d (A [H])the elevation of point A

By revolving plane [H] downward

about (Ox) and plane [L] to the right
about (Oz) until they become the
extensions of plane [V], one obtains the
orthographic representation of point A.
In the orthographic drawing, points a
and

are

situated

on

common

perpendicular to the axis (Ox) and a

and a on common perpendicular to the
axis (Oz).

Coordinates
Abscissa (x)
Ordinate (y)
Elevation (z)

I1
+
+
+

II1
+
+

III1
+
-

Trihedral angles
IV1
I2
+
+
+
+

II2
+

III2
-

I. 2. 5. Points Lying on the Planes of Projection

In case one of the coordinates of a point is zero, then the point is located on a plane of projection.
H [H] zH = 0

V [V] yV = 0

L [L] xL = 0

I. 2. 6. Points Lying on the Axes

In case two of the coordinates of a point are zero, then the point is located on an axis of projection.
A (Ox) yA = 0

B (Oy) xB = 0

C (Oz) xC = 0

zA = 0

zB = 0

yC = 0

IV2
+
-