Metal

Historic Uses
Contemporary uses
Metals
Copper metal (around
Ornaments, tools, weapons
Electrical cables and wiring,
6000 years ago)
and cooking
radiators, refrigeration
Outline and examine some uses of different metals through
including
systems,history,
water pipes
Iron contemporary
metal (3000 BC)
Tools and weapons
found
at alloys
Usually converted into steel
uses, as uncombined
metals
or as
An alloy is a mixture of two
or more metal elementsdue
or non-metal
andto
metal
3000BC
to its corrosion
make
buildings,
bridges,
elements fused together through dissolving each other
in molten
state
automobiles
Gold uncombined metal
Oldest native metal.
Jewellery, dentistry,
Egyptians
used
gold
in
their
connections
Properties
Common Uses electrical
How
it relates to
ornaments
its properties
Bronze alloy
Used for cutting tools and
Church bells, statues
3000-1000BC
armour
Metal
Steel

Brass
Solde
r

Usually is
susceptible to
corrosion but
when alloyed with
other metals, it
will become
corrosion
resistant. Steel is
also strong

Sinks, cutlery,
buildings

Resists corrosion
and ductile
Low melting point

Doorknobs,
screws
Joining wires

Steel is a ferrous metal, meaning it

contains iron. The iron in the metallic
matrix will combine with oxygen creation
iron oxide (rust). Therefore, to counter
rust, other metals are alloyed with steel to
create different types of alloy steels. For
example, stainless steel, which is used in
cutlery and utensils that handle food, must
be resistant to corrosion to ensure that
food contamination does not occur. This is
mainly due to the 10% chromium that is
added to the steel, by mass.

Explain why energy input is necessary to extract a metal from its ore
Process of extraction

1. Mining To extract the ore, energy for heavy machinery is needed to break and
obtain the desired ores from the earth (Physical separation method/process)

2. Milling Processes such as froth floatation are needed which requires a lot of water
and energy to agitate the bubbles to separate the gangue. Also transportation of
the ores/minerals is needed in this process. (Physical separation method/process)
3. Smelting Ores are blasted at high temperature to extract the metal. Energy is
required to maintain the high temperatures in a furnace. (Chemical separation
method/process)
4. Refining High amounts of heat and electricity is needed and is to be maintained
throughout the process to purify the metal, depending on the type of refining
process. In electrolytic refining (electrolysis), electricity/energy is needed to
Identify why there are more metals available for people to use now than there
separate the chemical bonds. (Chemical separation method/process)
were 200 years ago
More advanced technology and extraction processes to extract ores that were unable to
be used 200 years ago. In previous centuries, there was limited knowledge on the
extraction processes that offered pure extracts. As the rate of technology and
knowledge increased, mankind began to apply more advanced machinery and derive
better extraction methods and thus extract and use more metals. Some
technology/extraction methods we use today to obtain metals were unavailable
centuries ago due to the slow rate of technology advance.

More discoveries of metal and locations allows more extraction

Describe observable changes when metals react with dilute acid, water and
oxygen.

When a very reactive metal reacts with water, a metal hydroxide and
hydrogen gas is produced.
o metal + water metal hydroxide + hydrogen gas
Eg.2Na(s) + 2HO(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H(g)

When a less reactive metal reacts with water, a metal oxide is produced.
describe and justify the criteria used to place metals into an order of activity based on their
o metal + oxygen metal oxide
ease of reaction with oxygen, water and dilute acids
Eg. 2Mg(s) + O(g) 2MgO(s)
the most active metals are at the top , the least
When a metal reacts with an acid, a metal salt and hydrogen gas is formed
reactive are at the bottom
o metal + acid metal salt + hydrogen gas
the more reactive, the harder it is to extract
(s) + 2HCL(aq)ZnCl(aq) + H(g)
It can Eg.Zn
be established
by observation of the
reaction of the metals with water, oxygen or
acids.
The lower the metal, the earlier it was
found/discovered.,
The order of reactivity with oxygen is {Li, Na, K, Ca, Ba}
{Mg, Al, Fe, Zn} > {Sn, Pb, Cu}, {Ag, Au, Pt}

>

The order of reactivity with water is { Na, K } > {Li, Ca,

Ba} > {Mg, AL, Fe, Zn}, {Sn, Pb, Cu, Ag, Au, Pt}

construct half-equations to represent the electron transfer reactions occurring when metals
react with dilute hydrochloric and dilute sulfuric acids.
Half-equations help us understand the electron transfer process between metals and non-metals.
Generally:
metals lose electrons to form metal ions (cations)
non-metals gain electrons to form non-metal ions (anions)
hydrogen ions gain electrons to form hydrogen gas.
Using these generalisations, we can write half-equations for the reactions between metals and dilute acids.
Half-equations must be balanced in terms of atoms and charges.
Example: Reaction of aluminium with hot sulfuric acid
Aluminium atoms will lose three electrons and the hydrogen ions will gain two electrons.
Electron loss: Al(s) > Al3+(aq) + 3e
Electron gain: 2H+(aq) + 2e > H2(g)
To balance the electrons, multiply half-equation (1) by 2 and halfequation (2) by 3, and then add the two
half-equations. Check that the atoms and charges balance.
Electron loss: 2Al(s) > 2Al3+(aq) + 6e
Electron gain: 6H+(aq) + 6e > 3H2(g)
Ionic equation: 2Al(s) + 6H+(aq) > 2Al3+(aq) + 3H2(g)

Identify the reaction of metals with acids as requiring the transfer of

electrons
Oxidation is losing electrons O.I.L (Electrons on the right) [Reductant]
Reduction is gaining electrons R.I.G (Electrons on the left) [Oxidant]

Reactions with dilute acid

Most metals react with dilute hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid to form hydrogen. We

can write these equation as:

o Balanced formulae equations- shows the whole balanced equation
o Net ionic equations- shows only the ionic species that undergo change
o Complete ionic equations- shows all the ions involved in the solutions used
for the reaction.
For example when aluminium reacts with Hydrochloric acid we get:
o 2AI2+ + 6HCI > 2AlCI3+ + 3H2
o 2AI + 6H + 6CI- > 2AI3+ + 6CI- + 3H2
o 2AI + 6H+ > 2AI 3++ 3H2

Outline examples of the selection of metals for different purposes based on their
reactivity, with a particular emphasis on current developments in the use of metals
1. Magnesium: Used as a sacrificial layer. The magnesium is galvanised,
over the layer of steel on the underside of ships. Because of the
reactivity, magnesium will corrode before the steel.
2. Calcium: In vacuum tubes, calcium is used, where air must not be
present. The calcium will react the oxygen forming calcium oxygen
which will no longer affect the vacuum tubes application.
3. Tin and chromium: Both metals are used to coat another metal to create
a shiny appearance.

Outline the relationship between the relative activities of metals and their positions on
the Periodic Table
For alkali and alkaline earth metals:
1. Left is more reactive than right
2. Down is more reactive than up
3. Left-right is more dominant than down-up
4. Therefore, potassium is the most reactive (most down and
most left) and magnesium is the least reactive (most top and
most right)
Identify the importance
of first ionisation energy in determining the relative reactivity of
5.
Trends
are non-existent for transitional metals
metals
Ionisation energy is the amount energy required to remove an
electron.
The more ionisation energy levels, the higher the energy is required
to remove the electron due to the proton: electron ratio. As more
electrons are removed (ionisation energy levels), there is an increasing proton
charge in the nucleus and hence a greater positive pull. Therefore, the
remaining electrons will feel a greater positive charge and be more closely
attracted to the nucleus due to the lower electron population.
Because of this, more reactive metals, such as sodium, will have a 1st
Ionisation Energy level because it is ready to lose the lone electron in its
Identify anvalence
appropriate
shell.model that has been developed to describe the
atomic
structure
First
ionisation energy increases across a period as electron shells go
The
atomic
frommodern
empty to
full model

theionisation
centre ofdecreases
the atom is
a positively
At
First
down
a group charged
as electrons go further away
nucleus
consisting
of
neutral
charged
neutrons
from nucleus. Hence why potassium is more reactiveand
than lithium
positively charged protons
Around the nucleus are negatively charged electrons

Outline the history of the developments of the Periodic Table including its origins, the original data
used to construct it and the predictions made after its construction
In 1789, Antoine Lavoisier published a table of 33 elements.
1. Contained some compounds which at that time could not be broken down
into simpler substances
2. Divided his table into metals and non-metals
In 1817 and 1829, Johann Dobereiner observed the chemical similarities between
certain groups of 3 elements called triads.
In 1864, Meyer arranged that elements in order of increasing atomic mass and
placed them in groups based on their valency.
In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev arranged the elements in horizontal rows in order of
increasing atomic mass. Elements with similar properties were arranged in
vertical columns in the table. Mendeleev was also able to make accurate
predictions about elements that bad not been discovered by leaving gaps.
In 1913, Henry Moseley proposed the concept of atomic number to fix the
irregularities in Mendeleevs table. It was eventually determined that atomic
number determines the chemical properties rather than atomic mass.

Explain the relationship between the position of elements in the Periodic Table, and their
properties.
- electrical conductivity

Trend
Physical
Property

Definition

Across a Period

Electrical
Conductivity

A materials ability
to conduct
electric currents

Ionisation Energy

The energy
required to
remove an
electron from an
gaseous atom.
Inner electron
shells also
reduces the
energy needed
for ionisation.

Atomic Radius

The radius of an
atom. It depends
on the number of
electron shells
and the size of
the nucleus
charge

Meting Point and

Boiling Point

Down A group

Generally decreases
as elements become
less metallic. Nonmetals have no free
mobile electrons
Increases because the
atomic radius
decreases across the
period so the valence
electrons are closer to
the nucleus

Generally increases as elements

become more metallic (except
group III)

Decreases because the atomic

radius increases hence meaning
there are more electron shells.
The outer shell electrons are
weaker attracted to the nucleus.

Decreases as the
valence shell moves
closer towards the
increasingly positive
nucleus

Increases as the number of

electron shell increases

Melting point is
when the element
turns into an
liquid. Boiling
point is when an
element turns
into an liquid. The
metallic bond is
strongest in the
transition metals.

increases in groups I
to IV

decreases as the
lattice changes from
metallic to covalent
network and then
covalent molecular

decreases in groups I to IV
increases in groups V to VIII
generally increases for transition
metals

Combining Power
(Valency)

the combining
power of an
element that it
will combine with

Maximum valency is constant and

equal to the group number
(except for group VIII with a
valency of 0).

Electronegativity

A measure of the
electronattracting ability
of an element.

Maximum valency
increases from groups
I to VII, in which group
number equals
maximum valency.
increases as the
metallic character
decreases

decreases as the metallic

character decreases

Reactivity

The rate at which

a chemical
substance tends
to undergo a
chemical reaction
in time.

Each period starts with

a reactive metal and
ends with an
unreactive noble gas.

increases down groups I and II.

decreases down the group of
transition metals.
decreases down groups III and IV
for soft metals.
generally decreases down groups
V to VII for non-metals.
increases down the group of
noble gases.
Hence, most reactive elements at bottom left and least reactive elements at top right

Moles

The unit of measurement for the amount of substance or chemical amount.

12g of the carbon-12 isotope contains 6.0221023 atoms which is 1 mole
The moles of an substance = mass/molar mass

isotopes
o Each of 2 or more forms of the same element contain equal numbers of protons but
different amount of neutrons.
Molar mass
o The mass of an element per mole of its atom. E.g. the molar mass of water, (H 20 ) is
1.008+1.008 +16) = 18.061g/mol
compare mass changes in samples of metals when they combine with oxygen
Law of conservation of mass: matter can neither be created nor
destroyed in a chemical reaction
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s) (using the periodic table to find the elements
masses)
1. 224.305 + 2x15.999 2(24.305 + 15.999)
2. 80.608 80.608
3. LHS = RHS, therefore it obeys the law of conservation

Describe the contribution of Gay-Lussac to the understanding of gaseous reactions

and apply this to an understanding of the mole concept
Gases combine in simple whole number ratios; Stoichiometric Ratio
Derives chemical equations and finds moles

Recount Avogadros law and describe its importance in developing the mole concept
Avogadros law states that equal volumes of gases, at the same temperature
and pressure, contain equal number of molecules
1. The number of molecules in equal volume of gases is independent of size
or mass.
2. If each gas has the same volume and under the same conditions, they
will contain the same amount of molecules
3. E.g. hydrogen + chlorine > hydrogen chloride. 1 litre + 1 litre > 2 litres
4. 1 mole of any gas is 24.79L at SLC or 25 degrees
5. 1 mole of any gas is 22.71L at 0 degrees

Distinguish between empirical formulae and molecular formulae

An empirical formula shows the ratio in which atoms are present in a
compound
A molecular formula shows how many of each type of atom are
present
To change between molecular and empirical,
Determine the molecular formula
If it is written structurally, convert it to standard
Write the new equation
E.g. hydrogen peroxide
1. Molecular formula = H2O2
2. All subscripts divided by 2 or lowest common factor
3. Empirical = HO

How to create an empirical formula from mass or percentage composition

1. Create a chart with six columns, and the number of rows should be equal to the number
of element in the compound.
2. In the first column write the elements.
3. In the second column write the percent composition of each element.
4. Using the percent composition as the mass, divide each by the molecular mass of the
respective element.
5. Divide each of those numbers by the smallest of the numbers in that column to reduce
the ratio.
Example: Determine the empirical formula for a compound containing 74.0% carbon (C),
8.65% hydrogen (H), and 17.3% nitrogen (N) by mass.
element
percentag % / molar
Divide by largest
Round up
e
mass
denominator
C=
74%
74/12
6.16/1.24
4.96
5
H=
8.65%
8.65/1.01
8.56/1.24
6.9
7
N=
17.3%
17.3/14.01
1.24/1.24
1
1
Therefore the formula is C5H7N

Examples:
A 9.2 gram sample of a compound is 2.8 grams nitrogen and 6.4 grams oxygen. Find the
empirical formula of the compound.
element

percentage

N=

Mass over
total
2.8/9.2

30%

Percentage
/mm
30/14.0

O=

6.4/9.2

70%

70/16

2.143/2.14
3
4.375/2.14
3

2.04

Therefore the empirical formula is NO2

Define the terms mineral and ore with reference to economic and non-economic deposits of
natural resources
An ore is a deposit of minerals that contains metal(s) that are
considered valuableenough to be mined
Minerals are naturally occurring solid homogeneous inorganic that
contain a metal(s) that are deemed valuable
Describe the relationship between the commercial prices of common metals, their actual
abundances and relative costs of production
Abundance:
1. A mineral must be sufficiently concentrated in the ore body to
make it economically viable to extract. If the concentration is
low, it is usually not economical, as the costs of extraction and
production are greater than the value of the mineral obtained.
Cost of production:
1. Companies need to determine the cost of mining, milling and
extracting a metal from its ore. This would impact upon the
final price; transportation costs may also vary due to the
remoteness of some ore bodies. The location can also affect
the price as there may be a lot of energy/water or the site may
be environmentally protected.
Common metals:
Some metals are more expensive to extract than others due to higher energy
costs involved. For example, aluminium is more expensive to extract than copper

due to the high cost of the electrolytic process used to make aluminium.
Explain why ores are non-renewable resources
Ores are non-renewable resources as they were formed when the
earth was formed and there is no way of forming more ores.
Also, the rates at which humans are using these ores are much faster
than the rate that these ores are formed in the earth. Therefore our
consumption of these ores is much greater than their production,
resulting in the classification of ores as non-renewable resources.

Describe the separation processes, chemical reactions and energy considerations

involved in the extraction of copper from one of its ores
Extraction of copper from copper sulphide ores
Mining and Milling: Ores are mined from the earth and crushed,
which are both physical methods of separation. The ores are merely
reduced in particle size.

Roasting: The copper is then roasted with sand and air. It is

subjected to high temperatures. A chemical separation technique
involves the chemical reaction of sand (SiO2) combining with iron
oxide (FeO) impurities to form a compound called a silicate (SiO 3).
o 2CuFeS2(s) + 4O2(g) > Cu2S(l) + 2FeO(s) + 3SO2(g)
Smelting: Like roasting, smelting is a chemical separation technique
that subjects the copper to high temperatures with carbon and air.
The copper concentrate reacts with oxygen in the hot air to remove
the sulphur as sulphur dioxide (SO2). This leaves copper of 98%
purity which is called blister copper.
o FeO(s) + SiO2(s) FeSiO3(l)
Electrolytic Refining: The copper is transported to a facility that
refines copper using electricity, which is a chemical separation
technique. The blister copper anode gradually dissolves and pure
copper deposits on the cathode. Impurities that give up electrons
less readily than copper fall to the bottom. This leaves the copper
99.99% pure.
o Anode: Cu(s) Cu2+ > (aq) + 2e
o Cathode: Cu2+(aq) + 2e > Cu(s)
Energy considerations:
1. Froth floatation requires very little energy
2. Roasting requires little fuel since the reaction is strongly
exothermic (gives out heat). It releases energy that can be
useful in returning some energy.
3. Electrolysis process requires a high amount of energy since it
is using electricity
4. Since copper is so reactive with other elements, it requires
more energy to separate them. Elements such as gold require
very little energy since no other elements are combined with
gold.
Recounts the steps taken to recycle aluminium
1. Aluminium is collected from recycling bins
2. The aluminium is transported to a recycling plant/facility
3. Differ the aluminium from its alloys and aluminium metal

Froth Floatation: With the ore in smaller particle size, froth floatation
can be used to remove impurities called gangue. In this physical
separation technique, bubble are agitated in a solution of water and
detergent. The copper particles cling onto these bubbles and are
skimmed off.

4. Aluminium products are deposited in a furnace where they are

subjected to very high temperatures. This process purifies the
metal, as it removes the impurities based on melting points.
5. Analyse the purity of the aluminium and adjust it composition
before casting it into ingots.
6. The solution, pure aluminium, is remoulded into the desired
product and sold to companies that need it.