Cell

Division: Mitosis and Meiosis

Cell reproduc4on

- each cell ospring inherits DNA from parent cell

- has enough cytoplasm to start opera4on

Chromosome organized structure of DNA, proteins,

RNA in a cell

ion
Mechanisms
n - before cell division, the chromosomes consist of
Mechanisms
one DNA molecule
offspring by the prospring by the pro
one chromosome
(unduplicated)
one chromosome

(unduplicated)
s cellular offspring
arental
DNA
along
- during duplica4on, the chromosomes consist of
ellular
offspring
its own
operation.
one chromatid
ntal
DNA
along
two DNA molecules
tructions. Some of
own operation.
one chromatid
chromatid
its sister
others are enzymes

uctions.
Some of
molecules. If a new
one chromosome
its sister chromatid
hers
are
enzymes
mation
required to
(duplicated)

lecules.properly.
If a new
unction
one chromosome
ation
to
(duplicated)
Figure 9.2 A eukaryotic chromosome
in the unduplicated
ns all required
the enzymes,

Life of a cell

DNA replica4on a cell makes copies of its DNA
before it divides, usually happens during interphase
stage

Interphase stage where a cell increases its mass
and doubles its cell components

Three stages of interphase:

G1 (Gap) interval of cell growth and ac4vity before
the onset of DNA replica4on


S (Synthesis) 4me of DNA replica4on


G2 (Gap) second interval when the cell prepares for
division

replicates its DNA:

G1

Interval (Gap) of cell growth and activity

before the onset of DNA replication

Time of Synthesis (DNA replication)

G2

Second interval (Gap), after DNA replication

when the cell prepares for division

After G2, a cell enters mitosis. Identical descendant

cells result, each with the same number and kind of
chromosomes as the parent. The chromosome number
is the sum of all chromosomes in a cell of a given type.
The body cells of gorillas have 48, those of human
cells have 46. Pea plant cells have 14.

G1
Interval of cell growth before
DNA replication (chromosomes
unduplicated)

Interval of cell growth when

the DNA is replicated (all
chromosomes duplicated)

G1
lo
Te

ph

as

cytoplasmic
division; each
descendant cell
enters interphase

Anaphas

G2
Metaphase

P ro p h a s e

Interphase ends for parent cell

Figure 9.4 Animated Eukaryotic cell cycle. The length of each interval differs among cells.
144 UNIT II

PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE

G2
Interval after DNA
replication; the cell
prepares to divide

replicates its DNA:

Individual cells or organisms produce offspring by the proG1 Interval (Gap) of cell growth and activity
cess of reproduction.
!

Link to Nucleus 4.8

before the onset of DNA replication

After G2, a cell enters mitosis. Identical descendant

cells result,one
each
with the same number and kind of
chromosome
chromosomes
as the parent. The chromosome number
(unduplicated)
is the sum of all chromosomes in a cell of a given type.
The body cells of gorillas have 48, those of human
cells have 46. Pea plant cells have 14.

S
Time of Synthesis (DNA replication)
When a cell reproduces, each of its cellular offspring
G2 Second interval (Gap), after DNA replication
hanisms
inherits information encoded in parental DNA along
when the cell prepares for division
with enough cytoplasm to start up its own operation.
one chromatid
proDNA contains protein-building instructions. Some of
its sister chromatid
the proteins are structural materials; others are enzymes
one chromosome
that speed construction
of organic molecules. If a new
S
G1
one chromosome
(unduplicated)
cell
does
not
inherit
all
of
the
information
required
to
Interval
of
cell
growth when
Interval of cell growth before
(duplicated)
the DNA is replicated (all
pring
DNA
replication
build
proteins,(chromosomes
it will not grow or function properly.
chromosomes duplicated)
unduplicated)
long A parent cells cytoplasm contains all the enzymes,
Figure 9.2 A eukaryotic chromosome in the unduplicated
state and duplicated state. Eukaryotic cells duplicate their
tion.
organelles, and
other metabolic machinery necessary
one chromatid
chromosomes before mitosis or meiosis begins. After duplicame of
for life. A descendant cell that inherits a blob of cytotion, each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids.
sister chromatid
plasm is its
getting
start-up metabolic machinery that will
ymes
keep it running until it can make its own.
new
one chromosome
ed to
(duplicated)
Meiosis is a nuclear division mechanism that prey. Mitosis, Meiosis, and the Prokaryotes
Figure 9.2 A eukaryotic chromosome in the unduplicatedcedes the formation of gametes or spores, and it is the
mes,
G2
statea and
duplicated
Eukaryotic
In general,
eukaryotic
cellstate.
cannot
simplycells
splitduplicate
in two, their basis of sexual reproduction. In humans and all other
cytoplasmic
ssary
before
mitosis
meiosis
begins.
division;
each
mammals, the gametes called sperm and
becausechromosomes
only one of its
descendant
would
getAfter
the duplicaG2 eggs develop Interval after DNA
A n a p hora scells
cytoe
tion,cell
each chromosome consists
of two sister chromatids.
descendant
from immature
reproductive cells. Spores, which pro- replication; the cell
nucleusand thus, the DNA. A cells cytoplasm
M esplits
taphase
t will
P ro p h a s e
prepares to divide
enters interphase
tect and disperse new generations, form during the life
only after its DNA has been packaged into more than
cycle of fungi, plants, and many
kindsends
of protists.
one nucleus by way of mitosis or meiosis.
Interphase
for parent cell
As you will discover in this chapter and the next,
Mitosis is a nuclear division mechanism that occurs
Meiosis is a nuclear division mechanism that premeiosis and mitosis have much in common. Even so,
in the somatic cells (body cells) of multicelled eukarycedesFigure
the formation
of gametes
or spores,
and The
it islength
the of each interval differs among cells.
9.4 Animated
Eukaryotic
cell cycle.
their outcomes differ.
otes. Mitosis and cytoplasmic division are the basis of
basis of sexual reproduction. In humans and all other
two,
What about prokaryotesbacteria and archaeans?
increases in body size during development, and ongomammals, the gametes called sperm and eggs develop
t the
144 UNIT
II PRINCIPLES
OFcells.
INHERITANCE
Such cells reproduce asexually by prokaryotic fission,
ing replacements
of damaged
or dead
Many spefrom immature reproductive cells. Spores, which prosplits
which is an entirely different mechanism. We consider
cies of plants, animals, fungi, and single-celled protists
tect and disperse new generations, form during the life
than
prokaryotic fission later, in Section 21.5.
also make copies of themselves, or reproduce asexucycle of fungi, plants, and many kinds of protists.
ally, by mitosis (Table 9.1).
As you will discover in this chapter and the next,
ccurs
meiosis and mitosis have much in common. EvenKey
so, Points About Chromosome Structure
kary-

G1

lo
Te

ph

as

B When a chromosome
chromosome
is at its most
most condensed,
condensed,
the DNA is packed
packed into
into
tightly coiled
coiled coils.
coils.

centromere

d human
in its
its most
most
in
rm. If
If this
this
rm.
were
actually
were actually
n in
in the
the micromicron
DNA
strands
DNA strands
out about
about 800
800
out
iles).
iles).

ar intervals, a double-stranded DNA mols twice around spools of proteins called

n aa micrograph,
micrograph, these
these DNAhistone
DNAhistone spools
spools
ads
on
a
string
(Figure
9.3d).
Each
bead
ads on a string (Figure 9.3d). Each bead
ome, the
the smallest
smallest unit
unit of
of structural
ome,
structural organiorganikaryotic
chromosomes
(Figure
9.3e).
karyotic chromosomes (Figure 9.3e).
duplicated
chromosome condenses,
condenses, its
duplicated chromosome
its sister
sister
constrict where
where they
they attach
attach to
constrict
to one
one another.
another.
cted region
region is
is called
called the
the centromere
centromere (Figure
cted
(Figure
cation of
of aa centromere
centromere differs
differs for
cation
for each
each type
type
ome. During
During nuclear
nuclear division,
division, aa kinetochore
ome.
kinetochore
centromere.
Kinetochores
are
binding
centromere. Kinetochores are binding sites
sites
bules that
that attach
attach to
to chromatids.
chromatids.
bules
he point
point of
of all
all this
this structural
structural organization?
he
organization?
huge
amount
of
DNA
to
pack
huge amount of DNA to pack into
into aa little
little
example, the
the DNA
DNA from
from one
rr example,
one of
of your
your body
body
stretch out
out to
to about
about 22 meters
meters (6.5
stretch
(6.5 feet)!
feet)! That
That
NA to pack into a nucleus that is typically

multiple levels of coiling

of DNA and proteins

C
C When
When the
the coiled
coiled
coils
coils unwind,
unwind, aa molmolecule
ecule of
of chromosomal
chromosomal
DNA
DNA and
and its
its associated
associated
proteins
proteins are
are organized
organized
as
as aa cylindrical
cylindrical fifiber.
ber.
fiber
fiber

D
D A
A loosened
loosened fifiber
ber
shows
shows aa beads-on-abeads-on-astring
string organization.
organization.
The
The string
string is
is the
the DNA
DNA
molecule;
molecule; each
each bead
bead
is
is one
one nucleosome.
nucleosome.
beads
beads on
on
aa string
string

DNA
DNA
double
double

Histones proteins where the double stranded DNA

molecules aQach to

Nucleosome consists of a bead of histone protein
and the aQached DNA molecule

Centromere the constricted region where the 2
sister chroma4ds are aQached together

Diploid human body cells have 2 of each type of

chromosome

Example:

Humans have 46 chromosomes: 23 from the father
and 23 from the mother

MITOSIS

- cell division that occurs in the body cells of
eukaryotes

- basis in increase of body size in development

- basis of ongoing replacement of damaged or dead
cells

replicates its DNA:

G1

Interval (Gap) of cell growth and activity

before the onset of DNA replication

Time of Synthesis (DNA replication)

G2

Second interval (Gap), after DNA replication

when the cell prepares for division

After G2, a cell enters mitosis. Identical descendant

cells result, each with the same number and kind of
chromosomes as the parent. The chromosome number
is the sum of all chromosomes in a cell of a given type.
The body cells of gorillas have 48, those of human
cells have 46. Pea plant cells have 14.

G1
Interval of cell growth before
DNA replication (chromosomes
unduplicated)

Interval of cell growth when

the DNA is replicated (all
chromosomes duplicated)

G1
lo
Te

ph

as

cytoplasmic
division; each
descendant cell
enters interphase

Anaphas

G2
Metaphase

P ro p h a s e

Interphase ends for parent cell

Figure 9.4 Animated Eukaryotic cell cycle. The length of each interval differs among cells.
144 UNIT II

PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE

G2
Interval after DNA
replication; the cell
prepares to divide

many ATP by aerobic respiration

PROPHASE STAGE

- nucleus appears grainy and condenses

- centrioles become duplicated
PLASMODESMA

Communication junction
between adjoining cells

PLASMA MEMBRANE

Selectively controls the kinds and

amounts of substances moving
into and out of cell; helps maintain
cytoplasmic volume, composition

SMOOTH ER

Makes lipids, breaks down

carbohydrates and fats,
inactivates toxins
GOLGI BODY

Finishes, sorts, ships lipids,

enzymes, and membrane
and secreted proteins
LYSOSOME-LIKE VESICLE

Digests, recycles materials

a Typical plant cell components.

nuclear envelope
nucleolus

CYTOSKELETON

Structurally
supports, imparts
shape to cell;
moves cell and
its components

microtubules
microfilaments
intermediate
filaments

DNA in
nucleoplasm

NUCLEUS

Keeps DNA separated from

cytoplasm; makes ribosome
subunits; controls access
to DNA
RIBOSOMES

(attached to rough
ER and free in cytoplasm)
Sites of protein synthesis
ROUGH ER

MITOCHONDRION

Energy powerhouse; produces

many ATP by aerobic respiration
CENTRIOLES

Special centers that produce and

organize microtubules
PLASMA MEMBRANE

Selectively controls the kinds and

amounts of substances moving

Modifies proteins made by

ribosomes attached to it
SMOOTH ER

Makes lipids, breaks down

carbohydrates and fats,
inactivates toxins
GOLGI BODY

Finishes, sorts, ships lipids,

enzymes, and membrane
and secreted proteins

Early Prophase

Mitosis begins. In the nucleus, the

chromatin begins to appear grainy
as it organizes and condenses. The
centrosome is duplicated.

Early Prophase

Mitosis
begins. In the nucleus, the
B Prophase
chromatin begins to appear grainy
The
chromosomes
become visible
as
it organizes
and condenses.
Theas
discrete structures
as they condense
centrosome
is duplicated.
further. Microtubules assemble and
move one of the two centrosomes to
the opposite side of the nucleus, and
the nuclear envelope breaks up.
B Prophase
The chromosomes become visible as
discrete structures as they condense
further. Microtubules assemble and
C Transition to Metaphase
move one of the two centrosomes to
Theopposite
nuclear side
envelope
gone, and
the
of theisnucleus,
and
the chromosomes
are atup.
their
the
nuclear
envelope breaks
most condensed. Microtubules of
the bipolar spindle assemble and
attach sister chromatids to opposite
spindle poles.
C Transition to Metaphase
The nuclear envelope is gone,
and the chromosomes are at their

METAPHASE STAGE

- Nuclear membrane has broken up

- microtubules form from the centrioles and aQach
at the centromere of the chromosomes

- the chromosomes are now lined up at the center of
the cell

as
it organizes
The
move
one of theand
twocondenses.
centrosomes
to
centrosome
duplicated.
the oppositeisside
of the nucleus, and
the nuclear envelope breaks up.

Prophase

C Transition
to become
Metaphase
The
chromosomes
visible as
discrete
structures
as
they
condense
The nuclear envelope is gone,
further.
assemble
and
and theMicrotubules
chromosomes
are at their
move
one
of
the
two
centrosomes
most condensed. Microtubules of to
the
side ofassemble
the nucleus,
the opposite
bipolar spindle
andand
the
nuclear
envelope
breaks
up.
attach sister chromatids to opposite
spindle poles.

Transition to Metaphase

The
nuclear envelope is gone,
D Metaphase
and the chromosomes are at their
All of condensed.
the chromosomes
are aligned
most
Microtubules
of
midway
between
spindle poles.
the
bipolar
spindlethe
assemble
and
Microtubules
attach eachtochromatid
attach
sister chromatids
opposite
to
one
of
the
spindle
poles, and its
spindle poles.
sister to the opposite pole.

D Metaphase
E Anaphase
All of the chromosomes are aligned
Motor proteins
moving
along poles.
midway
between
the spindle
spindle
microtubules
drag
the
Microtubules attach each chromatid
chromatids
spindle
to
one of thetoward
spindlethe
poles,
and its
poles,
and
the
sister
chromatids
sister to the opposite pole.
separate. Each sister chromatid
is now a separate chromosome.

Anaphase

Motor
proteins moving along
F Telophase

the nuclear envelope breaks up.

ANAPHASE STAGE

- the microtubules aQached to the chroma4d begin
to shorten

- the chroma4ds are pulled apart to opposite poles
C

Transition to Metaphase

The nuclear envelope is gone,

and the chromosomes are at their
most condensed. Microtubules of
the bipolar spindle assemble and
attach sister chromatids to opposite
spindle poles.

Metaphase

All of the chromosomes are aligned

midway between the spindle poles.
Microtubules attach each chromatid
to one of the spindle poles, and its
sister to the opposite pole.

Anaphase

Motor proteins moving along

spindle microtubules drag the
chromatids toward the spindle
poles, and the sister chromatids
separate. Each sister chromatid
is now a separate chromosome.

Telophase

The chromosomes reach the

Metaphase

TELOPHASE STAGE

- begins when split chromosomes are at their
opposite poles

- nucleus forms over the new chromosomes
All of the chromosomes are aligned
midway between the spindle poles.
Microtubules attach each chromatid
to one of the spindle poles, and its
sister to the opposite pole.

Anaphase

Motor proteins moving along

spindle microtubules drag the
chromatids toward the spindle
poles, and the sister chromatids
separate. Each sister chromatid
is now a separate chromosome.

Telophase

The chromosomes reach the

spindle poles and decondense.
A nuclear envelope begins to form
around each cluster; new plasma
membrane may assemble between
them. Mitosis is over.

CHAPTER 9

HOW CELLS REPRODUCE 147

Control of the cell cycle

Apoptosis programmed cell death

- cell shrinkage, fragmenta4on of the nucleus, DNA
fragmenta4on

- regulates cell popula4on, destroys old cells to be
replaced by new cells

- 50 70 Billion cells die each day

Has several causes:

Extracellular causes (outside the cell) caused by
toxins/ poisons, hormones

Intracellular causes (inside the cell) stressed cells
commit suicide; stress due to heat, radia4on,
nutrient depriva4on, hypoxia (low oxygen)

Phagocy4c cells in-charge of removal of dead cell

parts

- removes dead cells through phagocytosis (to eat)

What happens when apoptosis stops?

- Uncontrolled cell division
- Development of cancers, tumors

- tumors/ cancer competes with other 4ssues for

resources (parasi4c)
- Drains the body of glucose (energy) making it
more acidic (conducive for cancer growth)
- Metastasis spreading of cancer to dierent
parts of the body

What happens when apoptosis is overac4ve?

- causes neurodegenera4ve diseases
- linked to progression of HIV

MEIOSIS

Reproduc4on perpetua4on of ones gene4c

material

TYPES:
Asexual reproduc4on all of the gene4c informa4on
is passed to its ospring, produc4on of clones

Sexual reproduc4on mixing of gene4c informa4on

from both parents





+ =

Genes regions in DNA that encode for traits

Alleles dierent forms of genes

Homologous pair a pair of chromosomes which have
the same length, shape, and collec4on of genes

Dierence between mitosis and meiosis:

Mitosis maintains chromosome number

Meiosis halves the chromosome number

ulticelled
that reproduce sexually. In animals, meiosis of germ
new
indicells results in mature reproductive structures called
Meiosis occurs in the immature reproduc4ve cells of
pairs of
gametes. (Plants have a slightly different process that
eukaryotes
chromowe will discuss later.) A sperm cell is a type of male
gamete; an egg is a type of female gamete. Gametes
and the
usually form inside special reproductive structures or
- Produces reproduc4ve structures called gametes
gene
of a
organs (Figure 10.3).
al repro(ex.: egg and sperm cells)
ones. Just
opulation
hich case
But the
not idenmutations
manently
ry. Thus,
ght say
anther (where
ovules inside an
sexual spores
ovary (where sexual
a particthat give rise to
spores that give rise
of a gene
sperm form)

to eggs form)

sperm form)

to eggs form)

a Flowering plant

testis
(where sperm
originate)

b Human male

ovary
(where eggs
develop)

c Human female

Figure 10.3 Examples of reproductive organs, where

cells that give rise to gametes originate.

Two consecutive nuclear divisions form four haploid

nuclei. There is typically no interphase between the
Meiosis is composed of 2 divisions
two divisions,
which are called meiosis I and II:

Interphase

Meiosis I

Meiosis II

DNA is
replicated
prior to
meiosis I

Prophase I
Metaphase I
Anaphase I
Telophase I

Prophase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II

In meoisis I, every duplicated chromosome aligns

with its partner, homologue to homologue. After they
are sorted and arranged this way, each homologous

Links to Microtubules 4.13, Mitosis 9.2 and 9.3

Meiosis I

plasma
membrane

breakup
of nuclear
envelope

newly forming
microtubules of
the spindle

one pair of
homologous
chromosomes

centrosome with
a pair of centrioles,
moving to opposite
sides of nucleus

Prophase I

The chromosomes were duplicated

Metaphase I

By the end of prophase I, spindle

Anaphase I

As spindle microtubules

Telophase I

One of each chromo-

How meiosis
Introduces
Varia4ons
In traits

A a

B b

B Here, we focus on only two

genes. One gene has alleles A and
a; the other has alleles B and b.

C Close contact between the

homologous chromosomes promotes crossing over between
nonsister chromatids, so paternal and maternal chromatids
exchange segments.

crossover

D Crossing over mixes up

paternal and maternal alleles
on homologous chromosomes.

drawn close to its

homologous chro
matids of the oth
with little space
entation favors cr
a chromosome an
corresponding seg
Crossing over
meiosis. The rate
cies and among ch
and 95 crossovers
some probably cr
Each crossover
gous chromosome
Such swapping w
ied, but remembe
forms (alleles). T
chromosome will
the homologous c
We will return
chapters. For now
duces novel comb
of a pair of homo
in novel combina

Figure 10.6 Animated

Blue signifies a paternal
and purple, its maternal

For clarity, we show only

homologous chromosom
over, but more than one c

B
B b
b
Crossing over a chromosome and its homologous
partner exchange corresponding segments
C Close contact between the
homologous chromosomes promotes crossing over between
nonsister chromatids, so paternal and maternal chromatids
exchange segments.

crossover

D Crossing over mixes up

paternal and maternal alleles
on homologous chromosomes.

Fig
Blu
an

Fo
ho
ove

Meiosis II

There is
no DNA
replication
between the
two nuclear
divisions.

Prophase II

Metaphase II

Anaphase II

Telophase II

Spermatogenesis forma4on of sperm cells

- produc4on occurs in the male gonads (testes)

- produc4on of spermatozoa occurs during the onset
of puberty (secondary sex characteris4cs)

- forma4on starts with hormones secreted by the
hypothalamus in the brain

a Level of testosterone in blood decreases; the

hypothalamus secretes GnRH, a releasing hormone.
(+ )

ructure of a mature
mete.

zoan, or mature
ploid, flagellated
6). A sperm uses
r tail, to swim
Mitochondria in
midpiece supply
uired for flagellar
perms head is
DNA and tipped
-containing cap.
an help a sperm
oocyte by partly
its outer layer.
ation takes about
m start to finish.

( )

f Elevated
level of
testosterone
in blood
inhibits
secretion
of GnRH.

Hypothalamus

( )

( )

g High sperm
count induces
Sertoli cells to
secrete inhibin,
which inhibits
secretion of
GnRH and LH.

Anterior Pituitary
b GnRH stimulates secretion of LH,
FSH from anterior lobe of pituitary.
(+ )

Testes
c LH prompts Leydig cells
d Sertoli cells bind FSH and
in testes to produce and
testosterone, and function in
release testosterone.
spermatogenesis at puberty.
e Testosterone and secretions from
Sertoli cells encourage sperm production.

urethra
penis
epididymis

seminiferous
tubule

testis

mitosis

divide. Thin cytoplasmic bridges keep them connected

to one another during the nuclear divisions. Signaling
molecules cross the bridges freely and induce them to
mature at the same rate.
The completion of meiosis I yields two secondary
spermatocytes (Figure 42.5c). These are haploid cells
with duplicated chromosomes (Section 10.5). The sister chromatids of each chromosome will move apart
during meiosis II, which produces immature sperm,
or spermatids. As spermatids mature into sperm, the
bridges of cytoplasm between them break down.

meiosis I

meiosis II

lumen

wall of
seminiferous tubule

spermatogonium
(diploid)

Leydig cells
between tubules

primary
spermatocyte
Sertoli cell

early
spermatids

secondary spermatocyte

Figure 42.5 Animated Where and how sperm form. (a) Male reproductive tract, posterior view.
(b) Light micrograph of cells in three adjacent seminiferous tubules, cross-section. Testosteronesecreting Leydig cells, occupy spaces between the tubules. (c) Diploid germ cells (spermatogonia)

immature sperm
(haploid)
late spermatid

sperm (mature,
haploid male
gametes)

secondary
spermatocytes
(haploid)

diploid male
germ cell

primary
spermatocyte
(diploid)
spermatids (haploid)

A Growth

B Meiosis I and
cytoplasmic division

C Meiosis II and
cytoplasmic division

three polar

Mature Spermatozoa
head,
with DNA
and a cap
of enzymes

Figure 42.6 Structure of a m

sperm, a male gamete.

midpiece
with
mitochondria

tail, with
its core of
microtubules

A spermatozoan, or m
sperm, is a haploid, flagel
cell (Figure 42.6). A sperm
its flagellum, or tail, to s
toward an egg. Mitochondr
the adjacent midpiece su
the energy required for flag
movement. A sperms hea
packed full of DNA and ti
by an enzyme-containing
The enzymes can help a sp
penetrate an oocyte by p
digesting away its outer la
Sperm formation takes a
100 days, from start to fi
An adult male makes sper
an ongoing basis, so that m
millions of cells are in diff
stages of development on

Oogenesis produc4on of mature egg cells

- occurs in the ovaries of females

- at birth, a female has 2 million primary oocytes
(immature) that have entered meiosis but have
stopped at prophase 1

- oocytes mature one at a 4me during each
menstrual cycle

- Follicle matura4on takes 14 days (under hormonal

control)

- The increase in LH encourages the oocyte to
complete meiosis I and divide
- One of the resul4ng haploid cells is the secondary
oocyte, the other haploid cells degenerate

enlarges and secretes glycoproteins. These secreted

glycoproteins form a noncellular layer known as the
zona pellucida (Figure 42.10b). As the follicle matures,
a fluid-filled cavity opens in the cell layer around the

A A primary oocyte, not

yet released from meiosis I.
A layer of cells is forming
around it. A mature follicle
consists of this cell layer
and the oocyte inside it.

B The zona pellucida,

a transparent, slightly
elastic layer, starts to form
around primary oocyte.

most of the cytoplasm. The other haploid cell is the

first polar body, a cell that will eventually degenerate
(Figure 42.10d). The LH surge also causes the follicle to
swell and eventually to burst. The secondary oocyte,

C A fluid-filled cavity
starts to form in the
follicles cell layer.

ovary

first polar body

primordial
follicle

secondary
oocyte

D Mature follicle.
Meiosis I is over.
A secondary oocyte
and the first polar
body have formed.

G If no pregnancy
occurs, the corpus
luteum breaks down.

F A corpus luteum
forms from remains
of ruptured follicle.

E Ovulation. Mature follicle ruptures, releasing

the secondary oocyte and first polar body.

Figure 42.10 Animated Cyclic events in a human ovary, cross-section. The follicle does
not move around as in this diagram, which simply shows the sequence of events. All of these
structures form in the same place during one menstrual cycle. In the cycles first phase, a follicle
grows and matures. At ovulation, the second phase, the mature follicle ruptures and releases a

first polar
body
(haploid)

oogonium
(diploid
female
germ cell)

primary oocyte
(diploid)
secondary
oocyte
(haploid)

A Growth

three polar
bodies
(haploid)

B Meiosis I and
cytoplasmic division

ovum
(haploid)

C Meiosis II and
cytoplasmic division

ded by the zona pellucida and some folreleased into an oviduct. Thus, the midcyLH is the trigger for ovulation, the release
ry oocyte from an ovary (Figure 42.10e).
is followed by the luteal phase of the
e. During this phase, the ruptured follicle
ellowish glandular structure known as the
m (Figure 42.10f ). In Latin, corpus means
teum means yellow.
us luteum secretes a large amount of the
e progesterone, and a lesser amount of
he high progesterone level feeds back to
d reduces secretion of LH and FSH, so a
does not develop.
ncy does not occur, the corpus luteum
re than 12 days. In the final days of the
a decline in LH causes it to break down
g). Then a new follicular phase begins.

FSH and LH levels in blood

FSH

LH
LH surge
triggers ovulation

FSH and LH stimulate

follicle maturation
B

Follicle changes in an ovary

follicle matures

ovulation

corpus
luteum
forms

corpus luteum
secretes estrogens,
progesterone

follicle secretes
estrogens
C

corpus luteum
breaks down

Estrogen and progesterone levels in blood

Progesterone

Events in the Ovary and Uterus

n, the flow of blood and endometrial tissue

terus and through the vagina, coincides
inning of the follicular phase in the ovary
c,d). Menstruation usually lasts for 1 to 5
as the follicular phase goes on, estrogens
a maturing follicle encourage the uterine
air itself and thicken.
lation, in the luteal phase, estrogens and
e secreted by the corpus luteum act on the
m. These hormones encourage the growth
sels and of glands that secrete glycogen.
s now ready to sustain a pregnancy.
gnancy occurs, the corpus luteum breaks
rogesterone and estrogen levels plummet.
s supplying the endometrium wither and
rium starts to break down. As the bloody
d, a new follicular phase begins.

Estrogen

estrogens,
progesterone,
cause uterine
lining to thicken

low estrogen
D

Changes in uterine lining

menstrual
flow

10

Follicular phase

12 14 16
Days of cycle

18

20

22

Luteal phase

24

26

28

BEHAVIORAL CHANGES