CONCEPT OF FREQUENCY RESPONSE

Defined as variation of an output signal level that

happen when the frequency signal is changed.
It happens because the gain of amplifiers varies as
frequency changes
AC amplifier gain decreases when input frequency
too low or too high
DC amplifier gain falls off at higher frequency, i.e. it
can operate all the way down to zero frequency without
a loss of voltage gain
Usually use dB to describe the decrease in voltage gain
Bode plot to graph the response of an amplifier

CHAPTER 6
FREQUENCY RESPONSE

GENERAL FREQUENCY CONSIDERATIONS

TERMINOLOGY

The frequency of the applied signal can have a pronounced

effect on the response of a single-stage or multistage
network. The analysis thus far has been for the midfrequency
spectrum.
At low frequencies, we shall find that the coupling and
bypass capacitors can no longer be replaced by the shortcircuit approximation because of the increase in reactance of
these elements.
The frequency-dependent parameters of the small-signal
equivalent circuits and the stray capacitive elements
associated with the active device and the network will limit
the high-frequency response of the system.
An increase in the number of stages of a cascaded system will
also limit both the high- and low-frequency responses.
3

Cutoff frequencies : the frequencies at which the

voltage gain equals 0.707 of its maximum value
also known as corner, band, break, or half-power
frequencies

Midband : the band of frequencies between 10f1

and 0.1f2. The voltage gain is maximum.
Bandwidth (fH fL) : the band between upper and
lower cutoff frequencies
Gain-bandwidth product : constant value of the
product of the voltage gain and the bandwidth
Unity-gain frequency : the frequency at which the
amplifiers gain is 1
4

Frequency response of an AC amplifier

LOW FREQUENCY RESPONSE

In the low-frequency region of the single-stage amplifier, it
is the R-C combinations formed by the network capacitors
CC, CE, and Cs and the network resistive parameters that
determine the cutoff frequencies.

Midband

1.

At very high frequencies,

Gain falls of due to the

effects of C and C

XC =

Gain falls of due to the

effects of CC and CE

A short-circuit equivalent can be substituted for the capacitor.

The result is that Vo= Vi at high frequencies.
6

Low-frequency response of BJT amplifier

LOW FREQUENCY RESPONSE

2.

3.

1
0
2fC

At f = 0 Hz,

XC =

1
=
2fC

Using Short Circuit Time Constant (SCTC) method

to determine low cutoff frequency.
Procedures to analyze low frequency.

An open-circuit approximation can be applied, with the

result that Vo = 0 V.
Between the two extremes, the ratio Av = Vo/Vi will vary
as shown below. As the frequency increases, the
capacitive reactance decreases and more of the input
voltage appears across the output terminals.

1.

Redraw the circuit as a small signal circuit with the

power supply is set to zero.

g mV

Low-frequency response of BJT amplifier

Low-frequency response of BJT amplifier

3.

2. Check for RC network from the amplifier

configuration
a.
b.
c.

At the base where CB with RS and input resistance as

seen from the capacitor
At the collector where CC, RL and output resistance
seen from the capacitor
At the emitter where CE, RE in parallel with the
resistance at the emitter terminal looking towards the
base

Low-frequency equivalent circuit

Low-frequency response of BJT amplifier

At the base, assume other capacitors CE

and CC are short circuit

f LB =
Ri (base)

b. At the collector, it does not matter CE is shorted

or not because emitter circuit does not
interfere the output.

1
2CB (RS + Ri (base ) )

Ri (base ) = R1 R2 r

gmV
Ro (emitter)

10

a.

Ro (collector)

Ri (base)

Low-frequency response of BJT amplifier

11

To determine the break/corner/cut-off

frequency from the circuit, we need to look at
the RC network.

Ro (collector)

f LC =

1
2CC (RL + Ro (collector ) )

gmV

Ro (collector ) = RC ro

12

c.

Low frequency response : C-E amplifier

At the emitter, assume CB and CC are short

circuit

Determine the lower cutoff

frequency for the voltage-divider
BJT bias configuration network
using the following parameters:
CB =10F, CE =20F, CC =1F,
Rs =1k, R1 =40k, R2 =10k,
RE =2k, RC =4k, RL = 2.2 k,
= 100, ro=, VCC =20V.

Ro (emitter)

RE

Ro (emitter ) = RE ' RE
f LE =

Ro (emitter)

1
1
=
2C E Ro (emitter ) 2C E (RE ' RE )

RE ' =

CB

RS R1 R2 + r
+1

13

14

DC parameters & ac model

V
4 0.7
IE = E =
= 1.65mA I C
RE
2k

RV
VB = 2 CC = 4V
R1 + R2
r =

VT
IC

(100)26mV
1.65 mA

= 1.58k

At the base :

f LB =

1
2 C B (R S + Ri (base ) )

Ri (base ) = R1 R2 r = 1.32k
1
At the collector : f LC =
2CC (RL + Ro (collector ) )

Ro (collector ) = RC ro = 4k

At the emitter : f LE =
g mV
RE ' =

+1

= 24.44

= 1 2 6 Hz

L B

f LB = 6 .86 Hz

f LC = 25.67Hz

1
1
=
2C E Ro (emitter ) 2C E (RE ' RE )

RS R1 R2 + r

= 1 2 Hz
6

L B

=1 2 6
Hz

L B

f LE = 330.12 Hz

Since fLE is the highest among the three, the low cut-off frequency,
15

Low-frequency equivalent circuit

16

fL = fLE = 330.12Hz

Low- frequency equivalent circuit

Low frequency response : C-B amplifier

22uF

50R

Determine the lower

cutoff frequency for the
voltage-divider BJT bias
configuration network.
using the following
parameters:
IE =2.5mA, = 180, ro=,
VT =26mV.

E
-

1k8

r
22k

820R

B
10uF

r =
17

VT
IC

Vo

gmV

V
VS

0.5uF

(180)26mV
2.5 mA

3k3

6k8

= 1.87 k

18

At emitter : CC and CB are shorted

At base : CE and CC are shorted

50R

E
V
820R

gmV
r

1k8

3k3

B
6k8||22k

Rt =
f LE
19

1 r
= = 10.39
gm

10uF

RoB = 6k 8 22k [r + (1 + )(50 820 )] = 3.46k

Ri = 820 r Rt = 10.2

f LB =

1
=
= 120 .17 Hz
2 C E ( R S + R i )
20

2 C B (RoB )

= 4 .6 Hz

At collector : CE and CB are shorted

50R

E
-

820R

gmV
1k8

f LC

0.5uF

Low frequency response : C-C amplifier

3k3

Determine the lower

cutoff frequency for the
voltage-divider BJT bias
configuration network.
using the following
parameters:
IE =1mA, = 100, ro=,
VT =26mV.

VCC

80k

1k

Vs

1
=
= 62 .41 Hz
2 C C ( R C + R L )

0.1uF

VO

20k

0.5uF
2k7
47k

Since fLE is the highest among the three, the low cut-off frequency,
fL = fLE = 120.17Hz

21

22

At emitter : CB is shorted

Low- frequency equivalent circuit

r =
23

VT
IC

(100)26mV
=
1mA

Ro = 2k 7
= 2.6k

f LE =
24

r + 1k 80k 20k
1+

) = 34.61

1
= 67 .23 Hz
2 C E ( R L + R o )

At base : CE is shorted

Selection of coupling & decoupling

capacitors
Step to determine the value of capacitors for Common Emitter
The 3dB frequency is given
Manipulate emitter frequency formula to determine the
emitter decoupling capacitor value.
Use one tenth of the 3dB frequency to determine the base
capacitor and collector values by manipulating the base and
collector frequency formula.

Ri = 80k 20k [r + (1 + )(2k 7 47 k )] = 15.07 k

1
= 105 .61 Hz
f LB =
2 C B ( R i )

f L = f LE

Since fLB is the highest among the two, the low cut-off frequency,
fL = fLB = 105.61Hz

25

f LB = f LC =

1
f LE ;
10

f LCi = f LCo =

1
f LE
10

26

Selection of coupling & decoupling

capacitors

Selection of coupling & decoupling

capacitors

Step to determine the value of capacitors for Common Collector

Step to determine the value of capacitors for Common Base

The 3dB frequency is given

The 3dB frequency is given

Manipulate collector frequency formula to determine the

collector decoupling capacitor value.

Manipulate emmiter(input) frequency formula to

determine the emitter coupling capacitor value.

Use one tenth of the 3dB frequency to determine the emitter

capacitor and base values by manipulating the emitter and base
frequency formula.

Use one tenth of the 3dB frequency to determine the base

capacitor and collector values by manipulating the base and
collector frequency formula.

f L = f LC
27

f LB = f LE =

1
f LC ;
10

f LCi = f LCo =

1
f LC
10

f L = f LCi = f LE
28

f LB = f LC =

1
f LE ;
10

f LB = f LCo =

1
f LC
10

Low-frequency response of FET amplifier

Low-frequency equivalent circuit : C-S amplifier

The analysis of the analysis of the FET amplifier in the

low-frequency region will be quite similar to that of the
BJT amplifier. There are again three capacitors of
primary concern as appearing in the given network: CG,
CD, and CS.

Rsig

CG

CD

Vo

+
Vgs
VS

gmVgs

RG

rd

RD

- S

RL

CS

RS

CD

29

30

Low-frequency response of FET amplifier

a.

Rsig

CG

RG

Vgs

gmVgs
-

Ri = Rsig + RG

Rsig

Vo

31

b. At the drain, assume other capacitors CG and

CS are short circuit

At the gate, assume other capacitors CD and

CS are short circuit

rd

RD

Vo

RL

RG

Vgs

gmVgs
-

f LG =

CD

RoD = (RD rd ) + RL

1
2CG (Ri )
32

rd

RL

RD

f LD =

2CD (RoD )

c.

At the source, assume CD and CG are short

circuit

RS is set to infinity (RS = )

io

gmvgs

i'

vgs

rds

R d'

= (io + g mvgs )rds + io Rd '

vgs (1 + g m rds ) = io (rds + Rd ' )

Rt

Rt =

33

Vgs
Vs
1
=
=
g mVgs g mVgs g m

1
f LS =
2CS RoS

Rd '
vgs (rds + Rd ' ) 1 + rds
=
=
Rt =
1 + g m rds (1 / rds ) + g m
i0

RoS = RS Rt

If rds is large, Rt =
34

Low-frequency response of FET: C-D amplifier

35

v vgs
=
i
io
'
vgs = i rds + io Rd '
Rt =

1
gm

Low-frequency equivalent circuit : C-D amplifier

36

b. At the source, assume CD is short circuit

a. At the gate, assume capacitor CS is short circuit
Ri

CG

G
+ Vgs -

Vo

RG
gmVgs

rd

RS

RL

f LG =

Ro =

1
2CG (Ri + RG )

37

1
rd RS
gm

f LS =

1
2CS (Ro + RL )

38

Low-frequency response of FET: C-G amplifier

Low-frequency equivalent circuit : C-G amplifier

rd

Ri

Vs

Vo

CS

Vgs
RS

gmVgs
+

R1||R2

39

40

CD

RD
CG

RL

a.

At the gate, assume other capacitors CD and

CS are short circuit

b. At the drain, assume other capacitors CG and

CS are short circuit

R1||R2

CG

RG = R1 R2

f LG =

RoD = (RD rd ) + RL

1
2CG (RG )

41

f LD =

42

c.

2CD (RoD )

Selection of coupling & decoupling

capacitors

At the source, assume CD and CG are short

circuit

Step to determine the value of capacitors for Common Source

The 3dB frequency is given
Manipulate source frequency formula to determine the
source decoupling capacitor value.

Rt = RS

43

1
gm

f LS =

Use one tenth of the 3dB frequency to determine the gate

capacitor and drain capacitor values by manipulating the gate
and drain frequency formula.

1
2CS (Ri + Rt )

f L = f LS
44

f LG = f LD =

1
f LS ;
10

f LCi = f LCo =

1
f LS
10

Selection of coupling & decoupling

capacitors

Selection of coupling & decoupling

capacitors
Step to determine the value of capacitors for Common Gate

Step to determine the value of capacitors for Common drain

The 3dB frequency is given

The 3dB frequency is given

Manipulate drain frequency formula to determine the drain
decoupling capacitor value.

Manipulate source(input) frequency formula to determine

the source coupling capacitor value.

Use one tenth of the 3dB frequency to determine the source

capacitor and gate capacitor values by manipulating the
source and gate frequency formula.

Use one tenth of the 3dB frequency to determine the gate

capacitor and drain capacitor values by manipulating the
base and collector frequency formula.

f L = f LD

f LG = f LS =

1
f LD ;
10

f LCi = f LCo =

f L = f LCi = f LS

1
f LD
10

45

f LG = f LD =

1
f LS ;
10

f LG = f LCo =

46

Example

Example

For the circuits below obtain their lower cut off frequency.
Assume g m = 5 mS, rds = 20k

For the circuits below obtain their lower cut off frequency.
Assume g m = 5 mS, rds = 20k

VDD

1M8

1
F

1
F

1
F

2k 7

1
F

Q1

Q1
vin

vo

470k

2k7

vin 2k2

1k5

22
F
47

VSS

10
F
48

1M0

vo
V

1
f LS
10

Example

HIGH FREQUENCY RESPONSE

For the circuits below obtain their lower cut off frequency.
Assume g m = 5 mS, rds = 20k
VDD

1M0

In the high-frequency region, the capacitive elements of

importance are the interelectrode (between terminals)
capacitances internal to the active device and the wiring
capacitance between leads of the network.
The large capacitors of the network that controlled the
low-frequency response have all been replaced by their
short-circuit equivalent due to their very low reactance
levels.

1
F

1
F
Q1

5M6
10
F
49

50

Procedures to analyse high frequency

High frequency response of BJT amplifier

1. Redraw the circuit as a small signal circuit

with all the coupling and bypass capacitors
short circuit and power supply is replaced
with short circuit
2. Determine which interelectrode capacitance
has connection between the input and
output of the amplifier and apply Millers
Theorem
3. Check for RC network

51

52

Millers Theorem

Miller equivalent circuit

This theorem simplifies the analysis of feedback

amplifiers.
The theorem states that if an impedance is connected
between the input side and the output side of a voltage
amplifier, this impedance can be replaced by two
equivalent impedances, i.e. one connected across the
input and the other connected across the output
terminals.

53

V1 V2
Z

V2 =

A V1

I1

I1

V (1 + A)
V1
= 1
=
Z
Z

1 + A

I2

V1

V2

V 2 V1
Z

V2

A V1

I2

I2

1
V 2 1 +

Z
V2

1 + 1

54

Miller equivalent circuit (contd)

I2

I1

V1
I1

ZM1

Miller Capacitance Effect

=

V1
Z
1 + A
Z

1 + A
Z

1 + A

V1

V2
V2
I2

ZM 2

55

I1

I2

V2

1 + 1
A

ZM1

Z
1
1 +
A

1 + 1
A

XC
1+ A

1
CM 1

C (1 + A )

I1

Z
1+ A

X CM 1

CM 1

56

C (1 + A)

V1

ZM 2

Z
1
1+
A

X CM 2

XC
1
1+
A

I2
V2

CM 2

CM 2

C (1 +

C (1 +

1
)
A
1
)
A

High-frequency hybrid- model with Miller effect

High-frequency hybrid- model

C

gmV

CMi

ro

CMo

gmV

ro

C = Cbe

CMi = C (1 + A ) = Cbc (1 + A )

C = Cbc

Cin = C + CMi + Cwi

57

High- frequency response of CE Amplifier

Q-point values

Given :

Determine :
R1

i- upper cutoff frequencies

ii- midband gain

vS

59

RC
4 k C

33 k
RS

C1

2 k

1 F
R2
22 k

vO
RL
5 k

RE
4 k

r =

VBB =

R2
VCC = 2 V
R1 + R2

ro =

RB =

R1 R2
= 13.2 k
R1 + R2

2 F

I CQ = I B = 0.314 mA

C3
10 F

60

Transistor parameters
value

VBB VBE (on )

= 2.615 A
RB + ( + 1)RE

IB =

VCC = 5V

Cout = CMo + Cwo

A : midband gain

58

= 120, Cbe = 2.2 pF, Cbc = 1 pF,

VA = 100V, VBE(on) = 0.7V

1
1
C Mo = C 1 + = Cbc 1 +
A
A

gm =

VT
I CQ

= 9.94 k

VA
= 318 .47 k
I CQ

I CQ
VT

= 12.08 mS

High-frequency equivalent circuit

RS

vs

Upper cutoff frequency

vo
C

R1||R2

CMi

ro

RC||RL

gmV

Amid = g m

Midband gain

(r

(R

(R
S

r )

+ RB

Miller Capacitance

CMo

(r
r )

RC RL

CMi = Cbc (1 + A ) = (1 p )(20.47 ) = 20.47 pF

1
CMo = Cbc 1 + = (1 p )(1.051) = 1.05 pF
A

RB ) = 9.94 k 13.2k = 5.67 k

Cin = Cbe + CMi = 22.67 pF

RS + (r RB ) = 2k + 9.94 k 13.2 k = 7.67 k

(r

61

Input & output resistances

RC RL = 318 .47 k 2.22 k = 2.18k

Amid = 12.08m

(5.67k ) (2.18k ) = 19.47

(7.67k )

Ri = RS R1 R2 r = 1.48 k

Ro = RC RL ro = 2.18 k
62

Upper cutoff frequency

Input side

Output side

f Hi =

1
1
=
= 4.74MHz
2Ri Cin 2 (1.48 k )(22.67 p )

f Ho =

1
1
=
= 69.53MHz
2RoCout 2 (2.18k )(1.05 p )

Upper cutoff frequency

(the smallest value)

63

Cout = CMo = 1.05 pF

High-frequency in CC amplifier
Figure below shown common collector amplifier circuit

f H = 4.74MHz

R e' = R e // R L
64

High-frequency ac equivalent circuit with Millers Effect

High-frequency ac equivalent circuit

b

Vin

rbb'

Rb

b'

ib

cb'c

rb' e

cb'e

R e'

ib

Vout

Vin

rbb'

ib

Rb

cb'c

b'

cm1

rm1 rm2

Cm2

Cb'e = C
65

C Mi = C m1

rMi = rm1

Upper cutoff frequency

Upper cutoff frequency

to determine total impedance, Vin = 0

Miller Capacitance

Cin = C b 'c + C Mi

C Mo = C bc 1 +
A

Input & output resistances

Cout = C Mo

R i = rbb rMi

Miller Resistance

R o = rMo R e '
rMi =
67

C Mo = C m 2

66

C Mi = C bc (1 + A )

r
(1 + A V )

Vout

rb'e = r

C b 'c = C

R e'

ib

AV

rMo = r
1+ AV
68

rMo = rm 2

High-frequency in CB amplifier
f Hi =

Input side

f Ho =

Output side

1
2R i Cin

Figure below shown common base amplifier circuit

1
2R o C out

vin

Re

Rc

Smallest value between :

fHi and fHo

Upper cutoff frequency

(the smallest value)

69

vo

70

Upper cutoff frequency

High-frequency ac equivalent circuit

Re

ib

ie

Miller Capacitance

No Miller capacitance will effect

rb' e

cb'e
rce

vin

Rc

cb'c

Cin = C b 'e = C

Vout

Cout = C b 'c = C

to determine total impedance, Vin = 0

rbb'

ib

Cb'e = C
71

C b 'c = C

Input & output resistances

R i = r || rbb

rb'e = r
72

R o = rce R c

High-frequency in CS amplifier
f Hi =

Input side

f Ho =

Output side

1
2R i Cin

1
2R o C out

Smallest value between :

fHi and fHo

Upper cutoff frequency

(the smallest value)

73

74

High-frequency ac equivalent circuit with Millers Effect

High-frequency ac equivalent circuit

Cgd
Rsig

Vo
D

+
Vo

+
VS

Rsig

gmVgs

RG
Vgs

Cgs

rd

RD

Cwi

RL

Vgs
CMi
-

Cds
-

CMi = Cgd (1 + A )

1
2RiCin
1
f Ho =
2RoCout

Cin = Cgs + CMi + Cwi

f Hi =

Upper cutoff frequency

(the smallest value
between fHi and fHo)

75

A : midband gain

Ri = Rsig RG
76

gmVgs

RG
Cgs

Cwo

rd
Cds

RD

RL

CMo

1
C Mo = C gd 1 +
A

Cout = CMo + Cwo + Cds

Ro = RD RL rd

High-frequency in CD amplifier

High-frequency ac equivalent circuit

Cgs
Rsig

S
+

VS

Vo

Vgs

gmVgs

RG
Cgd

rd

RS

Cds
D

1
2RiCin
1
f Ho =
2RoCout
f Hi =

Upper cutoff frequency

(the smallest value
between fHi and fHo)

77

78

High-frequency ac equivalent circuit with Millers Effect

G

High-frequency in CG amplifier

S
gmVgs

Rsig

RG
CMi

Cgd

rd
Cds

RS

RL

CMo

CMi = Cgs (1 + A )

Cin = Cgd + CMi

1
C Mo = C gs 1 +
A

Cout = CMo + Cds

A : midband gain

Ri = Rsig RG
79

Ro =

1
RS RL rd
gm

80

RL

High-frequency ac equivalent circuit with Millers Effect

High-frequency ac equivalent circuit

rd
Cds

Rsig

VS

RS

gmVgs

Vgs

Cgd

Cgs

RD

RL

CMi = Cds (1 + A )

Cin = Cgs + CMi

Upper cutoff frequency
(the smallest value
between fHi and fHo)

81

1
f Hi =
2RiCin
1
f Ho =
2RoCout

r
rMi = d
1+ A

Ri = Rsig RG rMi
82

1
C Mo = C ds 1 +
A

Cout = CMo + Cgd

rMo =

rd
1+

1
A

Ro = rMo RD RL