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EXAM 2
BIOLOGY 1407 - CHAPTER 25-26
TRACING PHYLOGENY: MACROEVOLUTION,
THE FOSSIL RECORD AND SYSTEMATICS
1. Identify how variations in the rate and timing of gene expression can
impact evolution. Allometric Growth, Paedomorphosis, Heterochrony
6. Review structural variation seen in the cell wall of gram positive vs. gram
negative bacteria. How does the bacterial cell wall compare to that of
Archaea?
7. Define capsule, fimbriae, sex pili and nucleoid.
8. Discuss bacterial motility.
9. Define taxis.
10. Explain/define binary fission, transformation, transduction, conjugation and
endospores.
11. Review prokaryotic metabolic diversity: heterotrophs vs. autotrophs.
12. Differentiate between chemoheterotrophs and photoheterotrophs as well
as photosynthesis, bacterial photosynthesis and chemosynthesis.
13. Define symbiosis, commensalism, mutualism and parasitism.
14. Review nitrogen metabolism; nitrogen fixation, nitrification and
denitrification.
15. Distinguish between aerobes, facultative anaerobes and obligate
anaerobes.
16. Review the characteristics of the major groups of Prokaryotes (bacteria).
A. Archaea
1. Thermophile
2. Methanogens
3. Strict Halophile
B. Bacteria
1.Proteobacteria
2. Spirochetes
3. Chlamydias
4. Actinomycetes
5. Mycoplasmas
6. Cyanobacteria
17. Describe the characteristics and ecological importance of the
Cyanobacteria.
18. Give the important ecological roles of bacteria.
2. Review the origin of eukaryotic cells, the endosymbiotic theory and the
origin of the endomembrane system.
3. Review the old five kingdom system of classification and how it is
inadequate for the old Kingdom Protista.
4. Review the diversity of protistan characteristics and why protistan
taxonomy is in a state of change.
5. Identify the characteristics and evolutionary place of the Parabasala and
Diplomonadida in eukaryotic evolution.
6. Review the characteristics of the Euglenozoa recognizing the specific
characteristics of the Phyla Euglenophyta (Euglena) and Kinetoplatida.
7. List the characteristics of the phyla: Dinoflagellata, Apicomplexa and
Ciliophora.
8. List the characteristics of the phyla Bacillariophyta, Oomycota and
Phaeophyta.
9. List the characteristics of the phyla Radiolaria and Foraminifera.
10. Review the characteristics of the phyla Rhodophyta, Chlorophyta and
Charophyta.
11. Review the characteristics of the Mycetozoa, Cellular Slime Molds and
Gymnamoeba.
EXAM 2 NOTES
BIOLOGY 1407 - CHAPTER 25
TRACING PHYLOGENY: MACROEVOLUTION, THE FOSSIL
RECORD AND SYSTEMATICS
1. THE FOSSIL RECORD
A. How Fossils Form
1. Most fossils are formed in sedimentary rock.
2. Most fossils result from preservation of hard rather than soft parts.
3. Types of fossils.
2. FOSSIL DATING
A. Relative Dating
1. Based upon sedimentation rates and the location of fossils in
sedimentary strata.
2. Since any one area often does not show a complete set of strata due
to erosion and other factors aging is based on fossil location in strata in
many different locations. Strata from different locations are often
correlated by the presence of similar fossils. These similar fossils are
known as a fossil index.
3. Relative dating does not give absolute dates but provides age
approximations and is used in sequencing groups of organisms based
upon their location in the strata.
B. Absolute Dating
1. Based upon the half-life of selected radioactive elements such as C-14
or U-238.
2. C-14 has a half-life of 5,600 years. That means that half of a sample of
C-14 will degrade in 5,600 years to C-12.
3. When an organism dies it contains a fixed amount of the various
isotopes of the elements incorporated in the body. The quantities of the
various isotopes is determined by the relative quantities available in
the environment. Thus when a fossil is aged the amount of a given
radioactive isotope present in a fossil can be used to determine the
age. Example: When an organism died, it contained 8 grams of C-14.
At the time of aging only 2 grams are present. After the first 5,600
years 4 grams would have been present in the fossil; after another
5,600 only 2 grams were present, thus the age of the fossil is 11,200
years.
4. The half-life of U-238 is 4.5 billion years, thus it is used in aging very
old specimens.
5. Another method of absolute dating is based upon the relative
quantities of R-form vs. L-forms of amino acids (racemization) present
in a specimen.
6. The use of radioactive isotopes is not affected by climate, etc., but the
rate of amino acid racemization is affected by changes in climate.
3. GENE TIMING: THE CONTROL OF DEVELOPMENT
A. Genes that control development play a major role in the evolution of
unique features.
B. Slight changes in developmental genes can have major impacts on adult
or allometric growth that results in the shape and form of the adult.
C. Changes in the timing or rate of development, heterochrony, can result in
major changes in the morphology of the adult, or in paedomorphosis, the
retention of juvenile characteristics in the adult.
D. The alteration of the placement of parts homeosis, influence adult
characteristics.
4. MACROEVOLUTION, BIOGEOGRAPHY AND CONTINENTAL DRIFT
A. The drifting of continents is a major factor in macroevolution
B. At the end of the Paleozoic, 250 million years ago continental drift brought
all land masses together in one super continent, Pangaea. This caused
major climatic changes, changes in ocean currents and reduced coastal
habitat. This resulted in a major mass extinction event.
C. During the Mesozoic, 180 million years ago, Pangaea began to breakup
resulting in the isolation of flora and fauna on different land masses.
5. MASS EXTINCTION AND ADAPTIVE RADIATION
A. Major Adaptive Radiation events have been significant in the evolution of
larger taxons.
1. Evolution of animal phyla
2. Flying insects/ flying reptiles and birds.
3. Adaptive radiation of mammals
B. Mass Extinctions
1. Causes
Impact hypothesis
Support and affect of the impact
What ever the cause, mass extinctions have been major factors in
macroevolution. Many species are eliminated and many of the
survivors undergo adaptive radiation to fill the void.
EUKARYOTES
No histone proteins
Histone proteins
No nuclear membrane
Nuclear membrane
Binary Fission
No membrane bound
organelles
Flagellum rotates
Photosynthetic lamellae
No comparable structures
70s ribosomes
80s ribosomes
1 to 10 micrometers in
diameter or length.
10 to 100 micrometers in
diameter or length.
2.
3.
Phycocyanin - blue
Phycoerythrin - red
1.
Eukaryote Characteristics
2. Phylum Parabasala
Multiple Flagella
Golgi-like Parabasal Body
Have reduced mitochondria called hydrogenosomes that generate some
energy anaerobically
Mitochondrial DNA in Chromosome
3. Phylum Diplomonadida
No Chloroplast
Multiple Flagella
Simple Cytoskeleton
4. Euglenozoa
5.
Most are unicellular with some being colonial. Several species are
symbionts of reef building coral.
Most are marine and are major photosynthetic food producers in the
oceans.
The cell wall is composed of overlapping cellulose plates.
Two Flagella extend from a transverse and longitudinal groove in cell wall.
The lashing of the flagella results in a whirling motion.
6.
Most members of this group are unicellular and have overlapping cell
walls of silica and an organic matrix.
Centric - disk shaped, Pennate - elongate or cigar shaped.
Many of these organisms store food as oils which assist them in floating
since many are members of the marine and freshwater plankton.
These organisms are responsible for a major portion of the photosynthetic
out put of both marine and freshwater environments.
Photosynthetic and accessory pigments are chlorophyll a and c, yellow
and brown carotenoids and xanthrophylls.
Most move by a peculiar gliding movement caused by chemical
secretions.
Reproduction is usually asexual, sexual reproduction is rare.
Rhizaria.
Phylum Radiolaria
All are marine with many living in the sediment or attached to plants or
rocks. Only a few are planktonic.
Pseudopods extent through the pores of the shell and are used mostly for
feeding
Foram shells make up a large portion of many tropical marine sands and
sedimentary rocks.
7. Archaeplastida
Phylum Rhodophyta - Red Algae
Phylum Charophyta
8.
Multicellular
Amoebozoa
Phylum Mycetozoa - Plasmodial slime molds
500 species
saprophytic
Body called a plasmodium which is a multinucleate mass of cytoplasm.
Produce resistant bodies called sclerotia
Most produce upright sporangia, diploid nuclei stream into the
sporangium, meiosis produces haploid spores, spores fuse to form a
diploid zygote. The zygote develops into a diploid plasmodium.
Cellular slime molds
Exist most of the time as amoeba-like unicells.
Saprophytic
35 species.
Saprophytic.
Most are non-flagellated.
During adverse conditions, under the influence of cAMP thousands of
cells aggregate to form a multicellular pseudoplasmodium. A fruiting
body develops which releases haploid spores.
These spores become individual amoeba-like cells.
Phylum Gymnamoeba
All Unicellular
No Flagella
Lobate Pseudopodia
No Sexual Reproduction