IONIC BONDING

When a metal and non-metal form a compound, the non-metal attracts electrons more
strongly than the metal. The metal atom loses the electron to become a cation. The nonmetal gains electrons to become an anion. Ions with opposite charges attract each other and
this electrostatic attraction is called an ionic bond.

Ionic Compounds
An ionic compound consists of a three-dimensional lattice of
ions held together by ionic bonds which extend throughout the
whole crystal structure.
Examples of ionic substances include all salts (e.g. sodium
chloride) and bases such as metallic oxides (e.g. sodium
oxide), and hydroxides (e.g. potassium hydroxide)
The formula for ionic compounds is empirical, which means
that
it shows the simplest ratio of ions present in the 3D lattice of
the
compound, NOT the actual number of ions that are in the
crystal (there are billions). E.g. the formula NaCl means that
there is
one sodium ion for every chloride ion; they are in the ratio
1:1.
Drawing molecular or structural formulae is not logical as each positive-negative ion
combination repeats billions of times. And there are no identifiable discrete molecules, such
as with H20 the number of NaCl particles would depends on the size of the sample of the
NaCl crystal
Properties of Ionic Compounds
PROPERTY
High melting and
boiling point
Good electrical
conductor when
molten
Good conductor of
electricity when
in solution
Poor electrical
conductor when
solid
Brittle nature

Hard
Solubility

CAUSE OF THE PROPERTY IN TERMS OF ITS STRUCTURE

Strong ionic bonds/electrostatic forces extending throughout crystal
lattice. A lot of energy is needed to break these bonds.
When enough energy is put in to break the ionic bonds, the ions are free
to move and carry electrical charge.
Water molecules separate and surround ions, so the ionic bonds are
broken. The ions are now free to move and carry electrical charge.
No free electrons to carry charge as they are firmly held in the ions. Ions
are also not free to move and carry charge as they are held in fixed
positions by strong electrostatic bonds.
Distortion of the crystal, such as when the crystal is hammered, causes
the ions of like charges to come close together and repel, so the crystal
shatters.
Strong ionic bonds
Will often dissolve in water If a substance dissolves it is because the
attraction of the ions to the water molecules is greater than the
attraction of the ions to each other.

METALLIC BONDING

Metallic bonding exists in bonding only

Metals exist in a three-dimensional lattice of positive ions

(from the protons of the nuclei of the metal atoms)
surrounded by a sea of delocalised electrons. This is
because metals dont hold on to their valence electrons
strongly.
These outer electrons float about and are not associated to
a particular atom.
The random movement of the outer shell electrons
provides a strong electrostatic attraction between the
positive ions and electrons, holding the crystal together.
This bond is called a metallic bond.

Properties of Metals
PROPERTY
High melting &
boiling points
Good conductor of
heat & electricity

High density
High lustre
Highly malleable &
ductile

Solubility

EXPLANATION
A lot of energy is needed to break the metallic bonds, i.e. the strong
electrostatic attraction between the positive nuclei and their sea of
electrons.
Electrical: The valence electrons are free to move and can carry
electrical charge.
Heat: Mobile electrons have greater kinetic energy when the metal is
heated, and so they can transfer this heat energy faster they can
carry the heat along quickly
The metal atoms are tightly packed in the crystal lattice. The
delocalised electrons allow cations to pack together without repelling.
The sea of electrons reflect light, and so metals are shiny
Since the delocalised electrons are not bound to any particular atoms
and they can shift and flow, layers of metal cations can slide over each
other while still remaining bonded to the structure. This is because of
the strong attraction between the metal cations and the electrons.
Insoluble in water

COVALENT BONDING

Non-metallic atoms have high electronegativities, meaning they are able to attract electrons
easily
When two non-metal atoms react together, they will both need to gain electrons in order to
complete their valence shell of electrons and achieve stability. They are able to do this by
sharing pairs of electrons. This sharing between two non-metallic atoms is called covalent
bonding
The force of attraction between the positive nucleus and the negative-shared electrons is
what keeps the atoms joined together
When covalent bonds hold atoms together in a small grouping, the group of atoms is called a
molecule. COVALENT MOLECULAR SUBSTANCES exist as discrete molecules.
When a large number of atoms are held together by covalent bonds in a giant lattice, a
COVALENT NETWORK substance is formed
A molecule is a group of two or more non-metal atoms sharing electrons held
together by covalent bonds

When two electrons are shared, a single covalent bond is formed (e.g. H-H). When two pairs
of electrons (four electrons) are shared, a double covalent bond is formed (e.g. O=O). When
three pairs of pairs of electrons are shared, a triple bond is formed

Covalent Molecular Substances

The electron pairs forming covalent bonds are called bonding electron pairs
The remaining electron pairs, if any, are called non-bonding electron pairs or lone pairs
A water molecule has 2 bonding electron pairs and 2 non-bonding (lone) electron pairs
The formula represents the number of atoms of each element in one molecule of the
compound, e.g. the methane molecule

C H4

contains one carbon atom and 4 hydrogen

atoms.
The prefix mono is omitted and is only used for CO carbon monoxide
Group 8 elements, the noble gases, exist as
monatomic molecules each of which only contains
one atom
Elements from groups 5, 6 and 7 can occur as
molecules; usually containing two atoms of the same
element. All gases exist as diatomic molecules except
group 8 (nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine)
When covalent bonds hold different types of atoms together, a covalent compound is formed.
Most covalent compounds exist as small molecules, e.g. ammonia

NH 3 , hydrogen sulfide

H2 S
Properties of Covalent Molecular Substances

Low melting & boiling point: there are strong covalent bonds (intramolecular forces)
WITHIN the molecule but weak intermolecular forces (also called dispersion forces) BETWEEN
the molecules holding them together
When a covalent molecular substance is heated, the intramolecular covalent bonds do not
break; only the weak intermolecular bonds between molecules are broken so the complete
molecules are separated from each other

Soft and easily scratched: covalent molecular substances are not very hard or strong
because the molecules are weakly attracted by weak intermolecular forces and are easily
separated from each other
They usually exist as liquids or gases at room temperature because they have low melting
and boiling points
Poor conductor of heat and electricity: covalent molecular compounds are made up of
neutral molecules so they cannot carry charge. They have no mobile ions or free electrons

Coordinate covalent bond/dative bond: a covalent bond in which both electrons in the bond are
supplied by the one atom
Covalent Network Substances

Sometimes non-metals form giant networks or lattices of atoms held together by covalent
bonds
These giant covalent lattices can occur in elements carbon (allotropes of carbon: diamond
and graphite) and silicon, as well as compounds of silicon (e.g. silicon dioxide
silicon carbide SiC). The only ones that are covalent network are: C, Si,

SiO 2 and

SiO 2 (sand), and SiC

The elements carbon and silicon are covalent network elements in which the bonding
arrangement around each atom is tetrahedral (four-sided figure). Each carbon has made four
covalent bonds with four other carbon atoms around it

Arrangement of carbon
atoms in diamond
Each line represents a
covalent bond, a shared
pair of electrons

Graphite
The carbon atoms are covalently bonded to only 3 other carbon atoms. This produces flat
sheets of hexagonally arranged carbon atoms

Each carbon atom has 3 of outer shell electrons involved in the bond, so its neighbours leave
1 electron free to move throughout the lattice (carbon can gain 4 more electrons to achieve a
full outer shell)
Properties of Graphite

Soft solid: weak intermolecular forces between hexagonal layers

Slippery: layers can slip over each other easily because there are weak intermolecular forces
between layers. This makes graphite a good lubricant (substance used to reduce friction
between two solid surfaces)
High melting & boiling point: a lot of energy is needed to break the strong covalent bonds
within each layer
Good conductor of heat and electricity: delocalised electrons are free to move along and
between layers throughout the structure of the graphite
Insoluble in water: covalent bonds within the lattice are too strong to break

Properties of Covalent Network

High melting & boiling point: much energy needed to break strong and many covalent
bonds throughout the lattice
Hard & brittle: network of strong bonding between atoms extending in three-dimensions
make lattice hard and strong. Brittle as distortion of the lattice breaks the covalent bonds
Poor conductor of electricity in all states: no free electrons to carry charge as electrons
are involved in the covalent bond. Also, covalent network substances are made up of neutral
atoms. This excludes graphite which is a good conductor of electricity because every carbon
has a free electron that is not involved in the covalent bond
Insoluble in water: strong covalent bonds within the lattice are too difficult to break