ANCIENT CHURCH

MID-TERM = NOVEMBER 7
Reading
Kelly,chapters110
Chadwick,chapters111
LibraryofChristianClassics

CourseRequirements

A.Completerequiredreading
B. Writeonepagereflectionpapersoneachofthetwo
volumesintheLibraryofChristianclassicsseries(due
October31)andonAugust'sConfessions(dueDecember8).
C.Midterm(November7)andfinal(December)exams.
Reading

HenryChadwick

TheEarlyChurch

J.N.D.Kelly
Doctrines

Early

PeterBrown

AugustineofHippo

Christian

LibraryofChristianClassics

EarlyChristianFathers

TheDidache
Justin'sFirstApology
Irenaeus'

Against

Heresies

EarlyLatinTheology

Tertullian(all)
Cyprian:Unityofthe
CatholicChurchand
Letter33

Augustine
10)

Confessions (Books 1

Calvin
(nottestedonthis)

Institutes
I,1118
II,18,1217

OfficeofBishop
Jewish culture and context; offices in the church
(apostle, elder) influenced by this Jewish background.
Officeofthebishopemerged. Titus1=presbuterosand
episcoposarereallythesameoffice,butbishopemerged

as a separate office by about 150 AD. Seen as leading

officeofthechurch. Don'treadpresentexperienceback
into earlier history. Today, bishops are administrative
officers over regional areas; administrators, "CEO" type
office. Better to look into second/third centuries;
bishopmoreliketoday'sseniorpastor. Bishopwasfirst
of all a preacher, during whole of early church period.
Augustine in 5th century saw his office of bishop as
preacher.Bishopsatthattimedidn'tcoverlargeareas.
Is "bishop" a proper office, having emerged so early in
churchhistory?HavePresbyteriansmissedsomething?
Howhasthecultureencouragedtheemergenceofabishop?
Hierarchywaspresentinthecultureatthattime,likea
pyramid. There was expectation of someone in charge at
thetop.Confucianismisahierarchicalformofthinking.
No two people equal; one superior to other. Modern
Americanisradicallydemocratic,resistanttohierarchy.
Worked out in politics particularly. In ancient Rome,
there were slaves at the bottom, and up from there to
aristocracy.Emperorattopofheap.
There is hierarchy in heaven! Saints who are saved,
angelsofvariousranks,Godattop.Familyishierarchy.
So is the state, so is the church. Hierarchy fit well
culturallyintheearlychurch.
Ignatius of Antioch at turn of second century wrote of
threeoffices:deacons,presbyter,bishop.Bishopsymbol
of the church's unity. Clement spoke of these as
analogous to Levites, priests, and high priests. In
context of early persecuted church, having a bishop was
efficient;difficulttogetacommitteetogethertodecide
something, more efficient to have one person making
decisions.
The term "catholic" came from Ignatius; the universal
church.
Both Judaism and broader culture thus impacted the
formationoftheearlychurch.
WorshipPractices
1. Baptismwasriteofinitiationsymbolizingcleansing.
The water was added to by certain other rites and

ceremonies;tendencytoelaboration,addition:
Newlybaptizedpersonsweresometimesanointedbyoil
tosymbolizecomingofHolySpirit.
Motion of the sign of the cross = symbol of
identificationwithChrist.
Some were baptized in white robes to symbolize
purification.
Milkandhoneyhandedtothosecomingupoutofthe
baptismalwater.
Natural human tendency to elaborate. Initially intended
tomakemoremeaningful,likethemilkandhoney. Human
sentimentality,"nice."
2. Service of the Word included prayer, Bible reading,
sermon. Patterned after broad outlines of synagogue
service.
3.Eucharist(thanksgiving),Lord'sSupper.Regularpart
of the service. Debated how much this rest on Jewish
practice.Jewishpracticewastoblessfoodbeforeitwas
eaten;blessingandgivingthankswereroughlyequivalent.
Eucharistwasreceivedstandinginancientchurch;focused
attentiononChrist'sdeath,particularlyitssacrificial
character. Crucial function in reminding Christian
communitythatthegospelisrootedinhistory,thework
ofChristonthecross. Challengedbymythologicalforms
ofthinking;thiswasoneavenueofresponse.Alsoaway
torootchurchfirmlyintheworkofChrist,callingit
backtoChristandHissacrificialworkinHisbodyand
blood we are redeemed. Guards against spiritualizing
tendency (viewing Him as merely a spirit). Similar to
Passoverandsacrificialsystem,thoughcommonmealisnew
and distinctive. Communion was probably weekly, but
recordsarescarce.
GrecoRomanInfluence
Church rapidly moved beyond a narrow Jewish environment.
It had to function in GrecoRoman world, not merely the
Jewish world. So, we need to look at the GrecoRoman
environmentanditsinfluence.Therehasbeencontroversy
aboutwhetherthisinfluenceisgood.

Von Harnack (better historian than theologian!!). Saw

corruption from GrecoRoman world; too much
intellectualization, emphasis on correct doctrine and
thinking (rather than action). Profoundly unJewish.
Harnack believed we needed to get back behind this
corrupting influence to the real gospel, separating the
"essence"fromtemporaryhistoricalformsinwhichitwas
clothed.HemisseditsaiditwasthefatherhoodofGod
andbrotherhoodofman. Harnackwroteagainstdoctrinal
requirements. For Harnack, the Bible was no more
authoritativethanthethinkingoftheearlychurch.
We continue to emphasize the doctrine of Scripture!
History shows us church's reflection on what the Bible
means. We'll see the debates about the trinity, for
example.
Wehavetobewareofculturalrelativism,butwordsfrom
the culture might help us state what the Bible means.
SomearecriticaloftheuseofGreekphilosophicalterms.
There were some accomplishments in Roman culture at its
heightequitabletaxation,justiceincourts,founding
of cities things government is supposed to do. The
gospel spread during a period of rather remarkable
stability (death of Domitian [96] to accession of ???
[180]).Lawandorderwerepreservedinarelativelyfair
manner, in an imperial system with a good deal of
toleranceforlocalgovernmentsandcultures.
Onegreatproblemwasthatpoliticswasnolongerafield
reallyopentotheinfluenceofmostcitizens. InRoman
republic, and in Greek cities, citizens could invest in
politics and make a difference. In Roman imperialism,
onlytheemperormadeadifference. Peoplemightrather
have liberty than economic security. Mystery religions
(Zoroastrianism and others) also rose during this time,
attractingmanypeopleseekingtherealmeaningoflifein
religion rather than politics. Decline of genuine
religious devotion to ancient Roman gods, which were
linkedtothepoliticalsystem.Perhapssimilarsituation
inAmericantoday?? Peopledon'tthinktheycanmakea
differenceinpolitics,growingcynicism.
Caesar Augustus = first great Roman emperor, nephew of
Julius Caesar. He had a long reign; high point of
imperialsystem. Closertorepublicansystem,aimingto
linkvirtuetopower. Wantedtopreservebothorderand

liberty."Gravitus"inRomansserious,weighty.
Cities designed to "realize human potential," but could
theyfunctionthatwayunderanimperialsystem? Emperor
viewed as divine; only one who "realized potential."
Embodies and epitomizes divine virtues for the empires
(notactuallyGod!)andthusholdsustogether,sowemust
show him "pietas" (loyalty), expressed through a
"sacramentum" (pledge, sealed oath)offering incense
beforeanimageoftheemperor. Thisgavebirthtothe
"imperial cult" with religious trappings but primarily
political. The offering of incense was expected in
additiontolocalreligions;torefusewastobecalledan
atheistandtraitor. OnlytheJewswereexempted. This
system went through stages. First century was "era of
adjustment" as the imperial government broke itself in.
Second century was time of fruition or accomplishment,
most successful. Third century was disintegration and
decay.
Problem of succession. Not merely hereditary.
Emperors not kings, but elected by the senate.
Senate continued to exist and formally elect the
emperor(notmuchrealchoice!).
Problem in control of army. The system rested on
brute power of the army. Army was large! Army
became extension of the emperor; often declared who
nextemperorwouldbe,threateningthesenateifthey
didn'telectarmy'schoice.
Christianity grew in this environment. Problems of
stability and meaning/values in this culture. Rich but
troubledculture. Veryrealproblemswerefacedbyearly
Christians. Jews appealed to Roman government to see
ChristianityasanonJewishreligion;Christiansthusnot
exempt from emperor worship and lost other privileges.
Christianitybecameanillegalreligion. However,growth
wassufficientsothatpagansfelttheyhadtoattackit.
Attackfourfold:
1. Christians accused of atheism; denial of Roman
gods. Christians thus seen as traitors,
undermining civil order, dangerous. Politically
incorrect!
2. Accused of gross immorality. Secret "love
feasts" of Christians wrongly viewed by Romans.

Romansfailedtorealizethatthesecrecywasdueto
Christianitybeingseenasillegal.Also,Christians
were accused of cannibalism (misunderstanding of
Lord'sSupper).
3. Accused of believing in "absurd myths,"
especially the resurrection of the body. Seemed
irrelevant to pagans, who wanted "spiritual"
religion.
4. Attackedforhavinganovelreligion. Religion
wasevaluatedonthebasisofantiquity.
The church had to defend itself against these attacks.
TwokindsofwritingemergedaftertheNT:(1)apostolic
fathers,(2)apologists.
1. Apostolicfatherswroteforthechurch,forthe
internal use of the church, rather than for others
outside the faith. Gave doctrinal and practical
instruction so that the church's house would be in
order. Pastoral works dealing with ethical and
organizational problems, matters of faithfulness to
Christ. Inreadingthese,yougetafeelforwhat
theearlychurchwaslike. Thereweredisagreements
and differences of practice. Small collection of
writings;notallquestionsareanswersaswemight
like. We'renotsurehowrepresentativetheanswers
arewhichtheydoprovide.
2. The apologists are next in time, writing to
defend the faith in light of the world's attacks.
Many are addressed to the emperor himself.
Encouraged Christians with the truth of their
religion,andledthoughtfulpagansinthedirection
ofChristianity.JustinMartyrmostfamousofthese.
Attempted to correct misunderstandings of
Christianity. Some writing offensive, some
defensive. Offensive writing pointed to weaknesses
in paganism. Turned objections back on pagans,
attackingmythsofpagansasabsurdandimmoral.
Pagan philosophies were addressed. They all
contradict each other. Philosophies disagree with
each other, so how can path to wisdom be through
philosophy?
Attacked actual morality of current pagan world.

Empirewasacorruptplace,eveninimperialfamily.
(Liketoday.) Critiqueofpaganculturewhicheven
thepagansoftenshared.
Attacked polytheism and idol worship. This is a
period in Western history where monotheism became
more attractive, even among pagan philosophers.
Judaismhadbecomeasuccessfulmissionaryreligion
monotheism and morality. Athenagorus stressed
monotheism.
Theme of final judgment was another major theme,
foundinpaganwriterslikeVirgil. Thisresonated
withpagansenseofjusticeandmorality. Pointof
contact in apologetics. We live in a vastly
nonjudgmental culture; we want "family values"
withoutdiscipline.
DistinctiveChristiandoctrineswerealsoaddressed
resurrection,deityofChrist,incarnation,necessity
ofrevelation.
Answered pagan critiqueChristian living is pure,
notimmoral.Chargesofimmoralityarefalse.
Justin Martyr and others showed antiquity of
Christianity; fulfillment of promises to Abraham,
David, and Moses. Not a novel religion. Justin
quoted OT Scriptures and showed how Christianity
fulfilledthepromisesthere.OTquotesinNThada
functionforbothpaganaswellasJewishreaders.
Howdoweaccountforthewisdomthatwefindamong
the pagans? Great apologetic question that
Christians face. Artwork, music, science,
philosophy. How do we account for the wisdom of
Plato and Aristotle? Some take the natural law
approach;youcanuseyourmindandfindthetruth.
Progress in the world made apart from grace, it
seems. Apologists often quoted pagan philosophers
and attempted to build on their insights. Justin
developed this idea further into the "Logos
Spermatikos" idea, that there was a "seed of the
Word"or"sparkofthedivine"ineveryhumanbeing,
something of Christ. This, he said, accounted for
intellectual progress. Also, Justin said that the
demonsmayhavetoldalittlebitoftruthtopagan
philosophers, thus "vaccinating" them against the

comingofChristianity. Justinalsoholdsoutthat
pagansmayhavereceivedatypeofdivinerevelation;
some see Plato's view of spirituality this way.
Justin had another explanation of PlatoPlato must
havegottenacopyofthewritingsofMosesandhe
derivedhisbestinsightsthere. Maybehetraveled
to Egypt, according to legend. Variation on this
strategy emerged in 17th century among Catholic
missionaries impressed with Confucius; they, too,
saidConfuciusmusthavereadMosesperhapsfromone
of the "10 lost tribes." Shows difficulty of
figuring out how a great civilization can emerge
apartfromtheBible.Evidencenotstrongforeither
PlatoorConfuciushavingreadMoses.
JustinMartyrlivedfromabout110165,borntoGreek
parents in Samaria. Well educated; studied in
Ephesus.Devotedtovariousphilosophicalschoolsat
times. Hewasconvertedbyanoldmanwhocameto
him with OT prophecies fulfilled in Christ. Spent
latterpartofhislifeinRometeachingChristianity
as the true philosophy. In his Second Apology, he
comparesChristandSocrates,thelatteramartyrfor
truthChrist a martyr for THE truth. Justin saw
OT/NT continuity, which aided his apologetic in
showingthatChristianitywasn'tanewreligion.
OldTestament
How did the church recognize the NT? It took a long
periodoftime.Theprocesswasrathernoncontroversial,
notamassiveproblem. Butbigproblemtheyfacedwas:
WhatdowedowiththeOT? Notaquestionofwhetherit
was inspired Scripture, but relevance to NT believers,
particularly Gentiles. OT is full of history, but it's
Jewish(notGentile)history. OTisfulloflaws,some
governingtempleworship;whatisrelevance?Justinsawa
relevancetoOTprophecy,whichwasfulfilledinChrist;
obviously useful. He also saw the usefulness of the
Psalms. Still, much seems not immediately relevant.
Justin wanted to show how OT was spiritually edifying.
Hisapproachincludedmakingcertaindistinctions,suchas
that between moral (eternally binding) law and temporary
(ceremonial)lawthatispartofdistinctiveoldcovenant
economy.Lawoftendividedas:
1.moral(eternallybinding)
2. ceremonial (Israel's unique role in redemptive
history)

3.judicial
Thelattertwohaveamoralfoundation,however. Certain
foodsweretobeavoidedinOTtimes,butnotinNT.God
didn't change His mind. Ceremonial cleanliness is
undergirded by moral principle that God's people are
separate from the world. The moral principle is still
relevant.
TypologyisanotherapproacharguedbyJustin.VariousOT
events and institutions point beyond themselves and are
fulfilled in Christ's coming. Zechariah said that the
priests are men who are signs; priesthood points beyond
themselves. EschatologicalanticipationinOT,reminding
OT saints that their experience was provisional, not an
endinitself.
How do we distinguish between typology and allegory?
Offeringoffineflourbycleansedleper=typeofbread
of Eucharist, according to Justin. All offerings in OT
areinsomewayatypeofChrist. Istheflourexample
correct?Godfreythinksthisexampleismoreallegorical;
fineflourofferingmerelyremindsusofthebreadinthe
Lord'sSupper. Mentalassociationhereratherthanclear
biblical data. Typology is rooted in the Bible itself;
Scripture gives us the indicate of type and antitype.
Allegoryisapoeticcategory,purelymentalconstructand
connection, not linked to the unfolding of redemption.
Allegory was popular in ancient church (also later);
allows otherwise obscure texts to become immediately
relevant. Allegory doesn't inevitably lead to false
teaching,butitfailstotakethetextathandseriously.
Humorousexample:David'sfivesmoothstonesandthefive
pointsofCalvinism.
"TheChurch"
From early on, there were heretical movements and
teachings that called themselves part of the "true
church."OnekeyheresyisGnosticism.
Gnosticism
Everything about it has been debated at one time or
another. Oneofthedebatesconcernsitsorigin. Where
did it come from? Was there preChristian Gnosticism?
Forourpurposes,thelatterquestionisn'tvital. We're
looking at Gnosticism that claimed to be Christian and
madeuseofChristianideasandbiblicalstories.itwas
a manifestation of sectarian or cultic forms of

Christianity. We'reassumingaChristiantruthbywhich
to judge what is heresy. We have to look back at
competing"orthodoxies"(socalledbyliberals,whothink
theyhaveinsightswecoulduse)anddeterminewhichones
areheresy,whichonesorthodox. Thechurchhasrightly
seenGnosticismasheretical.
Thenamecomesfromstressontheimportanceof"knowing,"
from Greek word for knowledge. Gnostics claimed to
"know," particularly selfknowledge. They talked about
God,butappealwasthatthroughselfknowledgewouldcome
the understanding needed to live. Selfcentered (like
modernpsychology!!!).
DifferentkindsofGnosticismexisted. Sheltersagreat
varietyofthings. Thesearchforknowledgewascommon.
Whowerewe?Whathavewebecome?Wherewerewe?Where
havewebeencast?Wherearewegoing?Fromwhatwillwe
be free? What is birth? What is rebirth? (Still
soundslikemodernpsychology!!)God,creation,andother
such matters were insignificant; self is starting point.
Inwardsearchratherthanoutwardsearch. Resonateswith
NewAgemovement(andmodernpsychology!!!)
Gnosticscommittedtoconvictionthatspiritualrealityis
the"real"reality. TendencyofGreekthoughtgenerally.
Physicalrealityinferioranddistorting. Selfknowledge
involvesliberationfromtheoppressionofthebodyonthe
soul. Gnostics differed about how to work out such
insight. Someinsistedonradicaldisciplineanddenial
ofbodyrigorousasceticism(deprivationofgood,sleep,
human companionship). But others went the other
direction.Freedomofspiritshownbylettingthebodydo
whatever it wants, because the body can't touch the
spirit. Immoral excesses OK; in fact, they prove the
liberty of the spirit. Ironic development here! Body
either denied or indulged; both considered paths to
freedomofthespirit.
EarlysecondcenturyGnostic:Basilides.Hadamythology
that was supposed to illuminate our origins. Became
characteristic of later Gnosticism, which had an
elaborated mythology of originswho you are, where you
camefrom,howtoreturntoGod.Pantheisticdimensionto
most Gnosticism, including Basilides. Description is
written by a church father; maybe not objective, but
amusing. BeginswithabsolutelyNOTHING(notevenGod!).
The "nonexistent God" wished to make a cosmos, so the

"nonexistent God" made a "nonexistent cosmos" out of

nothing.(Thissureissillystuff.)Certainelementsof
Western philosophy combine with Buddhism, where
nothingnessisultimategoal. Somehow,"nothingness"has
toresultin"somethingness." Butwhenthe"nothingness"
causes the "somethingness," it's no longer pure. (It's
also incoherent.) Basilides describes creation rather
thanemanation,alittleclosertoChristianitythansome
others. His was a "simple" Gnostic system. The non
existentGodcreatesathreepart"seed." Threesonships
in the seed. Third seed produced a great "archon" who
produced the cosmos out of the substance of the seed.
Another"archon"(GodofAbrahametc.)createdtheworld.
Expectation is eventually "cosmic ignorance." Jesus is
the"revealer"whogivesyouthechancetoget"abovethe
line." Wild story. Protects the "nothingness" or
"spirituality"aboutthe"nonexistentGod."Allamatter
ofknowledge,thatyouoriginatefromapreexistentsoul.
Yahwehisaninferiorbeinginthissystem.
Mormonism is a radically physical distortion of
Christianity. But in Gnosticism we have the polar
opposite, a radically spiritual distortion. Tendency in
ancient world to overspiritualize, to see the spiritual
(or utterly transcendent) as most important, real, or
true.Theprobleminthisapproachishowtoaccountfor
the existence of the physical. Dualism often results;
matter becomes eternal. Gnosticism has an explicit
dualismbetweengoodandevil. Worlddenying;oneallies
withthegoodbybecomingmorespiritual,transcendingthe
bodyonthepathtoselfknowledgeandselfactualization.
Connectsthephysicalworldwithevil.ButtheBiblesays
that Yahweh (God) created the world; conclusion is that
He'sevil! Reversalexegesis. Radicalfeministtheology
buysintothis. Serpentseenasthegoodone! Godseen
as wanting to keep man ignorant; serpent promoting
"gnosis."So,farfromaFallintheGardenthereisjust
theopposite;thewomanisthesourceofknowledgerather
than the one deceived, so is commended in this scheme.
Yahweh, the material creator, seen in distinction from
Elohim,whoisgoodandspiritual.Gnosticismpromisesto
initiateyouandmakeyoupartofthe"elite."
Marcionism
ImportantearlychallengetoChristianity. Onevariation
onitistheteachingofMarcion(diedabout160). Born
inAsiaMinor;excommunicatedinRomein144AD. Notas
focusedon"gnosis,"stressedfaith. Lessinterestedin

mythology or preexistence of soul. So, some say he

wasn't really a Gnostic. However, he takes a dualistic
approachtotruthandtheBible,"hyperPauline"according
to some. (Not really Pauline at all!) Sharp contrast
between God of OT and God of NT. Protoliberal! Von
Harnack thought highly of Marcion. Yahweh was God of
justice.MarcionmayhavebuiltonPhilo,whosawcertain
aspects of God in Yahweh (justice), other aspects in
Elohim (love). But Marcion saw two Gods! Marcion saw
matter as inherently evil; prohibited marriage. Denied
that Jesus Christ truly came in the flesh (docetic
christology), saw Him as a phantom. Internal
contradictionJesusonlyappearedtobebornandhavea
body, but was really crucified, according to Marcion.
Marcion attracted many followers, influential for over a
century.HecameupwithacanonofScripture,alistof
books. Specifically: edited version of Luke, non
pastoral,editedPaulineepistles. Hadabasicstoryof
Jesus' life plus his own version of Pauline theology.
Some suggest that the Marcionite canon helped encourage
the church to develop the canon. In fact, the whole
challengeofGnosticismforcedthechurchtostudy,grow,
thinkthroughkeyissues. Therewerewanderingteachers
inthosedays,deceivingpeopleliketoday,althoughthe
media wasn't as developed. (No TV, no local Christian
bookstores.) Popularspeakerswerehighlyappealingwhen
theydidcometotown;notsomuchcompetitionastoday.
Thechurchattemptedtoprotectpeoplebytellingthemto
listenonlyto"authorized"teachers. Roleofbishop(as
teacher) was heightened in this environment; guard of
orthodoxy.Peopleencouragedtosimplytrusttheirbishop
and forget the wandering preachers. Most of the time,
thatwasgoodadvice.
Certain doctrines needed to be stressed in the face of
Gnosticism:
1.TheFatherhoodofGod:notsotranscendentthat
He'sindifferenttothehumancondition;Heisalso
immanent and concerned. (Buddhism and Islam go in
thisdirection.Radicalfatalisminthelatter.)
2.TheunityofGod:onlyoneGod.
3. GodmustbeseenasCreator;thephysicalworld
isagoodcreation.
4. Churches needed to assert that history is more

importantthanmythology. Itisinrealtimespace
history that our redemption is accomplished. We're
notinamythicalrealmofstorytelling.
5. Objective truth is important, as against the
radical subjectivism present in Gnosticism, looking
within self for truth. God had to reveal Himself.
SincetheFall,ourhumantendenciesareinthewrong
direction.
6. Collective insight of the church stressed as
opposedtoindividualism. Hencetheterm"catholic"
church. Not just directed by one person or one
region,likeacult. (Theterm"Reformed"isbetter
than"Calvinism,"forthisreason.)
Irenaeus
One teacher who "took on" Gnosticism was Irenaeus,
sometimes called the first systematic theologian. We
don'tknowmuchabouthislife. (Lesstolearnforthis
class.)Helivedfromabout130toabout200.Laterthan
Justin Martyr. May have grown up in Smyrna. Knew the
great bishop of Smyrna, Polycarp. Studied in Rome.
Probablydiedasamartyr.Mostfamouswork:AgainstAll
Heresies. Careful attack on Gnosticism; hold on to
Scriptureandthebishop.Hemadeandefforttoshowthe
interconnectedness of Scripture and progressive
revelation. "Anakephalaiosis" (recapitulation) as a
summary, from Ephesians 1:10 (all things summed up in
Christ). It'sa"SecondAdam"theology;failureoffirst
AdamGod brings Christ as Second Adam, new head of
redeemed mankind. He wrote in Greek, but is quoted in
Latin.
Montanism"thenewprophecy"
One reaction to Gnosticism was a movement to assert the
immanence(presence)ofGodinapowerfulway. Notethe
pendulum effect here! Montanus was concerned about
effectiveresponsetoGnosticism. Oneofhisconclusions
washowhelpfulitwouldbetohaveGodcontinuetospeak
propheticallytoHischurch. Attractiveproposal(asin
Mormonismandothercultstoday).Insteadofstudyingthe
Scripture,aprophetcomestotellyouwhatthetruthis.
SeemedhelpfulinfacingGnosticclaims. Aroundtheyear
170,Montanusclaimedanecstatic,propheticexperienceas
newspokesmanoftheHolySpirit.Hewasanewconvertin
Asia Minor (Phyrygia). Christians had been persecuted
there; much turmoil, people eager for God's blessing.

Montanus was joined by Priscilla and Maximilla, also

thought to be prophets. Certain distinctive teachings
arose; not specifically heretical, though errors were
associatedwiththemovement:
1. Prophecy continues in the life of the church.
Pentecostals look here for historical validation.
However,thechurch'sreactionwasthatthisclaimof
prophecy was something new. Prophecy hadn't been
continuoussinceapostolicage.
2. Eschatologicalmessagelinkedwithit. (Modern
Pentecostalism also tied to certain eschatological
expectations.)Secondcomingbelievedtobeathand;
heavenlyJerusalemabouttodescendandlocateitself
rightnearPhyrygia.Thisdidn'thappen.
3. Rigorous lifestyle, asceticism, fasting,
renunciation of marriage as key tie to this world.
Martyrdom praised. Flight from persecution
forbidden.
Theologyreasonablyorthodox. Oneearlyproblemwasthe
failureoftheireschatology.Theybelievedsecondcoming
beforethedeathofMaximilla;didn'thappen,shediedin
179AD. Thiscrisismighthaveledtorapiddeclineof
the movement, but Tertullian was converted to Montanism
aboutthattime.
Tertullian
Probablybornaround170AD. Probablyalaymanallhis
life.Probablymarried,wifediedyoung.Diedaround212
AD. Lived and worked in Carthage. Left remarkable
collection of books. Product of North African
Christianity in late second century; strict, rigorous in
character. Carthageimportantcommercialcity;wasenemy
ofRomeinBCtimes,destroyedin144BCbutlaterrebuilt
in Roman empire. Great intellectual center. Drawn to
Montanismbyitsrigorandideaofprophecy.The"church
oftheSpirit"ledbyspiritualmen,notbyanumberof
bishops, according to Tertullian. The "institutional
church"setagainstthe"livingchurch." Concernedabout
excessiveformalism. Thisthemeistakenupagainlater;
what is relationship of church office to Spirit? Moral
concerns shown in his writings, such as attendance at
games.Alsowroteaboutidolatry,problemsoflivingina
paganworld. Anotherbookwasaboutthelifeofwomen,
dressing and behaving modestly. Wrote an apology which

marks the beginning of an intellectual maturity in

Christianity.Classic,brilliant,gloriousLatin;"silver
age" of early third century. Writer in the great
"sophist" tradition. Sophistry has come on hard times,
butatthattimeitwasaformofspeaking/writingthat
was highly praised. Cicero's "three points" of a great
orator: (1) to instruct, teach, inform; (2) to please,
instruct in an interesting manner; (3) to move, to
persuade. This came from the Greeks, particularly
Aristotle. The world for persuade, "pisteuo" lead
audience to believe; convince them. Sophistry was a
"fourth point." A great orator must "dazzle" his
listeners with his erudition, overwhelm with your
brilliance and learning, scatter your lecture with
quotationsinforeignlanguages.
Early work (before Montanism) shows moral rigorism and
devotion; calls for obedience to bishop. Supports
successionofbishops,againstthe"secretcommunication"
theGnosticsclaimedwiththeapostles. Tertulliansaid
thiswasn'tlikely,basinghisargumentonsuccessionof
bishops who weren't told these gnostic "truths." Moral
rigorismnoforgivenessofserioussinsafterbaptism
(murder,adultery,apostasy). Ledtogreatdebateabout
thenatureofsinandbaptism.Tertullianarguedforone
repentance, but no more. Serious concern to ancient
church. One issue he addressed was the origin of the
soul. Creationism: each soul created by God directly.
Traducianism: soul passed on from parents to child.
Important question in the transmission of sin; does God
create a sinful soul? Tertullian was an early
traducianist. Soul had certain physical dimensions. A
Montanistprophetsupportedhisposition,claimingtohave
"seen"asoul.
Tertulliannotedthatsomepracticescan'tbeprovenfrom
Scripture. (Sign of the cross, kneeling for certain
prayers,numerousthingswedon'tdotoday.)Justifiedby
universal tradition. Tertullian sees the problem. We
have a revealed religion, but many things we do aren't
foundintheScriptures.Heturnstoongoingprophecyand
tradition. He thought this would help in addressing
particulars and responding to heresies. However, he
rejected Montanus, Priscilla, and Maximilla as the true
prophets. He modified Montanism in certain ways.
Disavowed some prophecies about the coming of the new
Jerusalem. Praised celibacy as a lifestyle; rejected
second marriages. Encouraged selfdisciplined, world

denyinglives. Famoussaying: thebloodofthemartyrs

is the seed of the church. Alleged to have said: "I
believe because it is absurd." Not his statement,
however; he wasn't antiintellectual. Another saying:
WhathasJerusalemtodowithAthens? Thelatterrefers
toreasonofhumanmind,theformerdivinerevelation(to
findtruth).AfterTertullian'sdeath,Montanismdeclined
rapidly in third century. Survived in West until fifth
century,inEastuntilninthcentury.LikeGnosticism,it
had an impact on the church, forcing it to think and
reflectonitsideas.Raisedquestionaboutthetruthof
prophecies.Localbishopsbegantomeetanddiscussthese
prophecies; gradually, synods were formed. Community
gatheringstodiscusstheologywerethusvalued.
Bishops were in control of their local scenes, but
somewhat isolated from other bishops. More like senior
pastors. More congregational rather than episcopal in
churchgovernment. Noclearauthorityoverlocalbishops
in second century. But what would happen if one local
bishopbecameheretical?Seenasfirstamongequalsamong
hispresbyters. Electedinforlifetimeservice. State
ofshiftingandtransitionatthistime.
Montanism also forced the church to think about
asceticism. Are all church members forbidden to enter
into second marriages? What about repentance after
baptism for various sins? What is the nature of
forgiveness, particularly postbaptism? A less rigorous
pointofviewultimatelyemerged;greaterappreciationof
gospel forgiveness. However, there was still a
seriousnessandrigorconcerningsin.
Mattersofeschatologyalsohadtobehandledcarefully.
Had to become more presentminded. Hope of Christ's
comingwasn'tnecessarilyintheverynearfuture.
Importance of church offices, in contrast to individual
claims of authority, also increased in response to
Montanism.
FormationofNewTestamentCanon
NTcanonwas recognized bythechurch,not formedby or
establishedbythechurch.Thechurchreceivesthecanon.
Everycovenantrequiresacanon(Klinehelpfulhere).Not
establishedbythewillorwisdomofthevassal(church),
butbythesuzerain(God). CatholicChurchbelievesthe

churchisauthoritativeovertheWord.Wrong.Thechurch
(thepeopleofGod)doeshavearoleinrecognition,but
Goddecidedwhatbooksweretobeinthecanon.Catholic
Church believes that the pope received the canon;
Protestants say God's people as a whole, not merely the
church officers. Strong sense of Scripture in early
church.Byyear100,thereisgoodevidenceforacoreof
Scripture accepted in the life of the church. Pauline
epistles (other than pastorals) and gospels had been
universally accepted. Other books widely accepted:
pastorals, Acts, 1 Peter, 1 John, Revelation. This is
about 21 books of the NT canon. Other books didn't
ultimately"makeit"totheNTbutwereregardedinlocal
areas (often where written) as canonical: 1 Clement
(Corinth),Didache(Syria),ShepherdofHermas(Carthage),
ApocalypseofPeter(Rome).Bytheyear200,James,Jude,
2 John, 3 John, 2 Peter, and Hebrews were all still
questioned.IncreasedquestionsaboutRevelation;itmade
sensearound100,butnotsomuchlater.
FirstlistofcompleteNTbooks,withnoextras,isfound
inaletterbyAthaniusin367AD.Laterinthatcentury,
local councils began to make lists that were the same.
Seemslikealongprocessatfirstglance.Whywouldmere
recognition take so long? However, although a settled
recognitiontooksolong,itwasneveranissueofgreat
controversyinthechurch. Therewasawidespreadsense
thatacovenantandcanonexisted. Noknockdown,drag
out fights, but a gradual and peaceful process of
consensus. Differs from other struggles for truth in
ancientchurch. It'sremarkablehowpeaceitreallywas.
Some Lutherans consider the canon an open question,
especiallythesixbooksindebate.
TertullianandtheMontaniststookastronglyantagonistic
positiontowardthesurroundingculture,withdrawingtoa
largeextent. Thisisstillavalidquestion;wherecan
wecooperateintheculture,wheremustweseparate?
SchoolofAlexandria
An opposite stance developed in Alexandria at the same
period (late second century); more positive attitude
towardtheculture. Alexandriawasagreatintellectual
center,greatlibrary(oneofthewondersoftheancient
world). Verydiverse,cosmopolitan. Christiansgathered
to study, to become more systematic in the study of
Scripture.Pantainus(about180)beganastudycenterfor
Christianreflection. Wedon'tknowmuchmoreaboutthis

fellow. Nextteacher,however,isClementofAlexandria
(also late second century). Three key writings:
Exhortation to Conversion, The Tutor, The Miscellanies.
Optimism about the culture seen in these writings. He
believedchurchhadoverreactedinitsoppositiontoGreek
philosophy;understandableinviewofGnosticism.Clement
encouragedareconsideration. Greekphilosophyseenasa
greataccomplishmentofhumanmind,atooltopursuethe
truth, an ally of seeking the ultimate truth of
Christianity. ClementevensaidthatChristianswerethe
"true gnostics" (although he opposed Gnosticism).
Knowledgeisimportant;Christiansnotopposedtoit.All
truthisone,Clementsaid. Commongraceissueisseen
here. Clement also stressed that Christianity is a
religion of moral progress and development. Take
seriously responsibility to keep growing after baptism,
keeplearning. Pursuebothknowledgeandmoraltraining;
faith...toknowledge...to"beatificvision"oftheblessed

. Sometimes translated "deification." Still a
popular term in Greek orthodox moral theology, where we
aresaidtobepursuing

,"Godlikeness"("sharein
divine nature"from Peter), sharing moral qualities of
the divine but not divine essence. Easily slips into
ontological categories, however. Process of moving from
faithtoknowledgeto"vision"isoftennotcompletedin
this life. Clement suggests necessity of completion in
nextlife,beingpurifiedtherebyfire.Maybeearliest
beginning of the doctrine of purgatory. Fullorbed
doctrine of purgatory developed later, in Middle Ages.
Greek Orthodox differs: after death, there is division
between "lost" and "saved," but also division with the
"saved" of those in heaven and those in purgatory being
fitted for heaven. Purgatory is predicated on common
sense,likemuchbadtheology. Godwantsonlyperfected
beings around Him. Path to perfection in this life is
gradualandnotcompletedformost(facultyexceptedHA).
So...common sense says the process continues.
Sentimentalityalsodrivesthisdoctrine. Clementtaught
until 202 in Alexandria, then went to Asia Minor.
ReplacedbyOrigen.

Origen(184254)Alexandria
One of most important early theologians. Sometimes
considered first great systematic thinker. Pioneer in
many theological areas. Great mind, thoughtful in many
areas,butwasregularlywrong. Manywritingslost;some

wehaveinGreek,someinLatintranslationswhichmight
notbefullyreliable. BorntoChristianparents. Knew
Scripturesextensively. In202,hisfatherwasmartyred.
Origenisrumoredtohavecastratedhimself;rareinstead
of literal exegesis. His views of pagan literature
changed. Burned pagan books one time, bought some back
later. Hetaughtthosepreparingforbaptism. Sawneed
formorethansimpleinstruction.Foundeda"university,"
place for basic study of Scripture. Instituted a basic
patternforliberalartsstudyasfoundationforbiblical
studies.Studyoflanguagenecessary,howlanguageworks,
also study of literature, rhetoric, grammar, history,
philosophy. Not as optimistic as Clement about pagan
studies,buttherewerethingstobelearned.Notonlya
profound teacher, but popular and traveled extensively.
In230,teachingcareeratAlexandriacametosuddenend.
Why?perhaps because ordained (irregularly) when
traveling to Palestine. Ordination normally in area of
residence, to hold down heresy. Castration also
disqualified him (if that's true). Local leadership in
Alexandria not happy about Origen's ordination, but they
mayhaveresentedhispopularity.OrigenwenttoCaesarea
and taught there after 230. Died a martyr under
persecution.
Famerestsonworkasspeculativetheologian,butOrigen
intended to be faithful to the church and gospel.
Insights into life of Alexandrian church. People faced
east when they prayed, grounded in eschatological hope;
crossedpaintedoneasternwalls.Nostatuesoraltarsin
churches. Sunday was great feast day, Friday day of
fasting. Few holy days. Origen believed in continuing
miracles, such as healing, but regarded them as rather
rare.Twohierarchiesinthechurchemerged:(1)bishop,
(2) doctor. Bishop was pastor, preacher, administrator.
Doctors were the teachers Popes in Middle Ages often
consulteddoctorsontheologicalissues.
The term "priest" comes etymologically from Greek
presbyter. Ambiguous term. The sacrificial sense
probablymetaphoricalatfirst,buttookonmorerealistic
tones.
OrigeninfluencedbyPlatonicphilosophy,exactcharacter
debated.Probablyinstructedin"middlePlatonism."Neo
Platonismisemergingatthesametime,however;Origen's
thoughtsimilartoit. Directionofinfluenceuncertain!
Origen thought he adopted a critical stance toward

Platonism. Herejecteditasaphilosophicalreligionin
oppositiontoChristianity,notedinthewriting Against
Celsus. Celsus wrote against Christianity around 180;
Origenrepliedaround240.Oneofhiscomplaintswasthat
it doesn't make adequate moral or mental demands on
believers; called sinners! (Obviously perverted
understandingofthegospel.) Celsushadnodoctrineof
God;impersonalprocess. Origenrespondedbyemphasizing
the transformation of the Christian. Summary of
differences concerning reconciliation with God:
Accessible but hard (Celsus); inaccessible but easy
(Origen). Truthseenasaspiritual,internalmatterto
be found by "opening" the mind (Platonic view); mystic
experience.(Philo,acoupleofcenturiesearlierinsame
area,representsPlatonizedJudaism.)
NeoPlatonism: a word used to describe a philosophy no
onecandefine. FounderusuallyseenasAmmoniusSoccas
(175242). Hisbiographer(Porphyry)claimedthatSoccas
abandoned Christianity; may not be true. Disciple of
Soccas, Plotinus (203269), articulated the system.
Speculative knowledge about origin of universe and
practical knowledge about union with the divine.
Perceived by immediate intuition. Some Christian impact
ondevelopmentofthissystem. PlotinusarguesthatGod
is threefold; echo of Trinity. Ultimate character of
deity:"theonewhois,theonewhoisgood,theonewho
isone"(existence,goodness,andunity).Universalmind,
the "
." Creative principle of the world of ideas.
"World soul" ( . Reality is the result of
contemplation. Matter is eternal in this system (in a
negativesense),notultimatelyimportant(matterdoesn't
matteralmost doesn't even exist). Plotinus defines
matterintermsofeternalevil,butalsodeniesdualism.
Internally inconsistent. Human psychology analyzed in
threefoldmanner:spirit,soul,body.Virtuesofspirit
leadtomysticalunionwithdivine,virtuesofsoullead
to preparation of mind for philosophy, virtues of body
lead to politics and life in this world. Porphyry was
thirdgreatteacherofthisschool. LikeGnosticismand
earlier Platonism, it is radically spiritualizing in its
outlook on reality; the "really real" is the spiritual,
the mind, the soul, the ideas. Physical reality (the
body) isn't important. The aim is a "lostness" in the
divine,aprincipleratherthanpersonalreality.
For all of Origen's opposition to Platonism, he was
influencebyitinhisspeculativetheology. Movesina

spiritualizing direction. Common questions: How do we

account for the universe? Where does evil come from?
Origendidn'tfindtheBiblesatisfying.Spiritbeingsand
evil already existed; what happened earlier? Origen
wanted to intuitively reason these things out. God is
eternal and immutable. So, He must have always been
creating. Therefore, some aspects of His creation must
also be eternal although not divine. Origen said He
created souls from eternity, with free will. At some
point,theybecametiredoftheadorationofGodandtheir
love cooled, and their attention wandered. Evil thus
aroseoutofinattentionratherthanapositiverebellion.
Thenphysicalworldwascreatedasa"retraining"ground,
onegiantschoolforerrantsoulstobereeducatedabout
God'sredemptivepurpose.Allhumansoulspreexistentin
Origen'sscheme.Onesouldidnotfall,however;selected
byGodasredeemer.LinkedtotheLogostobecometheman
Jesus.TheLogos,toOrigen,waseternal(butsowereall
souls) and also divine. Speaks of Logos as subordinate
divinity to the Father. Seems to talk of three Gods;
implicit, not explicit. Much like subordination of the
"nous" in NeoPlatonism. Appealed to by both sides in
Arian controversy. Arian appeals to his teaching about
subordination; Athanasius appeals to the divinity and
eternity of the Logos. Origen not biblical or helpful
here. FunctionofLogos:teachmanaboutrealityofGod
andleadthemtoareturntothespiritual. Discussions
offuturelifesymbolic. EventheresurrectionofChrist
symbolic(!), because body not needed. Concluded that
ultimatelyeveryonewouldbesaved,sincethiswholeworld
has only a remedial purpose. This is pretty bad so
far...butsinceonedaywe'llallberedeemed,usingour
free will to adore God...the whole process might start
over!TheonlythingindefenseofOrigenisthatheisa
pioneer. Firsttheologiantograpplewiththeseissues;
hewasn'tleavingawellmarkedpath.Wecanbealittle
more tolerant; it wasn't his intention to deviate from
orthodoxy,sincetherewasnone.
Origen'stheologyofthespirituallife. Greatemphasis
on process of development earlier. Origen pushes
Clement'sideasalittlefurther,intothefoundationof
latermysticaltheology. ThreegreatstagesofChristian
experience:(1)illumination,(2)purgation,(3) .
The first is linked to conversion; not enough made of
grace, rather a natural return to God, understanding
you'remadeinGod'simage.Secondstageispurgingaway
whatever separates you from God. Developed by

allegorizing of Israelites wandering in the wilderness,

place of testing and progress, struggle against sin and
passionsofthesenses. Moralandontologicalstruggle,
puttingtosleepthebody'spassionssothatthespiritual
nature can rise toward God. Seeking of indifference to
thisworld(finalthirdstage). Suchaconceptionfeeds
intomonasticism.Difficultpathfilledwithtemptations,
butsupposedlyleadstounionwithGod.ForOrigen,such
union could be experienced in this world as a
contemplation of the divine. Later mystics spoke of a
more ecstatic experience. Ultimately, this experience
can't be described in human words. This pops up in
Christian thought (Eckhardt and other medieval mystics).
EvenemergesinProtestantism.
Textcritic;learnedHebrewandcomparedwithGreekLXX.
Arguedthatbothwereauthoritative,justasScriptureand
traditionare.Platonicinfluenceinclusiveness.
Origen wrestled with seeing much of the Bible as
irrelevant, particularly OT history and law. He saw
answersinPlatonism;whatis"reallyreal"isunderthe
surface, not the physical. Origen saw the "really
important" message of the Bible below the surface,
emphasizinganallegoricalapproach,whichwasfourfold.
Everytextreadinfourways. Thefirstistheliteral
meaning,whichcanbeuseful(propheciesofChrist).Some
have wanted to ignore literal meanings in favor of
allegorical; Thomas Aquinas opposed. Many adopted this
fourfold approach. Second meaning is the "allegorical
proper," found in the church's meaning, a "word to the
Church." Third is the analogical meaning, referring to
Christ'ssecondcoming. Fourthisthetropological,the
meaningtotheindividual.ExampleistheSongofSongs.
Very preachable! Sort of a free association with the
text.
Persecutions
EusebiusofCaesareaandanotherhistoriandiscussedpast
persecutions, with a tendency to make more of them than
reallytookplace.Exaggerationsincommoninhagiography
(writing of holy history). Later Christians saw
persecution as more severe and more widespread than it
really was. Christianity was regarded as an illegal
religion, suspected of atheism, treason, and gross
immorality.
When did it began? First record possibly referring to

persecution comes from pagan Roman historian Suetonius

(75160),writingaboutlifeunderemperorClaudius(4154
AD). JewsexpelledfromRomebecausetheyweremakinga
fuss about "Chrestus" (perhaps misspelling of Christus).
ThismayormaynothavereferredspecificallytoChrist.
NotChristianspersecutedforbeingChristians;expulsion
ofJews.
Greatandvicious,cruelpersecutionsunder Nero(5468),
who succeeded Claudius. Probably romanticized, however.
ProbablyconfinedtocityofRomeratherthanthroughout
empire. EvidentlytherewereChristiansinRomeandthey
were well known. Tacitus (early second century) is
anotherpaganhistorian;wroteaboutNeronianpersecution,
includingthegreatfireinRome.ManybelievethatNero
setthefirehimself,thenblamedChristians.Tacitussaw
Christiansassuperstitiousandashatersofmankinddue
totheirclaimtoexclusivetruth.
Domitian(8195): hisrulebroughtmorepersecution,but
recordsnotveryclear.
Trajan (98117): more clear record of persecutions.
ConsideredagreatRomanruler,nobleandmorejustthan
others. Hecorrespondedwith PlinytheYounger,governor
inAsiaMinor. Helpsusunderstandtheattitudeoftwo
"tolerant" Romans wrestling with the "problem" of
Christians. Pliny wrote about 112 to Trajan, asking
advice. Interestingtestimonytothegrowthofthefaith
in Asia Minor, even from the city into the countryside.
(Ruralareastendtoclingtooldways.) Plinynoteda
revivalofpaganreligion,whichhewantedtoencourage.
Trajanwroteback. Hewantednoanonymousaccusationsto
hold; didn't seek out Christians; "pardoned" those who
recanted.Thisgeneraladviceprevailedduringsecondand
third centuries. Thus, persecution tended to be local
(under governors) rather than spread through the empire.
Nevertheless, the death penaltyjust for being a
Christianremained in force for those discovered who
refusedtorecant.Typeofdeathdependedonstatus.
Christians often met in catacombs due to Roman
superstitionsaboutghosts. Sometimesmetneargraveof
Christianmartyr.
Even though persecution wasn't as widespread as often
recorded, believers lived in an environment where they

knewtheymightbedenouncedanytime. Therealityofa
"martyr consciousness" was profound, even though the
numberofmartyrsisn'tasgreataswemightthinkfrom
historians.
Famousmartyrdoms:
Polycarp,BishopofSmyrna(discipleofJohn),burned
alive at age 86. One of earliest martyrs. Aroma
like"finebakedbread."
Perpetua,under SeptimaSeverus,aroundyear200 in
Carthage. Writtenaboutcontemporarytoevent,from
Montanist viewpoint. Woman of noble Roman birth.
Became Christian through household servants.
Interesting account. Baptized during imprisonment
(baptismoftendelayedatthattime). Brotherasked
her to seek a vision from God concerning her fate.
Received vision of bronze ladder with serpent at
bottom. Another vision concerned another brother,
whodiedatage7;attimeofClementofAlexandria.
This vision supported concepts of purgatory and
prayerforthedead. Executedinthearenabywild
beasts;gladiatorsactuallykilledherbysword.
EmperorDecius(248253) changedthings. Middleofthird
century; made effort to introduce persecution throughout
empire. Issueddecreein250commandingalltosacrifice
tothegodsandreceiveacertificatetoprovethatthey
had. Christianity had continued to grow; perceived as
serious problem warranting efforts to eliminate them.
Initially,thepersecutionledtogreatapostasy,pointing
tomanymerelyformalconversions.Notalongpersecution
due to administrative burden. Decius also had border
problemsanddiedinbattle.
Valerian(254259) wasthenextemperor. Theconceptof
widespread persecution lived on. Issued decree in 258
seeking out Christian clergy, forcing them to sacrifice.
Hoped for large apostasy to demoralize other Christians
andstampoutthefaith.Churchheldupverywellinthe
face of this persecution; little apostasy. Valerian's
strategybackfired.Valeriancapturedin259anddied.
Emperor Diocletian (284305): Last great empirewide
persecution. GrowingsensethattheRomanempirewasin
trouble, suffering internally and challenged at its
borders. Cultural crisis of meaning. Emperors thought

that a restoration of ancient Roman virtue would change

the situation. Strong feeling that Christianity was
challenging the old values and ways: "Roman family
value." Many accomplishments during Diocletian's reign:
secured frontiers, reformed finances. Religion and
societywereseenascloselyrelated. Weshouldn'tread
oursecularworldbackintohistory.Socialstabilitywas
seen as interrelated to religion; culture needed to be
connectedtoreligion,akeycivilizingfactor. It'sin
moderntimesthatreligionandculturehavebeencutfrom
one another. About 300, Diocletian began to purge
Christians from the army. Needed secure military base.
In 303, he issued an edict calling for destruction of
Christianplacesofworship(eventhoughitwasillegal)
andburningofChristianbooks.Gatheringforworshipwas
forbidden. Persecutionofclergy. Theempirewaslarge;
administrationwasshared.Topofimperialsystemdivided
intotetrarchy(ruleof4). Twotitled"Augustus." Two
titled "Caesar." One in west, one in east of each of
these. ("Caesar" named after Julius Caesar. Then
"Augustus" came from Caesar Augustus.) Diocletian was
AugustusoftheEastinhistime. Maximian wasAugustus
of the West. Gallerius was Caesar of the East.
ConstantiuswasCaesaroftheWest.In311,anedictwas
passedgivingChristiansthelegalrighttoexistinthe
state.Ageofpersecutionandmartyrdomcametoandend,
usheringinanewperiodofchurchhistory.
Size and extent of the church around 300: Significant
growthinthirdcenturyinspiteofthestate. Cultural
disintegrationturnedmanytohearthegospel.Churchhad
reached a size where missionary task could be extended.
Not spread evenly in the empire. Where was it
flourishing?
Considerable minority in Egypt. Christianity was
centeredinGreekspeakingspeaking;commoninEast.
More difficult to spread gospel in rural regions.
BeginningtospreadtoCopticpeopleinEgyptby300.
Arabianpeninsula:synodsofbishopshadmetby300,
somechurcheshadbeenfounded.
Palestine: gospel spread in cities with Greek
populations.Jewishresistant.
Syria: early success in coastal cities; Antioch
significant.

Persia:penetrationbythirdcentury.Earlysuccess
whileillegalinRomanempire;increasingsuspicions
afteritwaslegal.
India:limitedresponsebythistime.
AsiaMinor:mostChristianizedpartofRomanempire.
Gregory the "wonder" was evangelist in the rural
areas. Preacher and showman, connecting Christian
festivalswithpaganandruralfestivals. Triedto
make Christianity more impressive and flashy.
Gregory the "illuminator" (born in 240) took gospel
intoArmenia,evenconvertingthekindthere(around
280).
Greece: evangelized early by Paul, a Reformed
missionary. Little church growth there. Note the
mysteryofGod'sprovidence!
Yugoslavia(furtherwest): noreliableinformation,
noevidenceofevangelization.
Rome: church is large, several congregations.
SpreadtocentralandsouthernItaly,butnotmuchin
north.
Gaul (France):
southeast.

little penetration except in

GermanyandGreatBritain:littlespreadthere.
Spain: evidence of significant number of bishops
there.
NorthAfrica: Christianityamajorityinmanytowns
there. Successful area, particularly colonial
Romanizedareas.Somepenetrationtonativepeoples.
About 15% of total empire population, not evenly
distributed.Thisgrowthtookplaceoverabout250years.
How real was the commitment? How well was the gospel
understood?We'renotclear,butwedoknowitwasrisky
tobeaChristian.Probablystrongpersonalcommitmentin
viewofthatrisk. InArmenia,itbecamefashionableto
join the church, so there could well be a lack of
understanding/preachingofthegospel.

Thisearlygrowthwouldseemslowbyourmodernstandards.
Weshouldn'tbetoodiscouragedaboutwhatseemsalackof
response in certain areas. We can't foresee the
providence of God; we need a "long view" of maintaining
ourwitness.
Cyprian: Born around 200 as a wealthy pagan; great
speaker. Converted in 246; studied Scriptures and
Tertullian. Elected bishop of Carthage in 248. Decian
persecutionledtogreatdebateaboutapostateswhowanted
to return later. Initially, he opposed forgiveness of
apostates. Gradually, he softened his position, but
insisted on a second baptism. Steven, bishop of Rome,
opposed him, saying this undermined the validity of the
sacraments. What is the nature of the church as an
institution? Cyprian martyred under Valerian in 258.
Writings were influential. Two versions of his letter
about the unity of the catholic church; one exalted
papacy,theotherdidn't.Cyprian'secclesiology:Bishop
is thechurch,guaranteesorthodoxy. Christpromisedto
protect and keep the church from falling into error,
althoughanindividualbishopcouldfallintoerrorandbe
removed. Episcopalsystem(bishopentirelyinchargeof
local affairs); only removed by fellow bishops if
heretical. But also somewhat congregational. Elected
bishop, who was like a senior pastor. Cyprian held a
strong view of the bishop's authority. Concern for the
unity of the church, defined by the office of bishop.
"Outside the church [bishop] there is no salvation,"
Cyprian said. Problem in stressing unity along and
stressing the office of bishop. Teaching elders were
increasinglyappointedbythebishop. "Priesthoodofall
believers" disappears from Cyprian's thinking. Cyprian
lovedtospeakofthechurchas"mother." "Hewhodoes
nothavetheChurchashisMothercannothaveGodashis
Father."Noforgivenessforsinofschism,forseparating
fromthechurch.Schismisa"dailysin."Cyprianfirst
to link very specifically...preparatory sacrifice to the
Lord's Supper. Previously spoken of as a "sacrifice of
thanksgiving." Sacrificial language increasingly
surroundstheLord'sSupper.Cyprianveryrealistic,less
poetic,inthislanguage.ThepriestimitateswhatChrist
did;ChristissacrificedtotheFather. Thisisn'tthe
theologyoftheearliestchurch,butemergesinthethird
century.
Diocletian (AugustusofEast)

Maximian (Augustus of

West)
Galerius
Licinius
Constantine

Constantius
Maxentius

Constantine: First Christian emperor. Christianity

becamefavoredandevenofficialreligion. Constantine's
conversionisamatterofmuchdiscussionandcontroversy.
He had much "PR" potential. How did he understand
Christianity?Whatwastherealimpactontheempireand
onthechurch?Atthetime,allChristiansthoughtitwas
awonderfulchange,althoughsomelaterinsistedthatthe
churchwascorrupted.EusebiusofCaesareathoughtitwas
the literal fulfillment of promise to Abraham. In the
longrun,wouldthechurchrunthestate("theocracy"),or
wouldthestaterunthechurch("caesaropapism")? There
was controversy between two viewpoints here (another
class).
Itseemedinevitablethatsomeemperorwouldconvert,in
view of the church's growth. It was customary for an
emperortofavorandevenimposehisownreligion.
Constantinebornin285.Father=Constantius.Mother=
Helena, about whom there are many stories. Not Roman
citizen. Both Constantius and Helena born in pagan
families. Helena was converted. Augustus Maximian
abdicated (305), and Constantius took his place in the
West;hadbeenCaesarofnorthwesternregion.Constantius
diedin306,andConstantinedeclaredtobeAugustus.The
other Caesar under Constantius, Maxentius, was also
declaredtobeAugustus.Twocompetingrulersinthesame
place! Maxentius was in control of Rome and seemed to
have an advantage. (Galerius died in 311; replaced by
LiciniusasAugustusoftheEast.)Constantineclaimedto
see vision heading south through Gaul; cross with two
Greek words, seen as sign from God. A little sign was
developed from this (looks like a pair of scissors).
Maxentius left Rome, sure that he would win; faced
Constantine in battle. On October 28, 312, Constantine
defeated Maxentius: "Battle of the Milvian Bridge."
Unexpected victory believed to be God's intervention.
Unsure whether he understood gospel; somewhat
superstitious view that Christian God more powerful than
pagangods. Constantinedidn'tappealtopaganoracles.
Didn'toffertraditionalsacrificesattempleofJupiter.
Marked definitive break with pagan history in Roman
history. Seemsgenuineconvictionofmonotheisticclaims

ofChristianity. EdictissuedtofreeChristianpriests
from civil functions for fulltime ministry. Somewhat
paganmentalityinplacatingGod.
In February 313, Licinius (Augustus of East) met with
Constantine in Milan. Licinius married Constantine's
sister,whohadasimilarname(mostunimaginativefamily
in choosing names). Edict of Milan issued: first
official empirewide statement of religious liberty for
all religions, including Christianity. All confiscated
churchpropertywastobereturned.Churchbegantoturn
toConstantineforadviceandhelpinchurchmatters.No
objections to this process; everyone accepted it. This
wastrueinthematterofDonatism.In312,Caecilianwas
elected bishop of Carthage. One of the bishops who
ordainedhimhadgivenoveraBibletobeburnedduring
Diocletian persecution. Donatus declared that Caecilian
couldn't be bishop since ordained by an apostate;
sacraments administered by him invalid. Donatists
separatedfromorthodoxcatholicchurchinCarthage,then
appealing to emperor for help. Constantine appointed
bishop of Rome and others to judge the matter. Their
verdict was against the Donatists as having taken
schismatic action. Appealed to synod in Gaul.
Constantine wrote a letter to the gathering ("most dear
brothers"), asking for truth and unity of the church.
(Greeting considered extraordinarily honorable to the
bishops.) No "separation of church and state" at that
time!Naturaltoappealtoemperoronchurchmatters(how
quickly persecution is forgotten). Synod also concluded
thattheDonatistswerewrong.Constantinesenttroopsin
317todestroyDonatisminAfrica.
PontifexMaximus=paganpriestinRomeatthattime.
Constantine dedicated to rejuvenation of empire. Some
legislationwasrelatedtothechurch. Forexample,face
could not be branded as a punishment. Laws passed
permittingChristiantofreetheirslavesinthepresence
ofbishops. Courtsofarbitrationforcivilmatterswere
allowedinthechurch.Churchsystemusedaspartofthe
civilsystem.SundaydeclaredLord'sDay(321);nomanual
labor, no courts. Estates could make bequests to
churches. Flogging of priests who offered pagan
sacrifices...allowedbylawin323. Theselawswerefor
theWest.Lininius(pagan)followeddifferentpathinthe
East. Continued harassment of Christians though not
persecution. Constantinedeclaredhimselfaprotectorof

Christians and considered armed action against Licinius.

Incidentally...hewantedsolerule,endingthetetrarchy.
In 324, he led troops bearing sign of the cross, and
defeated Licinius, ending tetrarchy. New freedom of
worshipandmissionaryactivity. Alsonewdangers,such
as domination of church by state, and corruption of
bishopsbywealthandpower.
The Trinity
ArianHeresy
Arius was a priest in Egypt under Bishop Alexander of
Alexandria. Powerful preacher, magnetic personality,
attractedfollowing(especiallywomen). Ariusundermined
the divinity of Christ. Popular Arian slogan: "There
was,whenHewasnot." TheLogoswasacreationofGod,
Arius taught. Rejoinder: "There was not when He was
not." If Christ was not, then neither was the Father,
which is absurd. Debate raged with serious longterm
impactonthechurchinmanyways.
TrinitarianControversy
How does the divinity of God the Father relate to the
divinityoftheSon? Areweproposingtwodeities? The
Arian controversy was one manifestation of the debate
about the Trinity. Some suggested that Jesus is a man
indwelt by God's Spirit: adoptionism or dynamic
monarchianism. The singleness of God (monarchy) is
maintainedbysayingthatGod'sSpiritentersintoJesus
onlyforatime. PaulofSamasota(condemnedin268)was
latechampionofthisview.
Docetism: Jesus only appeared to be a man. Solves
problem but at a high price, denying the humanity of
Christ.
Tritheism: Sacrifice of monotheism! Even the culture
was attracted to monotheism, however. Jimmy Swaggert
proposedsuchaviewinmoderntermsthreeGodsunitedby
onepurpose.
Modalistic Monarchianism (Sabellianism): Present yet
amongusUnitedPentecostalChurch(UPC),or"Jesusonly"
movement. OneGodwhohasrevealedHimselfindifferent
"modes" or perspectives, while remaining one
undifferentiatedGod.Fatherisn'tdistinctPersonofthe
GodheadbutanameforsomeofthethingsGoddoes;Sonis
anameforotherthingsGoddoes,sameforHolySpirit.

DifferentlabelsusedfordifferentthingsGoddoes. The
"name"oftheFather,Son,andHolySpirit,accordingto
UPC, is Jesus. Sabellius was leading representative in
ancientworld.AlsocalledPatripassionismconclusionis
thattheFatherdiedonthecross.
Examnote:Foridentifications,identifynameoreventby
thecenturyinwhichitoccurred.
Subordinationism: Origen. Doesn't clearly preserve
monotheism, or clearly avoid tritheism. Slightly more
biblical effort; Son turns kingdom over to the Father.
CompromisesdeityofSon.
Latertheologydistinguishesthe ontologicalTrinity from
the economicalTrinity. Insomewayswecantalkofthe
SonaseconomicallysubordinatetotheFather.
WeaffirmwhatScriptureaffirms:
1.ThereisoneGod.
2. GodexistseternallyinthreedistinctPersons.
Don't confuse the issue by speaking of God as "one
Person." At the same time, avoid speaking of an
impersonal divine substance; the divine essence
doesn'texistapartfromthethreePersons.
Irenaeus and Tertullian. Tertullian: firsttospeakof
"Trinitas";distinctionbetweensubstanceandperson.

West: tendencytoguardonenessofGod,afraidoftri
theism. Good concern, but danger of modalism. Roman
legal spirit, less philosophical or speculative "tell
uswhat'srightandwe'llenforceit."
East: tendency to stress the Persons of God and do
justice to distinctions. Danger of subordinationism.
Also greater tendency toward philosophical thinking.
Antioch and Alexandria were significant in Arian
controversy. AriusministeredinAlexandriabuteducated
in Antioch. Reacted sharply against Alexandrian
tendencies. Antioch emphasized theuniquenessofGodthe
Father, the humanity of Christ, and a more practical
approachtoChristianlife. Alexandria emphasized mystic
unity of Father and Son, preexistence of the Word,
connectivenessofTrinityratherthandistinctions.Arian
leanedtowardtheAntiochposition;tookittoheretical
extremes. Antioch friends were shocked about the
rejectionofArius'teachinginAlexandria. Eusebiusof

Nicodemia was friend of Arius; got synod of bishops

together declaring that Arius was orthodox and urging
Alexander(bishopofAlexandria) toreinstatehim. Great
tensions resulted, even street riots (like L.A.??).
Ambassador(Hosius,aSpanishbishop)senttoinvestigate
andtalktotheparties;sidedwithAlexander.Hosiusand
Alexandergainedtheearoftheemperor;Ariusreliedon
influenceofEusebiusofNicodemiaandsisterofemperor,
Constantia. EmperorsympathetictoHosiusandAlexander,
but decided a council of the whole church (ecumenical,
i.e., universal), rather than a synod of local bishops,
wouldbedesirable. CouncilofNicea heldin May325 in
(AsiaMinor).MostfromGreekspeakingchurches.Emperor
dressedin purple (whatagoodcolor). Someonesuggested
"homoousius" (same being, same substance) of Father and
Son; share in same divinity. Appealed to Western
delegatesandto Athanasius,deaconunderAlexander. In
theEast,however,thiswordhadbeenusedbymodalists;
concerns of Eastern bishops ignored. Paul of Samasota
used the word in the middle of third century. Some
conflict developed over the addition of an iota:
"homoiousius," meaning similar substance rather the same
substance. (A few bishops inserted the iota in their
mindswhentheysignedthecreed.)
Great central confession about Christ comes from this
CouncilofNicea. AsecondecumenicalCouncilofNicea
Constantinopleaddedmore.
Anotherexamtip: Athanasiusisoneofthegreatheroes
ofthefaith. Spellhisnamecorrectly! Otherwordsto
spell right: deity, emperor (not "emporer," probably
someonewhoworksinanemporiumha).
More about Council of Nicea: Date of Easter debated,
adopted the practice followed to this day (Western
practice).Alsodisciplinarycanonswereadopted,togain
some uniformity. Canon 4: each new bishop must be
unanimouslyconfirmedbyallbishopsinhisprovince,or
byanarchbishop(emerginginfluentialconcept).Canon5:
personexcommunicatedinonediocesecouldn'tbeadmitted
tocommunioninanotherdiocese.Canon6:specialpowers
of hearing appeals were given to Rome, Alexandria,
Antioch.BishopofJerusalemequaltootherthreebutno
significantpower.
Threepartiesaftermeetingofthecouncil:

(1)Orthodox,"homoousius"
(2) Ariansclear Arians, speaking of Christ as
"heteroousius"
(3) "Waffling"party,ArianswhosaytheSonisof
the "similar substance" to God. Easterners who
wantedtoavoidmodalism.
Arius was banished by the state. Sharp Arian reaction.
Debates by local councils (325361). Pagan observer,
Marcellinus, noted the controversy. Alexander died in
328; replaced by Athanasius as head of orthodox party.
Constantine increasingly influence by Constantia and
EusebiusofNicodemia;decidedin335thatAriusshouldbe
readmittedtothechurch. ContrarytoCouncilofNicea;
Athanasiusrefusedtoreadmithim,buthewasdeposedby
someArianbishopsandexiled. Constantineplannedgreat
ceremony for readmission of Arius to the church; Arius
diedthenightbeforethiseventwastohavetakenplace.
Niceadidnotfinallysettlethematter.Muchcontroversy
continued,morethanwehavetimetodiscusstoday.
ArianError(continued)
Constantine died in 337. His sons: Constantine II,
Constantius (the East) and Constans (the West).
Constantius increasingly influenced by Eusebius of
Nicodemia.DoctrinaldivisionbetweenEastandWest;East
influencebyArianism,Westorthodox. Thistendencywas
frequent in the ancient church. Enhanced reputation of
BishopofRome(tobeconsideredinthedevelopmentofthe
papacy). In350,Constansdied,givingConstantiusmore
extensive power and allowing more Arian influence and
triumphofthe"homoiousis"party.In356,Athanasiuswas
drivenfromhiscathedralbysoldiers;bishopofRomealso
driven from office. Triumph of moderate to radical
Arianism seemed strong. Constantius died in 361,
succeededbycousinJuliantheApostatewhohadpretended
tobeaChristian,thenapostatizedandattemptedapagan
revival in the empire. He cleverly decided to let the
variousfactionsfightwithoneanother;calledAthanasius
back from exile, but later exiled him again due to his
great influence! Authorized rebuilding of Jewish temple
(premill?!HA), encouraging spread of Judaism to stamp
outChristianity. ReignofJulianwastooshort;temple
not rebuilt. He died in 363. Empire passed to two:
Valentinian (defender of orthodoxy) and Valens (extreme
ArianSon of different substance from Father!). Valens
persecutedtheorthodox,evenirritatingandwakingupthe

"semiArians" (homoiousians). Persecution brought more

unity to the "homoousis" and "homoiousis" parties.
Theodosiuscameintopower;championofNiceneorthodoxy.
Council at Constantinople (empire's capital) met during
hisreign.SmallercouncilthanNicea;noonefromWest,
but recognized universally as ecumenical council.
AffirmedNiceneorthodoxy. AddedmaterialonHolySpirit
toNiceneCreed,affirmingHisfulldeity. Alsoaddeda
section concerning the church. The only controversial
matter is the filioque ("and the Son" in Latin) clause;
SpiritproceedsfromtheFather andtheSon. Also,the
BishopofConstantinoplewasraisedtopositionofhighest
honoramongbishopsandaddedtopreviouslist:Antioch,
Rome,andAlexandria,withJerusalemhavingthis"highest
honor." However, it wasn't a genuinely ancient church,
onefoundedbyanapostle.Afterstudyoftheirhistory,
however,itwasdiscoveredthattheapostleAndrewfounded
theirchurch. AndrewbroughtPetertoJesus. Here'san
apostlewithreal"priority."FoundbodyofAndrew;skull
was taken back during Fourth Crusade when Constantinople
was looted. From 381 forward, increasingly, Rome and
Constantinoplebishopswererecognizedasultimatechurch
authorities(ancientandmoderncapitals).
Arianismwasdeadinsidetheempire,survivedonlyoutside
forawhilethroughArianmissionaries.
Bearinmindwhenconsideringthetriumphoftrinitarian
orthodoxy:
1.ThePersonofChristisimportant,andintimately
related to His work. Anticipation of Augustine
Pelagian debates. Misunderstanding of the Person
leadstomisunderstandingoftheworkofChrist. We
needadivineSaviortosavemankind.
2. Triumph of revelation over rationalism. The
Trinity is profoundly mysterious. Conclusion was
reached through what Scripture teaches, not what is
intellectually comprehended. Arianism more easily
grasped, very rational, "sensible," humanly
comprehendedonlyliableisthatit'sWRONG.
3. Pietyisasimportantastheologyproperinthe
resolution of theological debates. Athanasius was
strengthened in his position by noting that we
worship Jesus; if Arians were right, such worship
wouldn'tbeproper.Resonancebetweenchurch'spiety

andtherighttheologicalconclusion.
4.TheConfession,thatJesusistheeternalSonof
God, guarantees for us that His redemptive work is
the final redemptive work, the final revelation
(Hebrews1:1). ConsiderChristianityascomparedto
Islam, which sees Mohammed as a later and greater
prophet than Jesus. Islam must deny the eternal
divinityoftheSontomakesuchaclaim.
Christology
ThisisthecharacterofJesusasHeisinHimself:fully
humanandfullydivine.Oncethestatementismade,what
does it mean? What are the implications? Before the
fullblown debate, there were differing emphases in
AntiochasopposedtoAlexandria:
In Alexandria, the tendency was toward WordFlesh
christology, derived from John's gospel, "the Word
becameflesh."EmphasizesthattheeternalWordisa
Person. This christology tendency argues that the
PersonalWordassumedimpersonalflesh.
In Antioch, the tendency was WordMan christology.
Tends to say that if the Word only assumed flesh,
wouldJesushavebeenfullyhuman? Tobehumanis
morethanmerelypossessingflesh. Jesussharedall
thatwashuman,notjustabody.
Bishop Apollinaris of Syria was champion of Nicene
orthodoxy, respected by Athanasius and Cappodocian
fathers. He said (rationalistic spirit) that it wasn't
really so difficult. He believed that man was three
elements: body,soul(animans),rationalsoulorspirit
(anima rationalis). The soul is what any animal would
have; enlivening principle. A body without this is a
corpse. Thirdelementdefineshuman,differentiatingman
fromanimals.ApollinarianschemeforJesus:Thedivine,
eternalLogosreplacedtherationalsoul.Thisshowsthat
HeisonePerson.Neatconstruct,butitmakesJesusnot
fully human, eliminating the most distinctive human
element.Nofullhumanpersonality,nohumanmind.Semi
docetic christology, allows divinity to "swallow up" the
humanity. The divine overshadows and diminishes the
human;understandabletendency,aswedesiretoupholdthe
deity of Christ. This is called a monophysite (one
nature) direction; undermines and limits the fullness of

the humanity of Jesus. Often done in the interest of

stressing the unity of His Person. Good motive,
disastrousresultbecausetheScripturedeclaresHisfull
humanity.
Remember the tendency to speak of salvation as
deification,

. Salvation is "becoming God." If

Jesusneverfullybecameaman,salvationiseasilyrecast
inthedirectionofhumansbecomingdivine.
Apollinariswastriedatmanycouncils,finallycondemned
in381.
Nestorian controversy: First real war in christology
broke out in connection with Nestorius, bishop of
Constantinople, leader in early 5th century. He
personally was an eloquent preacher, zealous for
orthodoxy, honest, asceticalso some impetuous, lacking
ingoodjudgment.Theissuethatgothimintotroublewas
the

, "bearer/mother of God." Was this title
appropriatetoMary? Titlearosein4thcenturyandwas
widelyaccepted,inoppositiontoArianism.Notsomucha
title of honor to Mary, but rather to make a statement
abouttheChildshebore. FocuswasneveronMary;she
wasnotseenasthesourceofdivinity,buttheChildshe
borewasGod.Thetitleisn'treallyaproblem;Jesusis
divine as well as human, and Mary was His mother.
Nestorius,somewhatnaively,thoughtthetitlemightlead
toconfusion.Suggestedthetitle"christotokos"instead.
Alsonotanobjectionabletitle.Butpeoplewonderedwhat
waslingeringinNestorius'mind;whydidheobjecttothe
othertitle? WasheanArian?(no) Washenotproperly
relatingthehumanityanddivinityofChrist? Peoplein
oppositiontoNestoriusbegantobelievethatthiswasthe
problem, specifically, that he had no true union of the
human and divine natures. He was charged with teaching
that Jesus was two Persons, one divine and one human.
Nestorius himself never taught this, in spite of the
charges brought against him, but the term Nestorianism
stuck.

Chief opponent of Nestorius was Cyril of Alexandria.

NestoriuswasexampleofAntiochenetendency,Cyrilofthe

Alexandrian tendency. Serious rivalry between

Constantinople and Alexandria; the controversy wasn't
merely about theology! Bishop of Constantinople was
becoming dominant in the east, eroding the authority of
theAlexandrianbishopandannoyinghim. Cyrilwaseager
topromotetheerroneoustheologyofhisopponent.Hewas
probably a better theologian than Nestorius, wiser and
more clever but haughty and ambitious, an "unlovely
defender of the truth." Nestorius was a "nicer guy,"
Cyrilagoodpoliticianwhowrotetotheemperorandhis
associates,aswellastheBishopofRome,Celestine,who
supportedhimandwasflattered. Celestinehadrecently
exiledsomePelagianclergy,andNestoriushadgiventhem
afriendlyreception.In430,CelestineorderedNestorius
torecantofhiserrors. Cyrilissued12anathaemasto
positions attributed to Nestorius. Third Ecumenical
Council, in Ephesus in 431, was called. Ephesus not
likelytobesympathetictoNestorius;intensedevotionto
Marythere.Nestoriushadbeenlabeledasunderminingthe
honor of Mary. Crowds marched through cities attacking
Nestorius. Cyril initially had a majority. Nestorius
refused to appear when Cyril began the council, because
not everyone had arrived. Cyril proceeded to
excommunicate Nestorius and condemn his theology. John,
bishopofAntioch,arrivedwithhis42bishops,convened
the council againexcommunicated Cyril! Appeal made to
emperor, who accepted both decrees; both Cyril and
Nestoriusdeposed.Noonesatisfied.Finallyreachedthe
"compromise of 433." Cyril negotiated this with
Antiochenes. Basiclanguageofchristologicalorthodoxy:
Christ is one Person, having two full and complete
natures;

viewedasappropriatetitle. Nestorius
was left out of this compromise; he died outside the
empireinexileabout439. Nestorianismspreadandeven
flourishedevenafteritsexileintheRomanempire;not
really a heretical movement, as Nestorius never really
embracedNestorianism. Theydon'tusethetitle

,
don't use images in their worship, no purgatory or
transubstantiation. Flourished in Iraq/Iran area; sent
missionaries out into central Asia, even into China.
Little written record of these churches; wiped out by
Mongolsin14thcentury.
Extreme of Alexandrian theology arose: monophysite or
Eutychian heresy (one nature, one Person). Even "two
natures"seemedNestoriantothem. Aroseafterthedays
of Cyril, who was succeeded by Dioscuruslimited
intelligence,vastarrogance. Hemanagedtotouchoffa

controversyinconnectionwithEutyches. Hetaughtthat
thedivinitysoabsorbedthehumanityofChristthatthe
humanitywasdeified;thefleshthusnot"homoousian"with
our flesh. Note the reoccurrence of this term. Arian
denied "homoousis" of Christ's divinity; Eutyches denied
the "homoousis" of His humanity. Dioscurus and others
took up this teaching. They rejoiced in saying things
like "God was crucified." Both sides appealed to the
BishopofRome,LeotheGreat. Leosidedwith Flavian,
BishopofConstantinople.Bothopposedtothemonophysite
heresy. Wanted to maintain the compromise of 433.
Dioscurus gained the ear of emperor Theodosius II, who
called council in Ephesus in 449. Dioscurus presided;
excommunicatedLeoandFlavianandtheirbuddies. Known
as the "Council of Robbers." Leo and Flavian rejected
thiscouncil.Thentheemperordied.Newemperorcalled
Fourth Ecumenical Council to meet in Nicea in 451;
intendedtolinkwiththefirstcouncilthere(325).Had
to move it to Chalcedon, nearer to Constantinople. The
emperor, the Roman Senate, and 500600 bishops attended
(mostly from East). Accepted the compromise of 433 but
clarifiedandexpanded.Christisconsubstantialwiththe
Father in His deity, and to us in His humanity. No
confusion or conversion in the two natures (directed
against monophysites), without severance or division
(againstNestorianism):onePerson,twonatures.Embraced

term. Good theological settlement, but didn't
stopthefighting!Easternchurchremainedinturmoilfor
next100yearsasmonophysiteteachingcamebacktohaunt
themuntillargelydefeatedin6thcentury. Muchsupport
in monasteries. Dangerous tendency to hope for our own
deification in this type of thinking (

).
Monophysites became a sort of separate "denomination,"
like Nestorians. Strong influence. Coptic Church in
Egyptwasmonophysite.ArmenianOrthodoxChurchalso,for
centuries. Longer influence than Nestorian church,
perhapsbecausetheempirewasdecayingandcouldn'tstop
theheresyaseasily.
The church wrestled with the issue of language, such as
"God was crucified." Fifth Ecumenical Council of
Constantinople in 553. Such language determined to be
legitimate, under the term communicatio idiomatum,
communicationofattributesorproperties. Whatistrue
ofthe Person canbelinguisticallypredicatedofeither
nature. It'sarhetorical,notliteral,wayofspeaking.
Whenwesay"Goddied,"wedon'tmeanthatliterally,but
thatthehumannaturedied,thatJesusdied.Thiscameup

in 16th century in debates about Lord's Supper

(Lutherans). Lutherans called the Reformed Nestorians,
and the Reformed called the Lutherans monophysites.
Lutherans believed that the actual body of Christ is in
thebread.
Asceticism
Wehavetolookatthefulllifeofthechurch,notjust
narrowly at theological issues. Historical record is
often kept by the intellectuals, so it's not easy to
reconstruct what's going on the popular level. Ascetic
comesfromtheGreek ,toexercise.Tookonsenseof
moralselfdisciplineandtraining. Linkedwithideaof
selfdenial. Asceticismisanapproachtosanctification
linked with such selfdenial, which took particularly
physical forms such as fasting, renunciation of property
andmarriage.InActs,weseepeoplesellingpropertyand
givingittothechurch.Thisasceticimpulseisanother
reflectionoftheculture,onewhichsaidthatthereally
serious,importantstyleoflifeisaspiritualone.Even
thepagancommunitytaughtthis;Platosaidthebodywas
the prison house of the soul. This world seen as
transitoryandunimportant.Asceticismcametobeseenas
a sort of "second blessing," the victorious Christian
life,the"councilsofperfection"(poverty,chastity,and
obedience).Manyembracedthispattern,evenbyyear100.
Ignatius and Justin advocated celibacy, which became a
centerpoint.Initially,asceticslivedinthecontextof
thecongregationratherthanseparatedfromit.Irenaeus,
about 200, recorded that asceticism often proved
scandalous; male and female ascetics attempting to live
togethertoprovetheirstrength,butmoreoftenproving
theopposite. Something"anybodywithwillpower"could
follow,supposedly. However,Reformerssawthecalltoa
singlelifereservedonlyforafewwhoarecalledtoit;
otherwiseleadstocorruption. Considertherelationship
ofcelibacytotheclergy. Ifthecelibatelifeisthe
mostholy,logicallytheclergyshouldbecelibatesoit
was thought. In 4th century, there were still married
bishops;marriedpriestsintheWestin5thcentury.
Phasesofdevelopment:
(1)Prohibitionofsecondmarriagetotheclergy(2nd
century),basedonbeingthehusbandofonewife.
(2) Pressure in West in 4th century to require
priestsnottomarryatall;proposedinNiceain325

butrejected.
(3) Eastern orthodoxyif you're married when
ordained,youmayremainmarried,butmaynotremarry
if spouse dies. But if you're unmarried when
ordained,youmustremainunmarried.

(4)Bishopscouldnotmarry(Easternchurch),asof
6thcentury.
(5) Latin Western church went further. Late 4th
century; no married clergy, declared by Bishop of
Rome. Reinforced by Popes Innocent, Leo, Gregory,
andothers.Manyviolationsofvowsofcelibacy.
Monasticism
Asceticism also impacted the laity. The lay form
developed into monasticism, forming communities to live
outthe"councilsofperfection." Earlier,suchlifewas
within the whole Christian community. Withdrawal came
when some ascetics were less disciplined. Separation
beganlargelyin3rdcentury,whenChristianityisstill
illegal and subject to persecution, but fashionable in
some parts of empire. Growing problem of "formal"
Christianity, which speeds the ascetic separation. The
firstwithdrawalwastohermitlife.Hermitsbecamegreat
heroes, considered "holy men" who were close to God.
Soughtoutforspiritualadvice.Oneoftheearliestwas
Anthony, born around 250 in Egypt to Christian parents.
Hermits eventually formed loosely connected communities.
Hermit life associated with visions of God. (Probably
hallucinations from lack of food and sleep!) Saw
themselves as soldiers of Christ, going into the
wildernesstobattledemons. Thosewhowentinsanewere
said to be "kissed of God." "Pillar saints" built
platforms and sat on them. Christians often opposed to
bathing;Romanbathswereoftenplacesofimmorality.
Twoformsofcommunalmonasticismemerged. Idiorhythmic,
unstructured "doyourownthing," much like hermits.
Other form (synabidic) stresses the disciplines of life
together.Morerigorouslycommunal.FounderwasEgyptian
Pachomius, who was originally in the army (4th century)
andcarriedoverarmywaysintomonasticlife.200to300
monks in walled community, each with private cell to
meditate; church, dining room, library, and other rooms;
one ruler, abbott in West and another name in East.
Obedience to ecclesiastical superiors was stressed.

Opposed the greatest ascetic extremes (some hermits

starved themselves to death); discipline bodydon't
destroyit.Fastingallowedbutnotextreme(likemaybe2
daysperweek).
Championsofmonasticmovementsin4thcentury. Basilof
Caesarea, one of Cappadocian fathers, was one. West:
MartinofToureinFrance,BenedictofNursia(bornabout
480 in Rome). In 529, Monastery of Monte Cassino was
formedinItaly;greatlibrary. Benedictdrewuparule
to govern his monastic house, stressing obedience, focus
onsavingone'sownsoul.
A few voices were raised against asceticism. Military
weakenedbylossofyoungpeople.Sometheologiansraised
theological questions. Jovinian (late 4th century) said
thatthecelibateandmarriedareequalbeforeGod;food
could be enjoyed with thanksgiving. He was largely
ignored. Jerome (late 4thearly 5th) wrote a paper
vilifying marriage; Augustine wrote a response even he
followedacelibatelifemarriageisagoodinstitution.
Fanaticism developed, for example in connection with
VirginMary.
Legalism and elitismyet some important contributions
made to the church by monasticism. Some became
missionaries. Otherspreservedlearning;mostofwhatwe
know about the ancient world was preserved in medieval
monasticlibraries.Hourswerespentcopyingmanuscripts.
Liberalism: Truth comes out of life. Piety determines
theology.
Machen:It'stheotherwayaround!

Mariology
Important issue for us, in order to communicate
effectivelywithRomanCatholics.It'sakeydimensionof
their religious experience. We need to understand the
appeal of this devotion to Mary, and be sensitive. It
appears that this devotion leads to believing in a
divinity of Mary. It's a growing, developing doctrine,
notfixed.FirstVaticanCouncilin1854:Maryconceived
without the stain of original or actual sin (immaculate
conception). Theyclaimthatshewaspreservedbygrace
fromsin,andinthiswayhadaSavior. Thisisbinding
dogma of the Roman Church, a required element of faith.
Thomas Aquinas opposed this. Pope Pius XII in 1950,

declared the assumption of the virgin to be dogma; her

body was taken into heaven so that it wouldn't see
corruption.Thisisalsobindingdogma.In1960's,title
Queen of Heaven was formally awarded by Second Vatican
Council. Many wanted to declared her a coredemptress;
alreadyheldascomediatrix.
AveMariaisthefamousprayerofferedtoMary;Latinfor
"hail Mary." Use of rosary is set up with 10 little
beads,tokeeptrackofyourprayers. TheAveMariais
repeated 10 times, central prayers. First part uses
Scripture,honortoMary;secondpartappealstohertobe
merciful. This prayer is relatively late development.
Firstportiondevelopedin13thcentury,thesecondinthe
16thcentury.
Luke presents Mary as a remarkable figure. Protestants
have sometimes overreacted and make it a point to never
refer to her at all. We shouldn't miss the importance
attributedtoherinthegospels;sheishonoredforher
roleinredemptivehistory,althoughwedon'tworshipher.
TheRomanChurchfocusesonLuke'saccount,particularly,
"let it be unto me according to your word." All
redemptive history awaited to see if the virgin would
cooperate with God's plan, according to Roman Catholic
theology; as important as divine fiat. Luther: Mary
recognizes God's election, using her in His plan of
redemption;Hisactionisattheheartofherpiety.
Secondcentury:LineofthoughtdevelopsthatifJesusis
the Second Adam, perhaps Mary is the Second Eve. No
scriptural foundation, but initially didn't lead to
unbiblicalconclusions. Forexample,assinenteredthe
world through Eve, redemption entered the world through
Mary.
ThegreatfloweringofdevotiontoMaryseemstotakeoff
inmonasticalcircles. InterestingdualismofMaryasa
religious symbol. Powerful religious symbol as mother,
butalsoasvirgin.Interestingcorrelationofideasthat
normally are not connected! Mary is mother as well as
virgin.Takesonfunctionofbeinganexampleofcelibate
life. Model of one who lives out the "councils of
perfection." By fourth century, there was a widespread
belief that Mary never had sexual relations with Joseph
and never had other children. Luther held this belief.
Weoftenturntopassagesthatspeakofthebrothersof
Jesus. Due to semantic range, it could perhaps be

cousins, although this isn't probable. We should be

careful in presenting evidence. There isn't real harm
done in believing Mary was perpetually a virgin. (John
Murraythinksotherwise,becauseshehadanobligationto
satisfyherhusband.)However,itisn'tinconsistentwith
hersanctitytobelievethatshedidgivebirthtoother
children.
Tertullian saw value of celibacy but believed Mary had
otherchildren(2ndcentury).
There were early discussions about whether Mary was
stained with original sin. Augustine said yes. Both
AugustineandPelagius,however,believeshewaspreserved
from actual sin,tobefitforherroleasmotherofthe
Savior.PelagiusdeniedthatMarywasstainedbyoriginal
sin,buthetaughtthatabouteverybodyelsetoo!
SpreadofMariologyinpopularpietywasinlate4thto
early5thcenturies. Greatblossomingoftitlesforher:
crown of virginity, paradise of second Adam, womb of
incarnation, scepter of orthodoxy...etc etc etc. The
churchaddressesprayerstoMaryforthefirsttimeinthe
4thcentury;shiftfromrecognitionofherimportanceto
directingofformalprayerstoher.Probablyareflection
ofpaganpractice.
There were a legion of female deities in GraecoRoman
paganworld. Peoplewereaccustomedtofemaleobjectsof
devotion.There'sarapidspreadofdevotiontobothMary
andthesaintsaspagansfloodintothechurch.However,
the great fathers of the church are not caught up into
thisdevotiontoMaryandsaints.
Churches and altars dedicated to Mary beginning in 5th
centuries, along with celebrations in her honor
assumption, enunciation. New focus in liturgical
calendar.
Cultureofthepatron: Tothisday,Catholicsspeakof
"patron saints." In late Roman society, much of one's
success, politically or economically, was through a
patron. You needed to know someone, to have a
"connection." Ancient world networking, a manifestation
of the hierarchical of society. Common people couldn't
connect directly with the emperor. This mentality was
easily brought into the church...if you want to talk to
God, it might be better to have a patron, someone with

moreinfluence...theythought.Marycametobeseenasan
intercessorforus.Catholicsoftenthinkthatifweask
our living friends to pray for us, why not our dead
friends?Meanwhile...Godistobeworshipped.Thesaints
are not to be worshipped, but receive service or
veneration. Mary receives superveneration. From
Catholic perspective, there is no idolatry, no actual
worship of Mary; rather, they serve her, are devoted to
her. They ask her to intercede for them, to pray for
them.
RemembertheScripture,thereisbut one Mediatorbetween
God and man, the Man Christ Jesus. The distinction
betweenworshipandserviceneedstobechallengedbythe
second commandment (in the 10 commandments)not to bow
downortoserveidols.Mariologyisidolatry,maybenot
ofthefirstcommandments,butsurelyofthesecond.
Medievallegend: WhenMarygottoheaven,Jesusdivided
His kingdom with herHe remained King of Righteousness,
she became Queen of Mercy. Eastern Orthodox Church
iconography: Christispicturedasferocious,asJudge,
entirelyholyandunapproachableinHisdivinity.Backto
the christological issue: if Christ is INAPPROPRIATELY

deified(inamannerthatminimizesHishumanity),He'sno
more approachable than the Father. Christ seen as true
humanity,Maryaspurehumanity,andthusmoresympathetic
tooursituation.So...Mariologyisatrootafailurein
properchristology. Wedon'twanttorunMarydownshe
blessedbutratherweneedafullunderstandingofJesus.
Saints
ThisisquiteparalleltodevotiontoMary. SaintinNT
refers to all Christians, "holy ones." With rise of
asceticism, some are considered holier than others. As
earlyas2ndcentury,"saint"undergoesassubtleshiftto
refer to "special" Christians, perhaps martyrs, bishops,
monks,"spiritualgiants." Thegreatcultofthesaints
seems to have arisen not only with the flood of pagans
intothechurch,butalsotheendofpersecution. Real
lifeheroes(martyrs)disappear,sopeoplebegantolook
fornewheroesinthepast.
The idea of guardian angels is another factor. It's
easier to start thinking that special patron saints can
protectyou,likeangels.Botharefinitebeings.
Thankful remembrance of saints in first three centuries;

prayers directed to them beginning in 4th century.

Theologicalproblemwasrecognized. Thesaints,evenin
glory,arefinitenotomniscientoromnipresent.So,how
do they hear the prayers of the faithful? Ancient
theologianssaid: (1)Godgivesthemthegiftofthese
attributes(unlikely),or(2)Godtellsthesaintsabout
theprayersofthefaithful. Butthissecondoptionis
redundant! Augustine confessed that it was a great
mystery,nosolution.
Mayberelationshiptopaganvenerationofheroes.
Relicsofthesaintswerealsoveneratedaboutthistime,
somethingphysicallyconnectedtoasaint.Primaryrelic:
abone. Secondaryrelic: clothes. Remarkablecatalogue
of relics in Middle Ages. Initially a smalltime
enterprise, a thankful remembrance. Increasingly became
associated with miracles and superstition developed. By
late4thcentury,therewasasensethatthebestrelics
hadbeenlost.Christiansbegantohavevisionsofwhere
lostrelicscouldbefound.Ambrosedeclaredthattheage
ofmiracleshadreturned. Helena,motherofConstantine,
claimedtohaveanumberofvisions.Augustinecomplained
ofagrowingtradeinphonyrelics.Jeromesaiditstill
builtpiety.
Increasing problem sound theology no longer purifying
thelifeofthechurch. Traditionbeginningtofeedoff
ofitself.
Papacy
Clearly an important institution today. The word comes
fromtheLatin"papa"meaningfather.PontifexMaximusis
another title, also given to pagan priests in ancient
times. OccupantofHolySee,fromtheLatin"sedes"for
seat,orepiscopalthrone. Addressedas"hisholiness."
Vicar of Christ, head of church on earth. Classic
ReformedandLutherandocumentsdeclarethepopetobethe
antichrist! Literal eschatological revelation of the

antichrist; the office, not a particular individual.

Widerangeofsentiment!
Popularpopesinmoderntimes;consideredpositivesymbols
ofChristianityonworldscene,evenbymanyProtestants.
Wheredidthisinstitutioncomefromhistorically? Over
time, several key bishop positions arose within the
churchJerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria, Rome, later

Constantinople. The bishop of Rome is the only Western

bishop in this esteemed circle of bishops. Important
factorscontributetotheRomanbishop'sesteem.Romewas
keyancientcityinoldRomanEmpire;importantpolitical
dimensionhere.Ecclesiasticalimportancealso;Romeheld
tobeplacewherePeterandPaulweremartyred. Bishops
ofRomeusuallycamedownontherightsideoftheological
issues; people became accustomed to looking to Rome for
leadership. Guardian of orthodoxy. In early
confrontations with heretics, people looked to the
successionofbishops.RomanChurchintheWestwaspre
eminent, could show its succession of bishops from
apostles.
Romanbishopsbegantoenjoytheirsenseofimportanceand
to claim it for themselves. Pope Steven (3rd century)
firsttoclaimthatJesus'wordstoPeterestablishedthe
preeminenceofthechurchinRome(Peterfoundedit).
Council of Nicea showed no evidence of papal supremacy.
Butinthe4thcentury,asenseemergedthatRomewasthe
"court of appeals" for many churches in the West.
Problems concerning local bishops were referred there.
Underscore this point for Protestant apologetics! All
churchlifeandrealityfloweddownfromthepopetothe
church;hewasconsideredthe"head"ofthechurchbody.
Churchderivesitsessentiallifefromthepope.Serveda
helpfulfunctiontothechurch,initially,asa"courtof
appeal."
Theformaldevelopmentofthepapacy: Valentinianin445
issuedadecreedeclaringthepopetobe"first"inthe
church,injudicialandlegislativematters.Decreevalid
only in the West, and only with clear understanding of
popeassubservienttoemperor.Therewasalsoadecline
ofpoliticalimperialpresenceintheWest.FallofRoman
(Western)Empireusuallygivenas476,thoughnoonesaw
itatthetime;revivalofRomaninfluencein6thcentury
whenJustiniancameintopower.EasternRomanEmpirefell
in 1453, which is long after 476. Long, slow decline,
gradual shrinking. Profound sense of being the
continuation of the Roman Empire. Bishops of Eastern
Orthodox Church under emperor's authority during this
wholeperiod."Caesareopapism"=Caesarispope,thehead
of the church. Hierarchical authority with emperor on
top. Russian Orthodox Church carries out this same
pattern;theCzarisontop. Russiansdevelopedmythof
thethird"translatioimperii,"translationoftheempire,

thus continuation of the Roman Empire. Bishops

subservient to the Czar. Church was illequipped to
defenditselfagainstcommunismin1917.RussianOrthodox
Church wants to reassert itself now; doesn't welcome
Protestant missionaries. Back to collapse of imperial
presenceintheWestatthisearlydate(476)...entirely
different churchstate relationship emerges in the West.
Under pressure of barbarian invaders (those who don't
speakLatinwell),onlycivilizinginfluenceandspiritual
identification that survives...is the pope as leader of
Christianity. The barbarian tribes are evangelized and
recognizedthepopeasfocusofpowerandcontinuitywith
the past. New emerging political power in the West
doesn'thavesensethatitbroughtChristianityintothe
empireandlegalizedit. (NotecontrastwithConstantine
and Theodosius.) Pope crowned the emperor. Theme in
middleages:whoisreallyontopinWesternChristianity
societyemperor or pope? Popes argue that they're in
charge;emperorsarguefortheirownsupremacy!Popemade
claims for himself in the face of a Western political
vacuum, claims that would have been unthinkable in the
East.
LeotheGreat(440461),RomanPope. Finetheologianin
thechristologicalcontroversy.Beginstoarticulatehigh
view of pope's role. Argument for papacy similar to
Cyprian's argument for the general office of bishop.
Becomesstandardargumentinthemiddleages.Anticipates
laterclaimsofpapalpower.Peterwaspastorandprince
ofwholechurch,andsoarehissuccessors,accordingto
thisview. Firstamongbishops,commoncareofuniversal
church, "plenitude (fullness) of power." All spiritual
poweronearthsupposedlyderivedfrompope. Leoclaimed
thatobediencetothepopenecessaryforsalvation.Other
bishops in Leo's time wouldn't have granted his points,
norwouldanyoftheEasternchurcheshavelookedtohim
for this sort of leadership. East and West weren't
divideduntil1054. NotevenalloftheWestrecognized
Leo'sclaims.ChurchinGaulquiteindependent.
Increasing communication problems after dissolution of
Eastern empire. Tensions increased. Late in 5th
centuryincident where Pope Felix II excommunicated
patriarchofConstantinople,whothenanathematizedhim.
Last great bishop in ancient period = Gregory the First
(590604). BorninwealthyRomanfamily;civilservice,
then monastic life. Papal representative in

Constantinople prior to being bishop. Believed himself

too physically weak for his new responsibilities. He
exercisedgreaterpowerthananyRomanbishopbeforehim,
butdidn'tmakepapalclaimsthatLeomade.Moreinclined
toseepatriarchaloligarchy(asopposedtomonarchy)at
headofchurch.Didn'tseehimselfassoleauthority,but
one patriarch among others. Interesting debate between
Gregory and patriarch of Constantinople, who claimed for
himself the title "ecumenical patriarch." "Ecumenical"
meant universal, first among equals. Gregory not happy
withsuchaclaim;anyoneclaimingtobeuniversalbishop
must be the antichrist, he claimed! Gregory declared
himself instead "the servant of the servants of God."
"Humblerthanthou"competition!Notethegradualriseof
thepapacyatthistime.
What are the emerging differences between Eastern and
Western churches? Introduction here to Augustine, most
influentialsingletheologianforancientchurchinWest.
HehadalmostnoinfluenceontheEasternchurch,however.
Remarkable division was taking place theologically.
AugustinesetsagendaforWesternchurch.What'sgoingon
theologically?
Wheredotheyagree?Someareasofecclesiology:
(1)TheSpiritistobefoundinthechurch,rather
thaninsomecharismaticgroupoutsidethechurch,or
merelyintheindividual.
(2)Thechurchiswherethebishopis.
(3)ThetruthisfoundintheScripture,thecanonof
thechurch.
(4)ThereisasignificantbreakwithancientJewish
roots;Christianityinsomesense"dehistoricized,"
lost its eschatological dimension. More focus on
eschatologyoftheindividual,ratherthanreturnof
Christ. Church becomes an eternal, unchanging
institution.

The following are suggested in the analysis of Heiko

Oberman,ahistorian:

(1) MoremeditativeChristianityintheEast,union
ofmindsbetweenmanandGod. Crusading(activist)
approach in the West; Christianity will reshape the
world.
(2) East tends to focus on God as transcendent
source of being. West stresses God as ruler and
governor;notonlyisthechurchmoreactiveinthe
world,soisGod.
(3) MoretalkofdeificationinEast,imitationof
ChristinWest.
(4) Eastern liturgy stresses glorification of God,
Western stresses service to God. Few changes in
Easternliturgyduringtheyear.
(5) The focus of the central redemptive event in
Christ's work differs. East focuses on the
incarnation, West on crucifixion. "God became man
that man might become 'god'" = Anselm's summary of
East;focusisonbeing.
(6) Theresultofallthis...Easterntheologymore
speculative or contemplative, Western more
authoritative (what's right?let's enforce it).
Eastern theologians fascinated with christology and
theology (trinity). Western theologians fascinated
with soteriology and ecclesiology. Note how
denominational names even reflect these tendencies:
Congregationalists,Presbyterians,Episcopalians.
Augustine
ThesedifferencesculminateinAugustine. Hedoeswrite
an important treatise on the trinity (which we don't
read). We remember him for the story of his own
conversion(Confessions),hisbattleagainstDonatistsand
Pelagianism. HedrawstogethertheWesterntraditionand
refocuses it. Future Western theology is basically an
interactionwithAugustine,atleastuntilthiscentury.
Views about Augustine: Linked classical and Christian
ways of thinking in most effective synthesis.
Quintessentialancienttheologian. Founderofthemiddle
ages, in his views of churchstate and sacramental
theology. Father of the Reformation in his views about
sinandgrace. Sartrecalledhimthe"firstmodernman"

(introspective).
Bornin354inThagastenearCarthage,NorthAfrica,into
Latin speaking upper part of society. Roman presence
there was colonial. His father was important and
influential; pagan but converted near death. Mother
Monica was Christian. Parents agreed that he should
receiveafineeducationduetohisbrilliantmind.
AugustinecelebrateshismotherintheConfessions. She
hasbeenseenasagreatwomanofprayer;devotedtoher
son and prayed earnestly for his conversion. Typical
mother,too,whowantedhersontogetaheadintheworld;
nottakenwithmonasticism.WantedAugustinetomarryand
givehergrandchildren.Simplewoman,nogreateducation.
Augustine entered elite intellectual circle in ancient
world; despised his mother as a teenager. Decided
Christianitywasfinefor"commoners"likehismother,but
hewastooeducatedforit,hethought.Hewasespecially
moved by reading Cicero. Intellectual of that day saw
Ciceroasagreatphilosopher.Wethinkofhimasagreat
orator. His Latin was pure and compelling, combining
wisdomandeloquence.Aestheticattractiontoreadinghis
work, like reading poetry. Reinforced Augustine's
prejudices. Cicero's Hortensius motivatedAugustine,but
that work has been lost. Augustine drawn into
worldliness. At age 18, he took a concubine, a common
procedureinthatday.
AugustinejoinedtheManicheesinlateteensinthemidst
ofhisimmoralityandintellectualpursuits. Counterfeit
Christianityfounded3rdcenturybyMani,claimingtobea
prophet. Really a Persian Gnostic. Dualism in this
scheme:faithandknowledge.Claimedtogivehigher,more
profoundknowledge. IntellectualpridedrewAugustineto
Manicheism. Radical determinism, too; everything
determined and cannot be changed. All of history an
outworking of the fight between good and evil, "sons of
light" and "daughters of darkness." Two classes of
Christians:(1)"high"classledrigidlyasceticlife(no
marriage), and (2) those leading morally lax life.
Augustinechosethelatter. Sawintellectualproblemsin
thedualism,hadlotsofquestions.Finally,in383(age
29), he met leading Manichean of his day, Faustus.
Disillusioned with the answers. Faustus couldn't give
helpfulanswerstohisquestions.
Augustine broke with Manichees and entered period of

skepticism.Deepsuspicionofintellectualsandclaimsto
higher knowledge. Came to conviction of need to
distinguish sapientia (wisdom) and scientia (knowledge).
Manyhaveknowledgebutlackwisdom. Othershavelittle
knowledgebutmuchwisdom(likehismother,whohebegan
to appreciate). Most important matters are not
necessarilyamatterofacquiringlearning.
Augustinehadstudiedtoberhetorician.Decidedtoteach
rhetoric.In383,heleftNorthAfricatosailforRome,
thenontoMilanwherehetaughtcommunication.Skeptical
about whether there is real truth to communicate. He
begins to read Plato and come out of skeptical period.
Platodevotedtopursuitoftruth. OppositeofManichee
approach, rejecting dualism. New intellectual
stimulation.BecomesPlatonist.
At the same time, he goes back to church. In Milan,
bishop Ambrose is great preacher, also a Platonist.
Resonates with Augustine's new intellectual interest.
Ambrosewaswelleducatedandcultured.BeingaChristian
doesn'tmeanbeingantiintellectualorunsophisticated.
In386,whilereadingbothScripturesandPlato,Augustine
isconverted. RecordedeloquentlyinConfessions. He's
reading Athanasius in a garden. Then picks up Romans
13:14,"putontheLordJesusChristandmakenoprovision
fortheflesh."
Three definite dimensions to Augustine's conversion;
parallelsJustinMartyr'sexperience:
(1) Intellectual,comingtobelieveasamatterof
themindthatwhatChristianitysaysistrue. This
camebeforethegardenexperience. Hewasconvinced
ofthetruth,butdidn'tthinkhecouldliveitout.
(2) Moral conversion came in the garden. Finds
moralstrengthtoleadachastelife.
(3) Sacramental conversion; baptized on Saturday
night before Easter in next year. Augustine's
language shows that he considers this to be his
primaryconversionexperience. Hebelievedthat you
becomeaChristianbybeingbaptized (alongwiththe
othertwoelements). Thisisin some senseinline
withthegreatcommission.

In the study of history, we need to be sensitive to

conventional ways of speaking and how these are used to
describe individual experiences. In distinguishing
intellectual, moral, and sacramental aspects to his
conversion,Augustineusesconventionallanguage.Refined
in middle ages: change of mind, change of will, and
change of relationship to the body of Christ
(corresponding to the three aspects). The mind was
understood to be perfected in the intellect by faith.
Faith was understood as knowledge and assent. The will
was understood to be perfected by love. Love was
describedasaformoffaith.Faithandlovewereseento
makeapersonaChristian. Protestantismmakesaradical
breakhere;justificationisbyfaithalone.Thisdoesn't
mean justified by the intellect alone, as Catholics may
accuse. Theelementoftrust(fiducia)isemphasizedas
anaspectoffaith. Discussionsrevolvedaroundwhether
faithwasprimarilyanactionofthemind,ofanactionof
thewill;itcan'tbereducedtoeitherone. Becareful
not to confuse the Reformation doctrine of justification
byfaith.Thereisamoralchangeinherentinconversion,
even though we are not justified by a moral change.
Conversion is increasingly emphasized, rather than
justification, thus confusion in how we are right with
God. Conversion became a synonym for sanctification in
the middle ages. Conversion is a change of life that
flows out of faith. Reformers didn't minimize its
importance. There'saseriousrisktodayinspeakingof
"conversion"ratherthandistinguishingjustificationand
sanctification. Thedistinctionisobscuredbytheterm
"conversion," which encompasses a moral change. The
distinction between Roman Catholicism and evangelicalism
is likewise obscured. Our justification is not in a
changeofthemind,orachangeofthewill,oranymoral
improvement, but in faith, a trust that rests in Christ
alone.
AtwhatpointdidAugustinereallygetsaved? Augustine
would say at his baptism (387), the last of the three
aspects.Manywouldputitatthesecond(moral)stage
RomanCatholics. Whataboutsomeearlierpoint,priorto
his being able to lead a moral life. Sometimes people
don'trightlyunderstandtheirownexperience.
In 388, Augustine returned to Africa after his mother's
death. Ordained there in 391 as priest, in 395
consecratedasBishopofHippo,whichheremainsuntilhis
deathin430.

Earliest writings show strong Platonic dimension of his

thinking. He speaks of God with platonic vocabulary:
unity, simplicity, spirituality of God. Stresses
importance of the spiritual, in a way that undervalues
thisearthlylife. Platonicepistemology: realtruthis
notlearnedthroughthesenses.Hisviewoftimeisalso
platonic: "chronos" (duration, decay, and change) is a
result of the fall (no time prior to the fall). In
platonicthought,changeisrelatedtodecay;thetimeless
iswhatistrueandimportant.(Didn'tholdtothe6day
literal view of creation.) Offered an interesting
illustration: think of the concept of beautyit's a
timeless, changeless thing. Cultivation of the soul is
important;thebodywilldecay.Viewofevilisrelated.
Platonism wants to overcome dualismbetween spirit and
matter,orgoodandevil. Sowheredoesevilcomefrom,
ifitisn'teternal?Christianplatonistsarguethatevil
isnot,it'samovementawayfromthefullnessofbeing.
C.S.Lewisfallsintothiscategory,asinhisbook, The
Great Divorce. Evil is seen as destructive, though not
anythinginitself,becauseittendsawayfrombeing.
Augustine'sthinkingchangesovertime,awayfromavery
spiritualizing platonism to a more biblical realism.
There'sasceneintheConfessionswherehestealspears
(Book 2). In Book 1, he describes his sin as seeking
pleasure,nobility,andtruthoutsideofGodinthethings
Godcreated;evilfortheplatonistis"disorderedlove."
Sawnothingwronginthepursuitoftruthandsuchperse,
butthesinwasinseekingtheseawayfromGod.Platonist
says we are always motivated by love; but we love the
wrongthings,orwelovesomethingtoomuch. There'san
elementoftruthinthis.Book2:"nothiefbearscalmly
beingstolenfrom." Goodlineagainstrelativemorality!
GodhasleftawitnesstoHimselfoneveryheart.
Backtothepears: Pearsareagoodthing,butwhenyou
steal them, you allow your love for pears to become
greater than your love for God. This is the platonic
view. But Augustine's thinking took a turn here; it
wasn'tthathelovedthepears,butratherthanhewanted
tosin,todosomethingforbidden.Hestolesomethinghe
already had in abundance. Breaks with platonism here.
The problem of our sin is deeper, more profound and
mysterious, than the platonic view; it has a radical
character.

AugustinewroteabookofRetractionsneartheendofhis
life,recognizingthathehadbecomeinfluentialbutthat
histhinkinghadchangedanddeveloped.
Another platonic element in Augustine is the distinction
hedrawsbetween frui (toenjoy)and uti (touse). What
are we to enjoy, and what are we to use, in this life?
ChristianistoenjoyonlyGod,andcreaturescreatedin
His image. To "enjoy" is to regard as having ultimate
value.Therestofcreationisusedtosupportthataim.
ThisisthewayAugustinethoughtthroughhispriorities.
FallenmanusesGodtoenjoytheworld;thebelieveruses
theworldtoenjoyGod.Thisworldistheultimatevalue
totheunbeliever.Christianviewistheopposite!Note
the WSC questionman's chief purpose is to glorify God
andenjoyHimforever. Godisthehighesttreasure,the
highestvalue,thesupremegood. Psalm73:25offeredis
the footnote for this in WSC; psalmist initially envied
thesuccessoftheungodly,thenrealizeshiserror.
Augustine's whole realm of thought is Christian and
platonic; we don't have "two Augustines." He embraced
bothaboutthesametime. Foundplatonismahelpfulway
to express his Christianity, although he later discarded
manyelementsofit.
Augustine was a pastor, preaching every week, not a
theologian locked up in the library. Operated from a
pastoral perspective, for example in his opposition to
DonatismandPelagianism.
Modern psychologists (yuk) have had their look at
Augustine. Not helpful or useful! Imposes erroneous
presuppositionsontherecord.

Augustine'sConfessions
Sartre called Augustine the first modern man due to the
introspectivequalityandselfanalysisinthisdocument.
Nothingelselikeitinearlierhistory.ManyseeRomans

7asanintrospectivestruggle. Butasalengthywork,
Augustine's work is without parallel in ancient history.
It'saspiritualautobiography.It'saprayer,adialogue
withGod.It'saconfessionofbothsinsandfaith.Also
apologetic,attemptingtodrawpeoplealongthesamepath.
Before speaking of his own conversion, he speaks of
conversion of Victorinus (Book 8), told to God's glory.
It'salsothefirstofAugustine'sretractions. Earlier,
he took a stronger view of man's free will. He has a
growingunderstandingofsovereigngrace.Treasuredasan
insightintothemind,life,andtheologyofAugustine.
It begins with a prayer of praise. Wellknown words:
"YouhavemadeusforYourself(directedtowardGod),and
our hearts are restless until they rest in You."
Apologeticobservationhere. Augustinewrestleswiththe
questionofhowwemovetowardGod,therelationbetween
God and self. He wants us to meditate with him about
comingtoknowGod;he'spreaching.Henotestheadequate
testimony of God, even in his youth, although he turned
awayfromGodatthattime.HearguesmuchlikeRomans1
aboutGod'scleartestimony,whichinhissinherejected.
Book 2: he recounts his sin so that God might be
glorified and made more lovely, not to relive it.
ContinuesthethemeofGod'switnesstohim,eventhrough
his sin. Worldly pleasures were fleeting, always
containedsomebitterness.
Book7:talksofbeingfinallydrawntoGod,priortothe
event in the garden. He finally had come to love God,
longforGodbutnostablerelation. Hekeptreturning
tohisoldlifeand"carnalhabit."
There's not a lot about Christ in this book, and His
mediatorialwork.Thisisacriticismthathasbeenmade.
However,Augustineisdefinitelytrinitarian,andhedoes
speak of embracing the Mediator (Book 8). Beautiful
reflectionofthemediatorialworkofChristhere.
ThemesinAugustine'sTheology
1. Authority: Belief precedes understanding. Belief
must be founded on something known. Scripture is the
authority,thesourceofwhatweknowandshouldbelieve.
IntimatelyacquaintedwithScriptureandfrequentlycites
it.

What about church's authority and tradition, in relation

to the Scripture? Augustine wrote: "I would not have
believed,unlesstheauthorityoftheCatholicChurchhad
moved me." Roman Church uses this statement to support
its position that the authority of Scripture depends on
the authority of the church. Scripture made sense to
Augustine through the teaching of Ambrose. Catholics
argue that the church gives you the Scripture and is
thereforetherealauthority.Augustineseemstovalidate
this view. Often misquoted as "the Catholic Church
compelledme"insteadof"movedme."Usedtojustifythe
Inquisition. Church developed forms of torture to
suppress theological error! Augustine's point wasn't to
talk of fundamental authority, but rather help in
understanding. The church helps to teach and interpret
theScriptureProtestantview!
"Church" to a Roman Catholic: teaching authority of
popes, priests, bishops, and the like. "Church" to a
Protestant:moregeneralsense,moreinformal.Augustine
wasprobablythinkingoftheinstitutionalchurchwithits
members and office bearers, but their authority was
ministerial and teaching, not above the Scripture's
authority.
Canon: Catholicssaythatthechurchtellsuswhatthe
canonis.Theyclaimthat"solascriptura"can'ttellyou
what the canon is. Augustine, On Christian Doctrine,
doesn'tsaythatthecanonisestablishedbythepopeora
council, but you study the issue in light of decisions
madebyotherchurches,Christiansinavarietyofplaces.
NotaCatholicanswer!
2. FreeWillandPredestination: ForAugustine,"will"
(morethanreason)isatthecenterandheartandfocusof
whoahumanbeingis,theessenceofman.Thewillisthe
last obstacle to the grace of God; reflects his own
experience. He was intellectually convinced before his
willwasengagedinlivingoutGod'swill.Heseessinas
groundedinthewill. Oneofhisfirstworkswas Onthe
Freedom of Choice (390). Basic argument is that even
fallenmanhasawill;notaclassicPelagianorArminian
argument. Man makes choices, not compelled by external
forces.Hesawgracemoreasateacherofthewillrather
than a healer of the willat first. As he reflects
further,heseesthewillbentinonitself,needingtobe
stretchedouttowardGod,inordertoloveGodratherthan
being in love with self. His understanding of grace

deepens.ThencomesthePelagiancontroversy!
Pelagius: British monk who lived awhile in Rome,
seriouslyoffendedbydeclineinChristianliving.Wanted
tostressmoralresponsibilityandmoralability.Whenhe
readAugustine,hebelievedhewasunderminingmoralityby
claimingthatGod'sgracewasneededinordertoobeyHis
commands. Pelagiusbelievedyouhadtotellpeoplethat
theywereabletorespondtothecall,orthey'dhavean
excuse not to listen. Defended orthodox views on the
Trinityandchristology. WhenAugustinebecameawareof
Pelagiancriticisms,hewrotegentlyagainstthoseviews.
Pelagiusmadeasharpresponse,OnNature;arguedthatman
has a natural ability to obey God, quoting some other
earlyfathers(includingAugustine).Attemptedtomarshal
the history of the church against Augustine, evoking
Augustine'sconsiderableanger. Augustine(415)wrote On
NatureandGraceinresponse.
Pelagius: Focuses on man as created with moral
obligationstoGodandabilitytoavoidsin.Opposed
toeveryformofdeterminism.Theabilitytoremain
sinlessisitselfagiftofgrace.ThusPelagiuscan
sayyouaresavedbygrace. (Theologicaltermsare
tricky!)Whatkindofgrace? Wheneveranyonetalks
aboutcreationandgrace,runscreamingfromtheroom
withfingersinyourears!!!(Ifyou'reverystrong,
remainandhitthemwithastick.) Manyerrorsin
the history of the church, and in 20th century
theology, too, run amuck because of confusing grace
withcreation. GraceisGod'sresponsetosin. In
creation, God is good, kind, condescending, but
strictlyspeakingnotgracious.
Pelagiusarguesthattolosethisabilitywouldbeto
loseourbasichumanity. Everygenerationbornwith
the same ability intact as Adam was created with.
Divided history into three period: Adam, Moses,
Christ:
(1) Adam to Moses = time of nature. Adam
providedabadexample,butdoesn'ttransmithis
sintoanyoneelse;thatwouldbedeterministic.
Peopleareinfluencedonlybyexample. Claims
that Scriptures offers examples of sinless
people:Abel,Noah,Melchiz,Abraham,Job.
(2) Moses to Christ = time of law. Human

corruptionhadincreasedbecauseignorancewasa
habitandpeopledidn'tavoidthebadexamples
aroundthem.Lawgiventodirecttheirability,
andwasanactofgrace.
(3) Christforward=timeofgrace. Sinhad
become so pervasive; Christ provides helps so
thatwemightmoreeasilyobeythelaw.Christ
is above all a teacher, redeeming us from
ignorance. Pays penalty of the sins we've
committed; a little bit of Christ's passive
obediencehere. PelagiusknowsnothingofHis
active obedience, however. Christ helps deal
withyourpastproblem.Graceisnotinfusedor
internal, not even necessary in this system.
Predestination is God's foreknowledge of merit
we will acquire. Infant baptism was well
established and used by Augustine against
Pelagius;whywoulditbenecessaryifwewere
notbornsinful?

Augustine argues that the will must be changed in order

formantodoright.ItmustberestoredbyGod,whoacts
in grace to change the will. Grace is an internal
activity by God, where we are sovereignly renewed. The
questionarises: onwhatbasisdoesGodrenewsomebut
notothers? Augustinedevelopsthedoctrineofelection.
He doesn't deal explicitly with reprobation, but it's
implicit in what he's saying. First well developed
doctrineofpredestinationsincePaul.Notwelldeveloped
orunderstoodearlier. OnereasonthatAugustinebecomes
suchacentralfigureinWesterntheology.
3. Sacraments: Augustine didn't say enough here...he
said "too much" (!) on predestination for medieval
theologians. Communion of the saints: or is it the
communionofholythings?CouldbeeitherinLatin.What
is the character of the church? Is it the church as
fellowship,thepeopleofGod?Orthemoreorganizational
level of the church, specially the sacraments, offices,
structure? Augustine not very clear; his definition of
thechurchisn'tclear.Agreeswithancientthinkingthat
outside the church there is no salvation. There is
continuingproblemwiththeDonatistsandtheirseparation
duetothesupposedapostasyofchurchleaders.Theywere
schismatic(sinagainstlove),notheretical(sinagainst

error). Schismwasregardedasmostserious;schismatics
regardedasoutsidethechurchandthereforenotsaved.
But there were some fine Christian people among the
Donatists.Augustinewantedtothinkitthrough,however.
Heapprovedofusingforceagainstthem,butthatwasn't
happening universally. Was there another way of
reflecting on the issue? Developed distinction between
the visible and invisible church (attacked in this
century). Distinctionhasbeenabusedinmanyways,but
is indispensable theological category. The invisible
churchisallofthosewhoaretrulyconnectedtoChrist.
Not every member of the visibleinstitutional church is
trulysaved. Youcouldnevergetanexactidentification
of invisible and visible churches. Note how Paul
addresses the church at Corinth, even though later he
admonishes them to put out an immoral person. Normally
there is a judgment of charity. Important pastorally;
whatdoyouassume?AllChristians,mostnot?
But...howdowedrawtherelationship? Istheinvisible
church exclusivelywithin thevisiblechurch? Theremay
bejustatinylittlebitoftheinvisiblechurchoutside
thevisiblechurch.
Donatistbaptism: Wasitvalid? Distinctionoftenmade
between a sacrament that is regular (according to the
rules)andonethatisvalid.Youmightbreakafewrules
yet have a valid sacrament; how many? Donatist baptism
was irregular. Received tradition said it was valid
although irregular. Didn't need repetition if Donatist
joinedCatholicChurch. Augustinereasonedthatiftheir
baptismwasindeedvalid,wecan'tsaythattheDonatists
arenottrulylinkedtoChrist.Hethuscontemplatedthat
could be some genuine believers outside the visible
church.
Augustine stressed the importance of sacraments,
particularlybaptism. Heemphasizesrelationshipbetween
preaching and sacraments, also distinction between the
sign and the power of the sacrament. It's possible to
havethesignwithoutthepower. Healsoreversesthis;
faith is essential to the power of the sacrament. No
mechanical working. Medieval critics say this is too
spiritualized; they hold a realistic view, placing the
powerinthesignitself,"exopereoperata."Gracecomes
with the sign unless actively resisted, according to
medievalview.

Calvin'sviewissimilartoAugustineonthesacraments.
Augustine didn't want to diminish the ministry of the
visible church. He saw the sacraments and preaching as
crucial.(Somegotoextremesandclaimthatformalismis
the problem; invisible church mostly outside visible
church. Profoundly unbiblical.) He said: "Rome has
spoken;thematterissettled"(aboutPelagianism).Late:
"Christ has spoken; the matter is settled" when Rome
disagreedwithhim. Noconsistentexpression. SawRoman
bishopasworthyofgreathonor;listenwhenhesaysthe
rightthing,butlistentoChristwhenhesaysthewrong
thing.
AugustineandDonatism
Donatismwasbornfromaconcernthatthechurchhadbeen
corrupted by a compromise with apostasy; wanted to
maintainpuritybyseparation. Butthelabel"Donatism"
comes to mean something different. As a theological
category,itmeansthatthevalidityofachurchandits
sacraments depends on the spirituality of its ministers.
Existence of church rests on the holiness of its
ministers. The term "Donatist" is used in a negative
sense when occasionally used today. The historical and
theological terms differ. The theological category is
incorrect; the validity of your baptism doesn't rest on
thespiritualconditionoftheministerwhoperformedit.
You might not even know, especially if baptized in
infancy.

4.SemiPelagianism:Augustineabsolutelytriumphedover
Pelagianism, a denial of original sin and the absolute
necessity for grace for salvation. Middle ages clearly
taught that all (except perhaps Mary) are born with the
stain of original sin. Solid defeat of Pelagius was
maintained in centuries to come. However, more subtle
argumentswereraised,asoftenhappens.
1. FocusofSemiPelagianismwas: doesfallenman
haveanabsoluteinabilitytodoanygoodinrelation
to his salvation? They say yes, man can do some
good;somesayalot,somesayalittle. Augustine
saidno!
2. A second issue was the exact understanding of
predestination. Is election purely a sovereign act
ofGod'swill,notdependentonanythingHefindsor

foreknowsinman?OrisHischoicedependentonwhat
He foresees in man? Augustine says election is
unconditional. SemiPelagiansdisagreed. Augustine
wrote: On Predestination of the Saints; Gift of
Perseverance.
Some SemiPelagians disagreed about the title of their
position,becausePelagiuswascondemnedasaheretic,and
thusthematterwasprejudged.Thisraisestheproblemof
labeling, a crucial part of the way we see the world.
Labels may blind us, or may be a helpful aid to seeing
reality.What'sunderatheologicallabel?
John Cassian = one SemiPelagian (360435). Monk from
EasternchurchwhofoundedmonasteriesinsouthernFrance.
Monks often had trouble with Augustine; much Semi
Pelagianism.Cassianstressedtherealityandseriousness
ofsin.Thesinnerisdeeplyandseriouslywounded;needs
God'shelptodoanygood. Maintainedaplaceforhuman
freedomofwill,however.HesaidthateitherGodorman
may initiate the process of salvation: Paul (God
initiated); Zaccheus (sought out Jesus himself). Only
graceconsummatessalvation,notthemeritofourworks.
Cassian wanted to avoid fatalism or determinism;
encouragedmoralresponsibilityandtheworkofpreachers
incallingforaction.
BishopFaustus (southernGaul)in5thcenturywasanother
SemiPelagian. Hesaidmanmustmakethefirstmovement
toward God. Grace is more an external encouragement to
exercisethefreedomofthewill. JesusconfrontedPaul
onlyexternally;Paulhadtoactandrespond.
VoiceswerealsoraisedindefenseofAugustine,inlate
ancientchurchandthroughmedievalperiod. Theybecame
moreaminorityvoicelater.OnegreatonewasProsperof
Aquitane,significantin5thcentury. Anotherwas Bishop
Fulgentius of Ruspa (North Africa); defended Augustine's
viewofgrace. (SinceCouncilofTrent,it'shardtobe
AugustinianandRomanCatholicatthesametime.)
Eastern church somewhat indifferent and uninformed.
AugustinewroteinLatinandknewlittleGreek.Easthas
noclearstatementaboutoriginalsin.
CouncilofOrange529
Westernreflectiontheseissuescomestoaculminationin
theCouncilofOrange(France)in529.Localcouncil,not

ecumenical. Its decisions were widely revered in the

West;approvedbyRomanbishop. StrongdefeatforSemi
Pelagians; quite Augustinian. They make clear that
without God's grace there can be no motion toward God.
Man can't take the initiative, can't do any good apart
from grace. Not only necessity of grace, but also its
priority is affirmed. Not so clear and full about
predestination. Problem: it was believed that baptism
bringsgrace,buteveryoneinthatcontextwasbaptizedas
aninfant.Soperhapstheydidn'taffirmmuchafterall.
Functional Pelagianism can come roaring back. All
theologiansinmiddleagesclaimedtobeAugustinian,at
leastformally,butthisviewofthesacramentspresented
aproblem.
Augustine'sCityofGod
Culmination of his labors, regarded by many as his
greatest work. In August of 410, Rome was occupied by
barbarian troops under pagan Alaric; the city of sacked
androbbed. ThiswasahugeshocktotheRomanempire,
whichalthoughithaditsupsanddowns,hadneverbeen
successfully attacked in this manner at its capital.
People had assumed that Rome would always be dominant
worldpower,thatthingswouldgoindefinitelyasinthe
past. Traumatic experience for entire empire, as if
someone today sacked Washington D.C. Much commentary
aboutwhatwentwrongandhowitcouldbesetright.One
frequent pagan comment was that Christianity was
destroying the empire. "We never had these problems in
the good old days when we were pagan." Accused
Christianity of destroying their morals. They assumed
thattheir"gods"wereangryatthechange,andthusthe
problems. Pagans had long warned that the "gods" would
punish Rome for its neglect. Believed Christianity
underminedthewelfareoftheempire. Thebestoftheir
youthwerebecomingmonksinsteadofservinginthearmy;
worldrenouncingmentality,neglectingempire'swelfare.
Meanwhile, Christians were confused, wondering how God
could let this happen. The empire had become Christian
and anticipated the Lord's blessings. Roman was
collection of the nations of the world, they thought;
promisetoAbrahamfulfilledthere. Profoundquestionas
to whether Christianity would survive if the empire
collapsedandbarbarianstookover.Inthemidstofthese
questions,AugustinewroteTheCityofGod.
Thisworkbecomesalmostanencyclopediaofancientworld.

Brevitywasnoparticularvirtue. LotsofRomanhistory.
Arguments wandered here and therenot linear! Composed
of22books(chapters). Writtenbetween413and426,so
ittookawhile.
First10booksarepolemicreplytothepaganchallengeto
Christianity. Last 12 books talk about the nature of
human history, giving a theology of history. Preface
speaksofhisintentions. Thelastpartbecomesa"tale
of two cities." Understanding the City of God involves
contrasting it with the city of this world. Augustine
reviewstheoriginsofthetwoandtheircourseonearth,
thenultimatedestinyofeach.
First 10 books are apologetic. Not an entirely logical
polemic,butrhetorical,turningpaganargumentsontheir
heads.Forexample:
1. Christianvirtueshavenotunderminedthestate,
becausethesevirtuesarethesameaspaganvirtues.
Pagans understood something of civic virtues, which
are not abandoned when one becomes a Christian.
Christiansliveuptotheirvirtues,wherepagansdo
not.
2. What destroys Rome is not Christian virtue but
pagan vice. Connects with pagan history of
criticizing the vices of Rome. Cleverly turns the
argument.
3. There'ssomethingmoretoChristianvirtuethan
to pagan virtue. There's more to life than civic
life,morethanjustthisworldandpreservationof
theRomanempire. Christianvirtuebuildsnotonly
civicwellbeingonearth,butalsoaneternalcity.
WemustlookbeyondthefortunesofRome,recognizing
something more important than Rome: eternity. This
argument would resonate with many pagans, such as
platonists.
Thushebeginstospeakofthetwocities. Mankindwas
createdasunited,withtaskofbuildingeternalcitynot
two different cities. When sin entered, there were two
competingcities: Cain(earthlycity)vs.Abel(eternal
city).Builtbytwodifferentkindsoflove:loveofGod
eventocontemptofself(eternalcity)vs.loveofself
eventocontemptofGod(earthlycity). Jerusalemisa
typeofcityofGod,Babylonatypeoftheworldlycity.

Ultimatelytherewillbeseparationandjudgment.Angelic
members already separated, not coexisting. When Christ
returns in judgment, this eternal separation will take
place and each person will belong to one or the other.
Presently, the two cities are mingled together.
Development and progress is to the eye of man often
indistinguishable;Godisabletodistinguish. Ambiguity
results; difficulty living in the present world.
Augustine holds amillennial view of history here; wheat
and weeds grow together and we can't pluck out weeds
withoutpluckingwheat,too.
How do the city of man and city of God coexist in a
fallenworld? EverygenerationofChristianshadhadto
face this question, often in quite different
circumstances. Insecondcentury,theyfacedpersecution
and were interested in survival. In middle ages,
everybody was a baptized member of the church; what was
properbalanceofrelationsbetweenchurchandstate? We
stillwrestlewiththequestioninthe20thcentury.What
is proper influence of the church in the world
environment? How do we respond to abortion,
homosexuality?Towhatextentdoweattempttoimposeour
valuesonunbelievers?Whataboutpubliceducation?What
aretheresponsibilitiesofsocietyingeneraltomatters
likepoverty,unemployment,andsuch?
Augustine wrote just after Christianity had become the
official religion of the empire, yet while there were
stillinfluentialpaganthinkers. Hebeginswithapoint
ofcontact,withthewaysinfulmanhatesequalitybefore
Godandattemptstoimposehissovereigntyonhisfellow
man.HeprefershisownunjustpeacetoGod'sjustpeace.
Wegenerallyagreethatpeaceorderstabilityisagoal
oppositeofanarchy,chaos.Thatpeacemustberelatedto
justice.Ideasofjusticediffer,butallwouldlikesome
measure of peace. We must try to make common cause in
terms of our purely human living. Diversity of customs
canbeappreciatedandmaintained. Distinguishesbetween
divinereligiouslevel,wheretherecanbenocooperation,
and the humancivil level, where there can be such
cooperation. Justice is the center and focus of that
cooperation. Itisthebasisforpeace. Butultimately
thereisnojusticewherethereisnorecognitionofGod.
Justiceisnotanabstractconceptcomingoutofnowhere.
It must ultimately rest on religious values and virtue.
Anycivilcommunitymadeofpaganswhorejectobedienceto
God...can't have true justice. There is some apparent

justice in this world, but no real justice. Without

recognition of God in civil community, there is no real
justice, but only appearance with no depth or staying
power. Practically,whereChristianshavenoopportunity
to overturn apparent justice, there isn't true justice.
True justice is only possible with the true God. The
state is the central institution responsible for peace,
justice, and order...but the state needs a foundation,
namely, true religion. Theonomy sounds like this in a
formalway,butthereisamajordifference.Theonomyhas
afundamentallydifferentperspective;shortcircuitsthe
wholeissuebyreassertingthelawofMosesasextensively
as possible, particularly the penal code. Completely
differenthermeneutic.
Thestateisnotanendinitself,notcompleteinitself.
Itisfulfilledinreligion. Directscitizenstoamore
profoundrealitythanitself. InGodfrey'sdiagram,it's
very easy to substitute "church" for "religion." There
are remnants of the medieval view (linking church and
statetogether)eventoday,forexample,inEnglandwhere
themonarchvowstodefendthefaith. Increasingefforts
weremade,attimeof"Enlightenment,"tobasethestate
onreasoninsteadofreligion,toeliminatereligiouswars
and conflicts. It seemed easy to separate church and
state, at least formally, but not so easy to remove
religious issues from the realm of politics and general
culturalvalues.LookattensionsinAmericathepast20
years!Theonomyseemstooffera"quickfix"andthushas
appeal;seemstoofferstraightforwardbiblicalanswersto
complexissues.
The church comes the closest in this world to
approximatingtheCityofGod,thoughitdeviatesinsome
ways. The state may approximate the City of God if it
seekstohonorHim.
Augustine was highly influential, not only in giving so
manyrightanswers,butinraisingsignificantquestions
salvation, sacraments, eternal decrees, churchstate.
Thesearefundamentalissuesthatcontinuetodemandgood
thought.
DevelopmentofWorship
Note the outline comparing three historical orders of
worship. From about 150 to 1550, there were many
elaborationsbutbasicstructureremainedthesame. Half
dominatedbyScripture,prayer,andsermon;otherhalfby

prayers,Scripture,andLord'sSupper. Theroleofmusic
is not central in this form of worship, although it's
there in the later two orders. One principle in the
elaborationofworshipwastoinvolveallofthesenses.
Buildingneededtobegrand,inkeepingwithgrandeurof
RomanEmpire. Churchbeginstolooklikeathroneroom.
Little opposition, natural and seemingly inevitable
development. Painting, architecture, sculpture, poetry,
music.Nostatuesusedinancientperiod;riseofimages
inWesternchurchinearlymiddleagesiconsinEastin
lateancientperiod,butnogravenimagesinservice(only
flat images!). West initially opposed rise of icons
greaticonoclasticcontroversy.Earlytheologiansopposed
useoficons,withoutexception. Asworshipelaborated,
allskillsofmanbroughttobearontheworshipofGod.
Therewasalsoanelaborationof holydays. Easterand
Pentecostweretheonlyonesinearlydays.NoChristmas
until4thcentury. Otherholydaysemerged,inrelation
not only to Christ, but to Mary and various saints.
Eventually,everydayofweekwasdedicatedtosomesaint;
"sanctifying of the calendar" to some, but undermining
God'spattern(Sundaydayofworship)toothers.
Reading of Scripture was originally straight through the
Bible; practice taken over from synagogue. Lectionaries
developed, in which certain parts of Scripture were
regularlyreadondifferentSundaysoftheyear. Usually
agospelandepistlereading,plusanOTreading. Early
church fathers urged the reading of Scripture, both
publicly and privately. Literacy and availability of
manuscriptsmadethisdifficult.
Different preaching styles rhetorical in East,
practical in West. Led to practice in East of people
coming for sermon and leaving before Lord's Supper.
Opposite development in West. In East, preacher was
applauded. John Chrysostom was great preacher; once
preached on why one ought not to clap in church
interruptedbyapplause!

Lord'sSupper
Twoissuesarise:
(1)sacramentalrealismhowpresentistheLordin
theSupper?

(2)sacramentalsacrifice
Muchdifferenceofopinionconcerningsacramentalrealism.
Augustineheldamoresymbolicview. CyrilofJerusalem
(4th century) more realistic; bread converted to actual
body of Christ during the eucharist. Cited by Catholic
apologists.Cyrildidnotspeakforthewholechurch;not
theuniversalopinionoftheancientchurch. Widerange
ofthinkingandexpression;littlecontroversyinancient
church.DoesCyriladopttransubstantiation? (East: not
abigissue,moremysticalandambiguous.) Philosophical
and theology detailed issue. No profound philosophizing
found in Cyril. In a formal sense, he doesn't adopt
transubstantiation. Some enthused about the reality of
the physical presence of Christ, but others spoke in
symbolic, spiritual terms. No clear evidence in whole
ancient church period of a veneration of the bread and
wine,asdevelopsinmedievalchurch.Noactualadoration
offered.Veryimportantwitnesstoanyactivedoctrineof
transubstantiation. Ifsuchachangedidoccur,worship
wouldbeappropriate.
Sacramentalsacrifice ideaoccursasearlyasCyprianin
mid3rdcentury. Ideacontinuestogrow. Howrealistic?
Do we offer an actual sacrifice, or a memorial of the
sacrifice?Whichisnot?Probablynotoneortheother;
Chrysostom affirms both. Be cautious about the use of
devotional,piouslanguage,whichseemstobemoresharply
definedthanintended.BytimeofGregorytheGreat,the
languageofsacrificewaswellestablishedandrealistic.
Thesacrificewasconsideredasolemnmystery,butnota
new sacrifice, not a repetition but the same sacrifice
offered.Daily,unbloodyapplicationoftheonesacrifice
ofChrist. Howistherealityofthecrossmadepresent
to the people of God? To the extent that it's an
application,GodremindsusandmakespresentChristand
all of the benefits He derived for us on the cross.
Initially,"sacrifice"waspoeticlanguage. Gregorysays
that Christ is as truly present on the altar as on the
cross;claimsefficacyforthedeadaswellastheliving,
although doctrine of purgatory develops fully later.
TypologicallyforeshadowedinMelchizedek,Gregoryclaims;
he should have read Hebrews more carefully. Prayer of
consecrationhadthreeparts:preface,sanctus,andcanon
(onthehandout). Thecanonwastheheartofthemass;
youhadtobetherebythistimetohaveattended.Strong
languageofsacrifice. Luthercritiqueditscentralflaw
ashaving us offerJesustoGod;thewholedirectionis

wrong,turnedaroundandperverted!
Liturgical practices differed between East and West.
Proper(whatchanges)andordinary(whatcontinuesweekby
week)aredistinguished.Westallowsmorevariation;East
changes little throughout year, more fixed, more
mysteriousandsymbolic.Eastseekstoreconstructheaven
ontheearth.
InfantBaptism
Historicalevidenceinancientchurchisn'tconvincingone
wayortheother.TwoGermanscholarsin1960'sthoughta
lot about it: Jeremias (evidence for infant baptism in
apostolicperiod),answeredbyKurtAlandwhosaidheread
toomuchintotheevidence.Thetwofoughtbackandforth
forawhile.ManyofJeremias'sourceswereambiguous.If
a"child"wasbaptized,doesthisreallymeananinfant?
Origencommentsonbaptism.Bestpieceofearlyevidence,
accordingtoDr.Godfrey:Polycarp,bishopofSmyrna,who
was martyred about 168; an account of his martyrdom,
written close to the event, quotes Polycarp before his
death,saying,"For86yearsIhaveservedHim,andIwill
not curse Him now." Takes us back to 82 AD. The
language, "I have served Him," is frequently, even
ordinarily, found to have baptismal significance. Note
Augustine's view of his conversion at time of baptism.
Pointofuncertainty:howoldwasPolycarpathisdeath?
However, the martyrdom account states that 10 years
earlier he made trip from Smyrna to Rome; physically
difficult task, couldn't be done by someone in fragile
health, like someone over age 76. Reasonable argument,
althoughnotabsolutelyconvincing. Mostnaturalwayof
reading evidence is that Polycarp was baptized as an
infant.Iftrue,theninfantbaptismwaslikelypracticed
in apostolic period. Not time for serious deviation;
ritualschangedveryslowlyinthosedays.
By the 4th century, some infants were not baptized
(Augustine). Growing superstition seems to account for
thedelay.
Historicalrecordisnotcrystalclearandisn'tlikelyto
changeanyone'smind.
Creeds seem to have arisen in the context of baptism.
Brief statement of faith recited just prior to baptism.
Manycreedswerewritten! Thehandoutwaswrittenaround
400. The underlined creed may be the earliest portion;

affirmstheTrinity. Creedsprobablyhadmoreliturgical
functionovertime.StatementsaddedaboutChristandHis
work (nonunderlined portion). Handout is similar to
ApostlesCreed;probablyemergedfromthisOldRomanCreed
in7thor8thcentury. Inmiddleages,ApostlesCreeds
takesongreatauthority,believedtohavebeenwrittenby
apostles. Divided into 12 articles, one contributed by
eachapostle.Creedmademuchmoreauthoritative.

Onecontroversialpoint:"Hedescendedintohell."Three
historicalinterpretationsofthismatter:
(1) He was buried; descent of His body; He died.
Nicene Creed says that He suffered and was buried.
WestminsterLargerCatechismmentionsthis.
(2) Medieval view: When His body went into the
grave, His Spirit went into hell to liberate the
soulsoftheblessedandpatriarchsandtoleadthem
triumphantlyintoheaven.Protestantsrejected.
(3) Protestant: Not a chronological reference to
the life of our Lord, but to increase of suffering
andhumiliationthatHeexperienced.Hesufferedthe
agoniesofhellonthecross.
Function of creed is to testify to the unity of God's
people.
DionysiustheAreopagite
Converted by the preaching of Paul in Athens (Acts 17).
Interestingfiguretotheancientchurch. Philosopherof
importance and intellect. Too bad we don't have his
writings. A corpus of writings attributed to him did
arise, written in late 5th to early 6th century; not
really written by him! Probably by a monophysite in
Syria. Church considered them genuine throughout the
middleages.By17thcenturyitwasclearthatDionysius
wasn'treallytheauthor. Meanwhile,thesewritingswere
held in high authority and connected with subapostolic
period; highly influential. Mystical, pantheistic
writings. Dionysius thus considered the father of
mysticisminthechurch. Churcheswerenamedafterhim;
regardedasasaint. NamechangedinEuropetoDennis.
Fourimportantworkswritten:TheCelestialHierarchywas
oneofthem,regarding9ordersofangelsmediatingGodto

man.Greatinfluenceonstudyofangels.(ThomasAquinas
also wrote extensively about angels.) Also,
Ecclesiastical Hierarchy, about mysticism and the
sacraments, the development of the Christian life
purgation,illumination,union. TheDivineNames and The
Mystical Theology. The first claimed two ways of doing
theology,positiveandnegative.Ascribingattributesand
names to God = positive way: God is good. Only
approximate,however;speakingbyanalogyandbasedonour
humanexperience. Negativetheologyisapproachtakenin
The Mystical Theology. Claimed to be a better method,
becauseyougraduallystripawayfromGod,andcometoa
greaterappreciationofwhoHeis:Godisnotgood...God
is not evil...God is so utterly transcendent that
ultimately our words cannot describe Him. God is
positivetheology.Godisnotnegativetheology.God
does not not exist negative theology. Danger of
pantheism;Goddoesn'thaveanyseparatePersonhoodhere.
Somelegitimacyinpathofnegativetheology,butmustbe
handledcarefully,knowingthatGodhaschosentoreveal
Himselfthroughwords.Don'tattempttobewiserthanGod
byclaimingthatHiswordscan'trevealHim. Interesting
phrasesdevelopinmiddleages: "darknessofunknowing,"
or"beinggrippedbytherayofdivinedarkness,"or"dark
night of the soul," or "learned ignorance" (late middle
ages). Creates a theological elite claiming that the
"common folk" take the Scripture at face value, while
thosemorebrilliantrealizethatyoucantranscendallof
thosewordstocomeclosertothe"realreality"ofGod.
Considerinrelationtothetrinity.Wecan'tfullygrasp
it,yetifweabandonthewordsusedinScripture,wefall
intogrievouserror. WhenlinkedtoEasterndeification,
pantheisticdangerincreases.
PatternofdevelopmentinChristianlifefrompurgationto
perfection and union. Deacons purify, others illumine,
bishopsperfect.
"Theurgy" concept important for later sacramental
theology.Inancientpaganthoughtwasideaofasympathy
between certain physical objects and certain spiritual
realities; influence or power exercised by the object.
Suchideascontinueinmanycultures.Forexample,the4
leafcloverissaidtobringgoodluck. Dionysiusseems
to have applied this idea to sacraments. Platonic
tendencyisawayfromthephysicaltothepurelyphysical;
raises question about efficacy of sacraments. "Theurgy"
provides an apparent answer. Not a natural connection,

but supernatural by divine appointment. Certain statues

claimed to have distinct healing powers, or to weep or
bleed.
Origenisbeingreconsideredaboutthistime. In553in
Constantinople,muchofhisteachingwascondemneddueto
hishyperplatonism.
Jerome
Born about 340, died around 419. Older contemporary of
Augustine.Twogreatcontributions:
1. Encouragesasceticismandmonasticism. Livedin
monasteryinPalestine.Feltthattemptationsofthe
flesh could be overcome by fasting and study of
Hebrewgrammar,whichheknewwell.
2.TranslatedBibleintocontemporaryLatinversion,
thefamousLatinVulgate(vulgar=common).Received
much criticism. Used best texts available to him.
FineLatintranslationforhisday,inlightofwhat
was available. The problem is that it became the
only Bible accessible to most Christians during the
middleages. AfterdaysofJerome,fewkneweither
Greek or Hebrew. The authority of the Vulgate
increased considerably, becoming identical to the
autographsinthemindsofmany. CouncilofTrent:
declared Vulgate fully reliable with no need to
comparewithGreekorHebrew. Jeromedidn'tintend
thisresult. InMatthew4:4,heusedtheLatinfor
"do penance" which Luther discovered was "repent."
Meanwhile,thistextwasprooftextforthesacrament
ofpenanceinmiddleages.
JohnChrysostom
Contemporary to Jerome and older contemporary of
Augustine. "The gold tongue" is what Chrysostom means;
titlegiventohimduetohispreaching. Antioch347
birth. Studentofrhetoric. Baptizedatage20. Drawn
to ascetic life; hermit for awhile, fasted zeal and
damagedhishealth. Eloquentman,encouragedtopreach.
Verypopularpreacher.Wroteimportanttreatise: Onthe
Priesthood. Really a manual for preachers. Became
patriarch of Antioch, loved by people thereshowed them
great concern and didn't just cater to the rich and
famous. His book was primarily devoted to the moral
development of the preacher. Assumed that skill in
communicationwouldcomealongincourse.Concernedabout

thedangerthepreacherfelt;thebetterthepreacher,the
moredangerofprideandmovingincirclesofwealthand
influence. Stressed the virtue of humility. In 397,
called to be Constantinople's patriarch. Literally
kidnappedfromAntioch!Fearsofriotsifpeopleknewhe
wasleaving. Newseriesofproblems;nowbishopof the
mostimportantcityinChristendom,whichoftenrelatedto
theimperialcourt. Johnsoldmostofthevaluablesof
his predecessors; invited common people to come in.
Continued concern for the poor, maintained high moral
standard,includingmembersofimperialcourtandfamily.
Notawaytogainfriends! Attackedmoralsofemperor's
sisterandgothimselfintotrouble. NightbeforeEaster
in404,hefoundsuddenlythathischurchwassurrounded
bysoldiers.Dramaticaccountofthisevent.
Attempted to create a sacred temple (although not a
sacramental realist like Cyril) where soldiers ought not
to be sacrilege. Spilled the sacramental blood.
People about to be baptized were driven out half naked.
The church continued to take this path, protecting its
independencefromthestate.
By June of that year, John was deposed and exiled.
Cathedralburnedtogroundthenextday.Laterthatyear,
theemperor'ssisterEudoxia(whomhecriticized)diedin
childbirth. John went into Turkey, finally died due to
weaknessofhisbody. Inmanywayshewasamartyr.Not
the greatest theologian; very moralistic. Effective
communicatorhowever.
Emperor Justinian (527565): First Byzantine emperor.
Succeeded Eastern Roman empire. Elaborate, ceremonial.
Greatsoldier;establishedRomaninfluenceinawidearea.
Consolidated Roman civil law; foundation of all Western
law through middle ages. Began construction of Hagia
Sophia in Constantinople, largest Christian churchover
425clergy!
Increasing influence of tradition, with Scripture not
challenging it. The fact that "we do it" considered
sufficientjustification. Iconoclasmbecomesanissueof
traditionvs.Scripture.Traditionhascometotakeonan
authoritative role. Church doesn't see the difference
betweenScriptureandtradition. Literacyleveldeclines
in middle ages. Copies of Scripture only available as
handcopied. LimitsopportunityforScripturetocorrect
tradition.Thechurchheadedoffthetrack!