VIRUSES

Name: ____________________________
Q1 NYJC 2009 Prelim Q3
(a) A virus is a microscopic infectious agent that can reproduce only inside a host cell.

Fig. 3.1
Fig. 3.1 shows a type of virus called a T2 phage. It consists of a protein coat molecule
enclosing a DNA molecule. T2 phage has a reproductive cycle similar to T4
bacteriophage.
(i) List two features of a bacterium that T2 phage does not share. [2]
(ii) Discuss whether T2 phage is considered a living or non-living organism. [3]
(iii) Describe how the reproductive cycle of T2 phage differs from lambda phage.[4]
[Total: 9]
Q2- N14P2Q7
Fig. 7.1 shows the reproductive cycle of the influenza virus.

Fig. 7.1
1

(a) Describe events occurring at A and B in Fig. 7.1. [4]

(b) Explain why it is necessary for the viral RNA to enter the host cell nucleus. [3]
(c) Suggest in outline how new strains of influenza virus may arise. [3]
[Total: 10]
Q3: AJC2012/13
Both HIV and certain strain of influenza viruses cause diseases that result in high mortality in
human population.
(a) Other than the entry into host cell, give 2 main differences between the reproductive cycles
of HIV and influenza. [2]
Fig. 2.1 shows a generalized graph of the relationship between HIV RNA copies and T
lymphocytes counts over the average course of untreated HIV infection.

Fig. 2.1
(b) With reference to Fig. 2.1,
(i) describe and explain what happens during the period of P. [3]

(ii) describe and explain the changes in the amount of HIV proteins and CD4 T-cells count
during Stage Q. [3]
(c) Outline how the HIV and influenza viruses are able to bypass the human defense
mechanism. [3]
The management of AIDS normally includes the use of multiple anti-retroviral drugs that act on
different stages of the HIV life cycle in an attempt to control HIV infection. One such drug is
alpha interferon which inhibits an enzyme necessary in the maturation and release stage of the
HIV life cycle.
(d) Identify the enzyme and explain how HIV infection is controlled. [2]
Total [13]
Q4:
(a) Enterohemorrhagic E. coli O157:H7 is a kind of bacteria that results in food poisoning in
humans. It commonly enters the human through ingestion of contaminated food. There is a
high incidence of antibiotic resistance of this bacteria.
To eradicate such harmful bacteria, some scientists researched on developing a special
strain of bacteriophage that could destroy the bacteria as shown in Fig. 3. Such treatment
is known as phage therapy.

Fig. 3.1
(i) Describe how the bacteriophage upon infecting the bacterium destroy it. [2]

(ii) Suggest one advantage of using viruses for treatment of bacteria infection over antibiotics.
[1]

Lambda is another type of bacteriophage that uses Escherichia coli as its host cell. Some of the
Escherichia coli are infected with the laboratory-cultured lambda phage. It is observed that no
new phages are produced. The bacteria are initially cultured in a nutrient medium without X-gal
[a colourless substance which can be broken down by b-galactosidase to give a blue
coloration]. The bacteria colonies produced are replica plated onto two agar plates, one
containing X-gal and lactose, and the other containing X-gal without lactose. There is no
glucose in either plate. Fig. 3.2 shows the results of this experiment.

Fig. 3.2
(b)(i) Suggest why no new phages are produced. [1]
(ii) Account for the observations seen in:
Colony 1 [2]
Colony 2 [2]
Total [8]
Essay
Q2 ACJC 2009 Prelim Q9
(a) Compare and contrast the ways in which lambda phage and human immunodeficiency virus
(HIV) reproduce themselves. [10]

Q1 NYJC 2009 Prelim Q3

(a) A virus is a microscopic infectious agent that can reproduce only inside a host
cell.

Fig. 3.1
Fig. 3.1 shows a type of virus called a T2 phage. It consists of a protein coat
molecule enclosing a DNA molecule. T2 phage has a reproductive cycle similar
to T4 bacteriophage.
(iv) List two features of a bacterium that T2 phage does not share. [2]
Cytoplasm / Cell membrane / Circular DNA / Bacterial cell wall /
Ribosomes / Pili / Flagellum;;
(v) Discuss whether T2 phage is considered a living or non-living organism. [3]

Considered to be living as it contains nucleic acid as its hereditary

molecules and when they are in the host, they can reproduce to
replicate more viruses / adapt to environment by exhibiting high
mutation rates;
Considered to be non-living as it is not made up of cells / lacks
organelles / enzymes needed for metabolism / does not carry out
homeostasis / respond to stimuli;
Remains inconclusive as to whether it is living or non-living;

(vi) Describe how the reproductive cycle of T2 phage differs from lambda phage.[4]
Feature

T2 phage

Lambda phage

Type of cycle

Lytic

Lytic and Lysogenic

Integration of phage DNA Not

integrated
into Integrated into bacterial
bacterial chromosome
chromosome
as
prophage
5

Mode of propagation

Phage
DNA
directs
synthesis of new viral
particles using host cell
machinery

Phage DNA replicates

each time host cell
divides
whilst
in
lysogenic cycle

Destruction of host cell

Lysis of host cell upon Remains dormant in host

release of new viral cell unless induced to
particles
transit into lytic cycle

[Total: 9]

Q2 - N14P2Q7
Fig. 7.1 shows the reproductive cycle of the influenza virus.

Fig. 7.1
(a)

Describe events occurring at A and B in Fig. 7.1. [4]

Stage A
1. Haemagglutinin* binds to sialic acid receptors* on host cell surface membrane
2. Virus then enters host cell by endocytosis* where host cell membrane invaginates and
pinches off, placing virus in an endocytic vesicle.
Stage B
3. Vesicle then fuses with a lysosome, and the resulting drop in pH* stimulates fusion of viral
envelope with vesicle membrane
4. Releasing nucleocapsid and eventually viral RNA into cytosol of host cell
6

(b)

Explain why it is necessary for the viral RNA to enter the host cell nucleus. [3]
1. For transcription* where the viral genome RNA* is used as a template* to synthesise the
mRNA* strands catalyses by the viral RNA dependent RNA polymerase*
2. Using the host cells ribonucleotides (and ATP), which is abundant in nucleus, for its
synthesis
3. mRNA can be transported into cytosol as a template* for translation of viral proteins
4. which in turn acts as a template* for the replication of new viral RNA genome
(RNAase present in abundant in cytoplasm)

(c)

Suggest in outline how new strains of influenza virus may arise. [3]
1

New strains of viruses are formed as a result of accumulation of mutations of the genome
leading to the changes in the ribonucleotide sequence known as antigenic drift*

As a result of the lack of proof reading ability of RNA-dependent RNA polymerase in

influenza

the fast/high rate of replication of the virus

Viral RNA is single stranded thus does not have backup copy to carry out repair
mechanism
gives rise to changes in the conformations of the glycoproteins

Antigenic shift
6

New viral strains are also formed when two or more strains of influenza viruses infect a
common/same host cell where

Reassortment of the different RNA segments occur resulting in recombination of genetic

material in a virion*, giving rise to antigenic shift*.

New combination of hemagglutinin an neuraminidases at the viral envelope.

[Total : 10]
Q3: AJC2012/13
(a) Other than the entry into host cell, give 2 main differences between the reproductive cycles
of HIV and influenza. [2]
Pt of comparison
Reverse
transcription/
replication

HIV
1. HIV virus uses reverse
transcriptase* to convert its
single stranded RNA to DNA*.

Influenza
Influenza does not carry out reverse
transcription as the virus does that
carry
the
enzyme
reverse
transcriptase.

Integration into host

genome

2. The viral DNA* formed will

be incorporated into the host
cell DNA/ chromosome using
the viral integrase and
becomes the provirus*

The viral RNA genome is not

incorporated into the hosts DNA/
chromosome

Latency

Replication of viral
genome

R: HIV genome without

mention DNA
3. HIV undergoes a latent
stage where it does not
undergo replication
4. HIV replicates using the
hosts RNA polymerase to
transcribe the viral DNA into
copies of its (+)RNA/mRNA
genome

There is no latent stage /as the virus

replicates once inside the host cell

Influenza uses its RNA genome as a

template to be replicated by viral RNAdependent RNA polymerase* to
synthesize viral mRNA which will be
used as a template to produce more
viral genome/ (-)RNA
(A: transcription using RNA as
template)

(b) With reference to Fig. 2.1,

(i) describe and explain what happens during the period of P. [3]
1. From the 12th week to 6th year (since primary infection) is the period of latency where
HIV RNA copies remain constant at 3/ less than 5/~0 copies per ml plasma;
2. Reverse transcriptase catalyses the synthesis of the double stranded complementary
DNA strand (cDNA) from viral RNA/ double stranded cDNA reverse transcribed from
viral RNA;
3. cDNA is integrated/incorporated into the genome of T lymphocyte by integrase*
forming a provirus*;
4. number of free infectious virus and HIV RNA copies are low since there is no
synthesis of new virions/ the viral DNA (encoding viral proteins) can replicate along/
together with the host cell DNA
(ii) describe and explain the changes in the amount of HIV proteins and CD4 T-cells count
during Stage Q. [3]
1. From 6 to 11 years after infection, viral proteins increases from less than 5/~0 to 109/1010
copies per ml
2. the provirus is expressed/transcribed to result in synthesis of + strand RNA of viral
genome
3. which can be used as mRNA for translation of structural components / synthesis of new
virions
4. Release of virons by budding from infected CD4 T cells lyses the cells causes the CD4 T
cells to decrease from 350 cells to 0 cell per ul

NB : patient suffered from impaired immune responses /is immunocompromised and is

susceptible to opportunistic infections which can cause death.
(c) Outline how the HIV and influenza viruses are able to bypass the human defense
mechanism. [3]
9

The lack of proof reading ability of RNA-dependent RNA polymerase in influenza and
reverse transcriptase in HIV

10 as well as the fast/high rate of replication of the virus account for the high mutation rate.
11 Resulting in high antigenic drift/change in antigen frequency as a result of conformational
change of the glycoproteins on its viral envelope
12 Antigenic shift /genetic reassortment of the RNA segments between two or more strains of
influenza viruses
13 Result in novel glycoproteins (spikes) produced on viral envelope /novel neuraminidase and
haemaglutinin
14 Thus cannot be inhibited/recognised by the antibodies that were originally targeted against
previous strains.

(d) Identify the enzyme and explain how HIV infection is controlled. [2]
1. HIV protease;
2. HIV polyprotein* cannot be cleaved to form reverse transcriptase and integrase
3. Virus remained immatured / non-infectious / non-functional/unable to replicate in other
cells;

Q4:
(a) Enterohemorrhagic E. coli O157:H7 is a kind of bacteria that results in food poisoning in
humans. It commonly enters the human through ingestion of contaminated food. There is a
high incidence of antibiotic resistance of this bacteria.
To eradicate such harmful bacteria, some scientists researched on developing a special
strain of bacteriophage that could destroy the bacteria as shown in Fig. 3. Such treatment
is known as phage therapy.

Fig. 3.1
(i) Describe how the bacteriophage upon infecting the bacterium destroy it. [2]
1. Once the bacteriophage DNA is in the host cell,viral DNA codes for enzymes that
degrades hosts cell DNA and take over/shut down hosts macromecule synthesis
machinery and; (replication)
2. Phage replicates its DNA and synthesizes its proteins using hosts cell machinery/
description DNA replication using host nucleotides and DNA polymerase, translation to
produce viral proteins using host amino acids and ribosomes; (replication)
3. After assembly, phage-coded lysozyme hydrolyse bacterium cell wall, cause bacteria to
lyse to release phages.

(ii) Suggest one advantage of using viruses for treatment of bacteria infection over antibiotics.
[1]
1. Virus/ T4 bacteriophage/ phage is very specific and will only attack a particular bacteria
while antibiotic kills different types of bacteria.
2. As bacteria evolve resistance, virus can also evolve to overcome resistance
OR
More likely to acquire antibiotic resistance from other bacteria containing antibiotic
resistance gene
3. Only a small quantity of virus is needed as virus can replicate once it infects the
bacterium to produce more viruses
Or
Replicate at the site of infection and are thus available where they are most needed
while antibiotics are metabolized and eliminated from the body or required to complete
the dosage.
4. The phages stop reproducing once the specific bacteria they target are destroyed.
5. Less likely to cause side effects or allergies to the patient
10

Lambda is another type of bacteriophage that uses Escherichia coli as its host cell. Some of the
Escherichia coli are infected with the laboratory-cultured lambda phage. It is observed that no
new phages are produced. The bacteria are initially cultured in a nutrient medium without X-gal
[a colourless substance which can be broken down by b-galactosidase to give a blue
coloration]. The bacteria colonies produced are replica plated onto two agar plates, one
containing X-gal and lactose, and the other containing X-gal without lactose. There is no
glucose in either plate. Fig. 3.2 shows the results of this experiment.

Fig. 3.2

(b)(i) Suggest why no new phages are produced.[1]

Integration of phage DNA into bacterial genome to form prophage / Lambda phage is
undergoing lysogenic cycle

(ii) Account for the observations seen in:

Colony 1 [2]
1. Colony 1 is blue in both plates because transcription / expression of the lac Z gene is
constitutive / lac Z gene is switch on all the time / -galactosidase is continuously
translated to break down X-gal into a blue compound

11

Explanation
2. The phage DNA is integrated into the operator and the repressor cannot bind to the
disrupted operator.
OR
3. The phage DNA is integrated into lacI gene and no repressor is produced.
Colony 2 [2]
1. Colony 2 is white in both plates because transcription of the lac Z gene is prevented /
transcription of lac Z gene cannot occur / -galactosidase is always not translated / nonfunctional -galactosidase is translated.
Explanation
2. The phage DNA is integrated into the promoter and RNA polymerase cannot bind to the
promoter.
OR
3. The viral DNA is integrated into lac Z gene and disrupting / insertional inactivating it.
Total [8]
Essay
Q3 ACJC 2009 Prelim Q9
(a) Compare and contrast the ways in which lambda phage and human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) reproduce themselves. [10]
1
2
3
4
5

Life cycle of both viruses involves the stages attachment, penetration,

replication, maturation, and release;
Both attach to their host cell at receptor sites on the host cells plasma
membrane;
Both introduce their viral nucleic acids into their host cell;
Both are obligate intracellular parasites/make use of their host cells
resources for synthesis of viral proteins and nucleic acids;
Both integrate their viral DNA into host genome/viral DNA replicates as part of
hosts DNA every time the cell divides;
@1m,
max 3
Feature of
comparison

Penetration /
Entry

Lambda phage

HIV

6. Phage does not undergo fusion

with host cells plasma membrane;

6. HIV envelope fuses with the

host cells plasma membrane;

7. Phage contracts its tail sheath

and injects only its ds DNA;

7. HIV releases its

nucleocapsid (ssRNA and
reverse transcriptase) into
cytoplasm;

12

Uncoating

Fate of viral
nucleic acids

Synthesis of
viral nucleic
acids /
Replication of
viral genome
Integration of
viral
glycoproteins
into cell
membrane
Site of
synthesis of
viral
nucleic acids /
replication of
viral genome
Release / Exit

8. No uncoating required as capsid

does not enter host cell;

8. Uncoating of nucleocapsid
to release genome and
enzymes;

9. No reverse transcription as
phages genetic material is dsDNA/
ds DNA is either immediately used
as template for synthesis of viral
proteins and nucleic acids (lytic
cycle) or integrated into host
chromosome (lysogenic cycle);

9. Its ssRNA is converted to

dsDNA, using reverse
transcriptase;

10. Prophage is excised from host

cells chromosome upon
spontaneous induction;

10. Provirus is not excised as

viral mRNA is transcribed from
viral DNA together with host
cells genes;

11. Its ds DNA is synthesized

directly using host cells enzymes
such as DNA polymerase;

11. Its ssRNA is synthesized

indirectly using its reverse
transcriptase and host cells
enzymes such as RNA
polymerase;

12. No integration of viral

glycoproteins into hosts cell
membrane;

12. Integration of viral

glycoproteins (envelope gp120
and gp41) into hosts cell
membrane;

13. Cytoplasm of bacterium;

13. Cytoplasm and nucleus of

human cell;

14. Host cell is lysed to release the

new viruses;

14. The new viruses bud off

from host cells plasma
membrane;
@ 1 m per comparison, max 7

13