Chem

Exam Review Sheet

Exam Formula Sheet (all the following will be given)
Avogadros number: 6.02x1023 entities/mol
c = 3.00x108 m/s
h = 6.63x1034 J s
Gas constant, R = 0.0821 L atm/mol K or 8.314x103 kJ/mol K
Rydberg constant = 1.10x107 m1
Kw = 1.0x1014

Equation Sheet
mass
density =
volume
actual yield
% yield =
(100)
theoretical yield
pH = log[H+]
pOH = log[OH]
c =

E = h

M =

moles of solute
volume of solution

14 = pH + pOH
hc
E=

1
1
1
= 1.1 x 10 7 m 1 2

n 2 2
n 1
1
1
E = 2.18 x 10 18 J

2
n initial 2
n final
H orxn = H oreactan t bonds broken + H oproduct bonds formed
Formal charge = number of valence electrons
[number of unshared electrons + (number of shared
electrons)]
PV = nRT
PM
PA = XA(Ptotal)
density =
RT

Chem Exam Review Sheet

XA =

moles of A
total moles

ln[A]t = ln[A]0 kt

1
1
=
+ kt
[A] t
[A]0
[A]t = [A]0 kt

ln

rate A
=
rate B
(1st order)
(2nd order)
(zero order)

E 1
k2
1
= a

k1
R T1
T2

molar mass of B
molar mass of A
0.693
t 1/ 2 =
k
1
t 1/ 2 =
k[A]0
[A]0
t 1/ 2 =
2k

Chem Exam Review Sheet

Chapter 1:

Chemistry the study of matter, its properties, the changes that matter
undergoes, and the energy associated with these changes.

Matter anything that has mass and volume (the stuff of the earth)

3 States of Matter:
Solids fixed volume - fixed shape
Liquids fixed volume - no fixed shape
Gases no fixed volume no fixed shape

SI units:
Mass kilogram (kg)
Length meter (m)
Time second (s)
Temperature kelvin (K)
Amount of a substance mole (mol)

Electric current ampere (A)
(Probably dont need to know)
Luminous intensity candela (cd)


Metric Units:

Chem Exam Review Sheet

SI units/English units conversion:

Density (g/cm3):

Properties of Matter:

Chemical Properties a properties a substances shows as it interacts, or transforms
into, other substances such as flammability or corrosiveness

Physical Properties properties a substance shows by itself without interacting
with another substance such as color, melting point, boiling point, or density

Intensive Properties Independent of the amount of a substance. Can be used to
characterize matter. (Ex: density, temp, boiling/melting point)

Extensive Properties Dependent to amount of a substance. Cannot be used to
characterize matter. (Ex: mass, volume, heat)


Temperature Conversions:

Temp (in Kelvin) = Temp (in Celsius) + 273.15
Temp (in Celsius) = Temp (in Kelvin) 273.15

!
Temp (in Fahrenheit) = ! Temp (in Celsius) + 32
!

Temp (in Celsius) = [Temp (in Fahrenheit) 32] !

Chem Exam Review Sheet

All physically measurements = level of uncertainty
More Significant Digits = more certainty

SigDig Rules:
Any non-zero digit is significant (ex: 512)
Zeros between non-zero digits (captive zeros) are significant (ex: 1205)
Place holding digits on the left of the first non-zero digit are not
significant; these are only used to locate the decimal point.
(Ex: 0.0016 ~ 2 SigDig || 0.04205 4 SigDig)
Trailing zeros following a decimal point are significant (ex: 1.0240~5
SigDig)
Trailing zeros in a number without a decimal are presumed to be
placeholders and are not significant (ex: 1200 ~ 2 SigDig)

Rounding Rules:
If digit to be removed is more than 5 proceeding number + 1
(Ex: 5.287 (3 SigDig) 5.29)
If digit to be removed is less than 5 proceeding number is unchanged
(Ex: 5.283 (3sigdig) 5.28)
If digit to be removed is 5:
If proceeding number is odd increases by 1(ex: 4.235 (3 SigDig) 4.24)
If proceeding number is even remains unchanged (ex: 4.265 (3 SigDig) 4.26)
Only round final answer dont round in each step of a multistep calculation


Precision vs. Accuracy:

Precision induction of how close the measurements are to each other. Affected by

Random error, quality of measuring tool, and variability off the sample.

Random Error produces values that are both higher and lower than the actual value

Accuracy how close measurements are to actual value. Affected by Systematic Error.

Systematic Error produces values that are either all higher or all lower than the

Actual value.

Chem Exam Review Sheet

Chapter 2:

Components of Matter:

Mixture more than 1 type of matter (a group of two or more elements and/or
compounds that are physically intermingled ~ not chemically bonded)
Composition is variable
Properties of components are maintained
Components can be separated by physical means

Heterogeneous Mixture a mixture in which the composition varies from one
region to another (ex: cereal & milk, Iron & Sand?)

Homogeneous Mixture ~ Solution a mixture that is uniform throughout with
no visible boundaries (ex: air, gasoline, alloys)
Solution in Water Aqueous Solution

Pure Substances substances composed of only 1 type of matter:

Element the simplest type of a substance with unique physical and chemical

Properties. An element consists of only one type of atom.

Compound a substance composed of two or more types of elements that are


chemically combined in a fixed position by mass. (Macroscopic)

Molecule structure that contains two or more atoms chemically combined


together. Smallest part of a compound that has the same properties of


that compound. (Microscopic)

Law of Definite Composition every specific compound is made up of the same
elements and the same percent (mass fraction)

!"## !"#$#%#&'
Mass fraction: !"!#$ !"## !" !"#$"%&'

!"## !"#$#%#&'
Mass percentage: !"!#$ !"## !" !"#$"%&' x 100

Ex: H2O ~ 1 mol

!.!" ! !
2 Hydrogen mol = 2 mol (1.01 g/mol) = 2.02 g H = !".! ! !!! 100 = 11.2 %
!".! ! !

1 Oxygen mol = 1 mol (16.0 g/mol) = 16.0 g O = !".! ! !!! 100 = 88.8 %

Chem Exam Review Sheet

Atoms are an electrically neutral, spherical entity composed of a positively charged
central nucleus surrounded by negative electrons. Made up of mostly empty space
with a very dense core (nucleus) where most of the mass is located.

Element Symbols:


X chemical symbol of element
A mass number = protons + neutrons (nucleon number)~ used to figure out
isotope
Z atomic number: # of protons = # electrons in neutral atom ~ determines the
identity of element

# of Neutrons = Z A


Average Molar Massperiodic table uses masses weighted by Average Atomic Mass
(amu), which takes into account the relative abundance (percentage) of each
isotope as well as the isotope mass.

Periodic Table:
Column = Groups/Families
Row = Period

Nonmetals mostly gasses, some solids, some liquids
Dont conduct electricity
Not malleable or ductile ~ cannot flatten into sheets or coil into wire
No luster ~ not shiny
Chemically nonmetals gain e- to form anions

Metalloids (semimetals) Properties between metals and nonmetals
Look like metals but behave like nonmetals

Metals mostly solids (mercury (Hg) only liquid)
Conduct electricity
Malleable, ductile
Has luster
Chemically metals lose electrons to form cations

Chem Exam Review Sheet

Compounds:
Molecular Compounds (Covalent Compounds) composed of molecules of non-
metal elements.

Molecule - smallest particle of a compound that has the properties of that
compound. Electrically neutral group of atoms bonded together through sharing of
electrons.

Ionic Compounds composed of Ions (no molecules in ionic compound)
Cations + Anions metal/nonmetal

Ions charged particles

Cation positively (+) charged ion ~ typically metal that has lost electron(s)
Anion negatively (-) charged ion ~ typically nonmetal that has gained electron(s)

Cations: Group 1 (1+), Group 2(2+), Group 3A(3+), and Al3+, Ag+, Cd2+, Zn3+
Anions: Group 15 (3-), Group 16(2-), Group 17(1-), Group 18(0)

Naming Compounds:

Monoatomic Ions: derived from a single atom (ex: Na+, Cl-)
Cations: name of the cation = element name
Anions: add the suffix ide (ex: N3- ~ nitride)

Chem Exam Review Sheet

Molecule Compounds: nonmetal/nonmetal
Ionic Compound: cations (metal or NH4+)/anions (nonmetal)
Acids: molecule compounds with H+ ions

Rules for Naming Molecular Compounds:

Only for binary compounds (nonmetal/nonmetal)
1.) use prefixes to indicate the number of atoms for each element name
2.) add an ide suffix
3.) mono is usually dropped from the first element

Rules for Naming Ionic Compounds:

Chem Exam Review Sheet

Rules for naming Acids:

Chem Exam Review Sheet

Chapter 3: Stoichiometry

Mole (mol) the amount of a substance that contains the same number of entities as
there are atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12 = Avogadros number

Avogadros Number(N) = 6.02 x 1023 entities (3 SigDig)





1 mol of an element = molar mass (g)














6.02 x 1023 atoms = 1 mol of an element

Molar Mass of a Compound - Sum of molar masses of each atom in pure substance

Use Chemical Formula to solve for the moles/molar

masses of elements in compound

Mole Ratios moles of element: moles of
compound
Ex: Al2(SO4)3 = 2 mol Al

3 mol S

12 mol O
From here you can solve for molecular weights, and
amount of formula units/atoms of each element

Chem Exam Review Sheet

Calculating Empirical and Molecular Formulas from Elemental Analysis

Use method above in solving problems like this example

When given certain information, use moles to convert and solve for the missing info

Chem Exam Review Sheet

Limiting Reactant the reactant that gives the smallest amount of a particular
product. It is the reactant that is consumed completely first, thus limiting the
amount of product that can form.

Reaction Percent Yield typically reactions produce less than the amount of product
calculated

Theoretical Yield calculated product using molar ratios from the balanced
equation

Actual Yield the amount of product that is actually obtained from an experiment


=
100

Chem Exam Review Sheet

Chapter 4:

Characteristics of Solutions:

Solution homogeneous mixture made up of a solvent and solute
Solute substance being dissolved (solid)
Solvent substance being dissolved into (liquid)

Aqueous Solution solvent is water

Concentration quantity of a solute present in a given quantity of solvent
Molarity (M) used to express concentration

!"#$% !" !"#$%&
Molarity (M) = !"#$!" ! !" !"#$%&"' ~ mol/L

Use Molarity conversions to convert to a mol value in order to solve for unknown
values as shown above


Aqueous Solutions:
Polar substances dissolve in water very well:
water is a polar molecule
- uneven electron distribution
- bent molecular shape
water readily dissolves a variety of substances
water interacts strongly with its solutes and often plays an active role in
aqueous reactions

Chem Exam Review Sheet

Ionic Compounds in Aqueous Solutions:
Solid State: oppositely charged particles strongly hold compound together

In Aqueous Solution:
oppositely charged particles are separated by water
- polyatomic ions dont dissociate; act as unit (ex: SO42-)

All particles are surround by water molecules

Anions attracting with the positive end of H2O molecules

Cations attracting with the negative end of H2O molecules

Covalent Compounds in Aqueous Solutions do not dissociate in water

Chem Exam Review Sheet

Acids in Aqueous Solutions:

Some acids completely dissociate and ionize (strong acids)
Some acids only partially dissociate and ionize (weak acids)

Chem Exam Review Sheet

Precipitation Reaction when 2 aqueous salt solutions (ionic) are mixed and one or
more precipitates form

Precipitate insoluble substance

Writing Equations for Aqueous Ionic Reactions:
Example: AgNO3(aq) + Nalco (aq) AgCl (s) + NaNO3(aq)

AgNO3(aq) + NaCl (aq) AgCl (s) + NaNO3(aq)

Ag+ (aq) + NO3- (aq) + Na+(aq) + Cl- (aq) AgCl (s) + Na+(aq) + NO3- (aq)

Spectator Ions the ions that are not involved in the reation (do not form a
precipitate) = Na+ & NO3-


Ag+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) AgCl (s)

Chem Exam Review Sheet

Solubility Rules

Acid/Base Neutralization:
ACIDS:
Acids ionize in water to produce H+ (H3O+) Hydronium ions
How to recognize = formula typically starts with H

STRONG ACIDS: Habra, HCl, HI, HNO3, HClO4, H2SO4
100% ionize in water
Strong electrolytes = all ions
Ex: HCl (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
0.10 M (HCl) 0.10 M (H3O+) + 0.100 M (Cl-)
WEAK ACIDS:
Partially ionize in water
Weak electrolytes much less than 0.10 M produces very few ions
Assume all acids that arent the 6 strong acids are weak acids

BASES:
Produce OH- in water
2 subclasses: weak and strong bases

STRONG BASES:
100% ionized in water
ex: NaOH(aq) Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

Chem Exam Review Sheet

0.20 M (NaOH) 0.20 M (Na+) + 0.20 M (OH-)

Strong electrolytes

WEAK BASES:
Take a proton from H2O to produce OH-
Weak electrolytes
Ammonia (NH3) and amines


PH and pOH Calculations:









Neutral = [H+] = 1 x 10-7 M; pH = 7; [OH-] = 1 x 10-7 M; pOH = 7
Basic = [H+] < 1 x 10-7 M; pH > 7; [OH-] > 1 x 10-7 M; pOH < 7
Acidic = [H+] > 1 x 10-7 M; pH < 7; [OH-] < 1 x 10-7 M; pOH > 7


Titrations:

Titration method of analysis in which a solution of known concentration is used to
analyze a solution of unknown concentration. Once solution is in a buret - the
titrant.

Indicator a substance that changes color when the reaction is complete. The
indicator indicates that the titration reaction is over.

Equivalence Point the point in the titration in which enough moles of one reactant
have been added to completely react with another reactant

Known Info: Volume and Concentration of KOH, Volume of H2SO4

Unknown: Concentration of H2SO4

Chem Exam Review Sheet

Redox Reactions a reaction involving the exchange of electrons between two
species

2e-

Ex: Cu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)
Electron Transfer copper loses 2 e- which are gained by two silver ions

Half-Reaction: redox can be split up into 2 halves: Reduction and Oxidation

Reduction gain of electrons: oxidation number decreases (becomes less positive)
(+1)
(0)
2 Ag+(aq) + 2 e- 2 Ag (s)
Ag positively charged ion neutralized atom

Oxidation loss of electrons: oxidation number increases(becomes more positive)
(0) (+2)
Cu(s) Cu2+ (aq) + 2 e-

Copper (Cu) is oxidized
Silver ion (Ag+) is reduced

Copper (Cu) is reducing agent ~ reactant that provides the electrons for the




reduction while itself is being oxidized
Silver ion (Ag+) is oxidizing agent ~the reactant that takes the electrons so the





substance can be oxidized. The oxidizing agent is





reduced.

Rules for Oxidation Numbers:

Chem Exam Review Sheet

Chem Exam Review Sheet

Chapter 7
Wave Nature of light:

Wavelength () distance from crest to crest (units of : nm, cm, m; A = 1 x 10-10 m)

Frequency(v) - number of complete wavelengths that pass per point per unit of
time (cycles per sec) ~ units of v: 1/s, s-1 or Hertz(Hz)

Velocity(c) speed of light = 3.0 x 108 m/s

Amplitude: height of the crest. Relates to the intensity of light (brightness)


c = v *
frequency and wavelength are inversely proportional

high frequency=low wavelength

low frequency = large wavelength

electromagnetic spectrum light spectrum
visible spectrum only small portion
every color has a different wavelength
white light polychromatic (many wavelengths)

Particle nature of light (Plancks Idea):
Light energy delivered in packets of energy ~ photons
Photon a particle of light ~ electric magnetic energy

Energy of photon directly proportional to frequency & inversely to wavelength

E = he

!!

E=

h = Plancks constant: 6.63 x 10-34 J*s

Chem Exam Review Sheet

Energy Level Theory:

Quantum Shit and Atomic Structure Shit

Chem Exam Review Sheet

n
1
2
3
4

l
0 (1s)
0 (2s)
1 (2p)
0 (3s)
1 (3p)
2 (3d)
0 (4s)
1 (4s)
2 (4d)
3 (4f)

ml
0 (1)
0 (1)
-1, 0, +1 (3)
0 (1)
-1, 0, +1 (3)
-2, -1, 0, +1, +2 (5)
0 (1)
-1, 0, +1 (3)
-2, -1, 0, +1, +2 (5)
-3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3 (7)

Max # of electrons
2
2
total of 8
6
2
6
total of 10
10
2
6
10 total of 32
14

}
}

Chem Exam Review Sheet

Chapter 8:

Ground State lowest possible energy state for atoms electron comfit (aufbau
rules)
Excited State higher state of energy for atoms electron config ~ many possible
answers

Exceptions to Hunds Rule ~ Cu, Cr

These break the rules to maintain stability

Chem Exam Review Sheet

Inner (core) electrons all electrons in noble gas configuration and in any complete
d-orbitals & complete f-orbitals involved in reactions.

Outer electrons all electrons with highest n

Valence electrons electrons involved in reactions

For main group: those with highest n value

Transition metals: highest n values and incomplete d-orbitals & f-orbitals


Electron configuration of Ions elements tend to form ions that give noble gas
configurations

Isoelectronic: same # of electrons or same electron configuration

Periodic Trends

Atomic radius: Across period ~ atomic size gets small (more protons-more pull)


Down group ~ atomic size get larger ((+) pull doesnt outweigh e-)

Cations are smaller than parent atom ~ fewer electrons (more positive pull)
Anions are larger than parent atom ~ more electrons (less positive pull)
Ionic radius increases down a group as n increases

Chem Exam Review Sheet

Example Problem:

Ionization Energy (IE) energy required to remove an electron from a neutral
gaseous atom (i.e.- tendency to form a cation)

Larger the atom ~ the easier (less energy required) to remove electron (b/c further
away from positive charged nucleus

Low IE form cations
High IE form anions (except noble gases)

Trend Large Jump in IE after all valence electrons have been removed

Chem Exam Review Sheet

Electron Affinity: energy released when an atom gains an electron (i.e. Tendency to
form an anion)

More negative the amount of energy ~ greater amount released ~ tendency to form
an anion is greater

Low EA ~ tend to form cations
High EA ~ tend to form anions

Patterns/Behaviors of EA and IE:
Nonmetals tend to have high IEs and highly negative EAs
~ elements attract electrons strongly and tend to form negative ionic

compounds = dont like to give up e-, but like to take in e- easily

Metals tend to have low IEs and slightly negative EAs

Chem Exam Review Sheet

~ elements lose electrons easily and tend to form positive ions in ionic
compounds = like to give up e- easily, but dont take in e- easily

Noble Gases very high IEs and slightly positive EAs ~ neither gain nor lose e-

Chapter 9:

Ionic bonding (nonmetal/metal) electron sharing between atoms with large
tendencies to gain or lose electrons; forms noble gas configuration ~ held together
by electrostatic interactions

Covalent Bonding (nonmetal/nonmetal) electron sharing between atoms with
small differences between their tendencies to lose/gain electrons ~ bonds formed
have particular lengths and strengths

Metallic Bonding (metal/metal) metal atoms pool their valence electrons to
electron sea

Lattice Energy Energy required to cleave an ionic solid into gaseous ions or the
energy released when oppositely charged ions come together
High Lattice Energy = strong tightly held bonds = very hard material = high melting
point

Lattice energy directly proportional to the charge of the ions
Lattice energy inversely proportional to size (radius) of atoms

Properties of Ionic Compounds:
- tend to be hard, rigid, brittle, with high melting points
- In solid state dont conduct electricity = ions are in fixed place
- In dissolved/melted state conduct electricity = ions free to move

Chem Exam Review Sheet

Heat of Reaction:

Increases Up Table

Electronegativity tendency for an atom in a bond to draw electrons towards itself


or the ability of a bonded atom to attract shared electrons


Increases Across Table















Larger the Electronegativity ~ stronger the attraction for shared electrons

Polar bonds have dipole moment (direction of polarity) shown by arrow

Ex:


Fluorine has largest electronegativity of any atom (4.0)

Polarity determined by difference of Electronegativity:

Chem Exam Review Sheet

Chapter 10:

5 Possible Scenarios:
1.) All atoms (except H) have 8 electrons around them.

CCl4 (1) valence e- : 1 C + 4 Cl = 1(4) + 4(7) = 32 valence electrons


(2) skeleton central atom ~ C


(3) electrons in bonds = 2(4 ~ number of bonds)= 8 electrons


32 8 = 24 electrons left


(4) Fill octets determine terminal atoms = 6 on each Cl

Chem Exam Review Sheet

Skeleton from Step 2
Filled octets from step 4










2.) Expanded Octet: central atom has greater than 8 electrons (ok for periods 3-7)

**violates Octet Rule


SF4 (1) valence e- : 1 S + 4 F = 1(6) + 4(7) = 34 valence electrons


(2) skeleton central atom ~ S


(3) electrons in bonds: 34 8 = 26 electrons left


(4) fill octets 6 on each: 26 24 = 2 terminal electrons


(5) place remaining electrons on central atom

Skeleton


Octets filled
remaining e- added












3.) Incomplete Octet: **Exception** - central atom has less than 8 electrons (content
with electron deficit) ~ Okay for Be(4e-) and B (6e-)


BH3 (1) valence e- : 1 B + 3 H = 1(3) + 3(1) = 6 valence electrons


(2) skeleton central atom ~ B


(3) electrons in bonds: 2(3 bonds) = 6 electrons in bonds



6 valence 6 in bonds = 0
skeleton:

Chem Exam Review Sheet

*final structure










4.) Central atom has less than 8 electrons and is not Be or B: use multiple bonds ~ if central
atom doesnt have a full octet change lone pair on a terminal atom into a higher bond on
central atom


NO3- (1) valence electrons: 1 N + 3 O = 1(5) + 3 (6) + 1 e- = 24 e-

(2) skeleton central atom ~ N (needs 5 atoms)

(3) electrons in bonds: 2(3 bonds) = 6 electrons in bonds
24 valence electrons 6 electrons in bonds = 18 electrons terminal/orbital

(4) fill octets: 6 on each ~ 18 18 = 0 terminal electrons

(6) form multiple bonds to satisfy central atoms octet rule

skeleton

filled octets

multiple bond

5.) Total valence electron number is odd (paramagnetic compound). Proceed until all atoms
have 8 electrons, except 1 atom that will have 7 electrons


NO2 (1) valence electrons: 1 N + 2 O = 1(5) + 2(6) = 17 valence electrons


(2) skeleton central atom ~ N


(3) electrons in bond: 2 (2 bonds) = 4 electrons in bonds

17 valence electrons 4 electrons in bonds = 13 electrons terminal/orbital

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(4) fill octets: 6 on each ~ 13 12 = 1 terminal electron

(6) exception (paramagnetic) = lone remaining electron on Central atom

octets filled with lone electron
on central atom

Skeleton

~ other final form = Radical VERY REACTIVE

Resonance Structures: 2 or more valid Lewis structures for a molecule or ion

Actual Structure ~ average of resonance structures

Formal Charge the hypothetical charge of an ion in a molecule or ion. It is the
charge an atom would have if all electrons in a bond were shared equally

Rules:
Small charges are more stable (-1, 0, +1) ~ almost always within this range
No like charges on adjacent atoms
More negative formal charge ~ must be on more electronegative atom
Charges must sum up to actual charge of species

For substances that have more than one resonance structure ~ formal charge used
to determine that best appropriate structure

Chem Exam Review Sheet

VSEPR Theory (Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory)
- bonds (shared pairs) and unshared pairs of electrons are arranged around the
central atom in such a way to minimize repulsions between electron pairs
- unshared (lone) pairs need more room than shared pairs
- the way electron pairs are arranged dictates the way atoms are arranged
Electron group geometry effects molecular geometry

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Chem Exam Review Sheet

Chapter 11:

Covalent bond made of overlapping region and sharing of electrons with opposite
spins

The larger the overlap = strong the bond

Hybridization sometimes atomic orbitals must reorganize and form/combine to
make new orbitals

Chem Exam Review Sheet

Types of Covalent Bonds:

Chapter 5:

Gases and Kinetic-molecular Theory

Boyles Law At Constant Temp: Pressure and Volume are inversely proportional
Charless Law At Constant Pressure: Volume and Temp (in K) directly proportional
Amontons LawAt Constant Volume: Pressure and Temp(in K) directly
proportional

Chem Exam Review Sheet

Avogadros Law At fixed temp and pressure: any ideal gas contains some number
of particles (or moles)
Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP): P = 1 atm (760 torr)

T = 0C (273 K)

V of 1 mol at STP = 22.4 L














atm



L



mol



K



!!"#
0.0821 !!"#


Density:

Partial Pressure:

mole fraction:

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Rate of effusion:

Chapter 12:

Intermolecular forces: bonding forces holding atoms together within a molecule
Intermolecular forces: forces between molecules = hold molecules to each other

Dispersion (London) Forces: Strength Increase with increase in Molar Mass
- weakest IMFs
- exist in all substances
- only force present in nonpolar substances & noble gases
- occurs when dipole attracts to the dipole of another molecule
- larger molecules are more polarizable ~ more room for uneven attraction

Polarization same trend as atomic size (increases down a group; decreases down a
period)

Dipole-Dipole Forces: Strength Increases with molar mass and Polarity
- stronger than dispersion forces ~ higher boiling point
- only in polar substances ~ requires a permanent dipole
- electrostatic attractions between molecules

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Hydrogen Bonds:
very strong dipole-dipole forces with very large separation
only exists in polar compounds with Hydrogen directly bonded to N, O, or F
o Hydrogen atom of a molecule has attraction forces to the lone pair of
the N, O, or F of another molecule
Boiling points are higher than expected based solely on molecular weight

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Chem Exam Review Sheet

Physical Properties of Liquids:

Viscosity resistance for a liquid to flow (thickness) ~ due to intermolecular forces
- dependent on strength of IMF (STRONG IMF = HIGH VISCOSITY)
- viscosity decreases as temperature increases
inc temp = more kinetic energy to break IMFs

Surface tension energy required to keep a molecule on the surface of a liquid
A surface molecule experience a net-attraction downward
- Interior molecule is attracted by all sides
- Stronger IMF = Stronger Surface Tension
- Temperature Increases = Surface Tension Decreases

Vapor Pressure the pressure exerted on a gas in equilibrium with its liquid.
Vaporization occurs spontaneously as some liquid molecules escape to gas phase.
- Increase IMF = Decrease in Vapor Pressure
- Increase Temperature = Increase in Vapor Pressure
- Increase in Molar Mass = Decrease in Vapor Pressure
- More Volatile substances = Higher Vapor Pressures

Boiling Point temperature at which a liquids vapor pressure equals atmospheric
Pressure
- Increase in IMF = Increase in Boiling Point

Chapter 16:

Kinetics Area of Chem concurred with reaction rates
Ex: Explosion>Ripening>ageing>Formation of Landscapes/Coal

Chem Exam Review Sheet

A bunch of other shit