Festivals As Celebrations of Place in Mo

Festivals as Celebrations of Place in Moder Society: Two Examples from Norway
Author(s): Torunn Selberg

Source: Folklore, Vol. 117, No. 3 (Dec., 2006), pp. 297-312
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Folklore
117(December
2006):297-312
RESEARCHARTICLE
Festivalsas Celebrationsof Place in Moder

Society:Two ExamplesfromNorway
Torunn
Selberg
Abstract
This articleconcernsthe role of festivalsin markingplaces as unique and
in themodernworld.Two festivalsfromtwo peripheralareas are
interesting
ofa saint'sfeastdatingbacktomedievaltimes,
discussed-oneis a revitalisation
The article
and theotheris a new construction
fromthelatenineteen
seventies.
thatare ritualisedin thefestivals,
focuseson thenarratives
on theirconnection
withnarratives
and discoursesfarbeyondthebordersofthetwoareas,and how
theensuingdialoguegivestheseremotesitesa placein globaldiscourses.
Introduction
Thereseemsto be an almostgeneralassumptionthatthenumberof symbolic
such as publicfestivalsand rituals,is radicallyreducedin modern
expressions,
thatincreasingsecularisation,
industrialissociety.Manyscholarshave forecast
of
and
themassmedia,
alternative
ation,therationalisation production,
mobility,
sourcesof entertainment,
would taketheirtollon thenumberand viabilityof
publicrituals.The factis, however,thatsincethe 1970s,thenumberof public
in thewesternworld(Boissevain1992).
celebrations
has actuallybeenincreasing
Americananthropologist
FrankE. Manningstatesthat,"Throughout
boththe
industrialized
and developingnations,new celebrations
are beingcreatedand
older ones revivedon a scale thatis surelyunmatchedin human history"
ofcelebration
is a trulystriking
(Manning1983,4). He also adds thattheflowering
of
In
for
the
number
offestival
aspect contemporary
society. Norway, example,
eventshas explodedoverthepast decade,and therenow appearsto be one in
and one foreverytaste(Aftenposten
17June,2004).There
everylocal community,
are festivalsforclassical,jazz, folk,or rockmusic,forexample.Thereare also
festivals
old woodenboats,or traditional
literature
and poetry
crafts,
celebrating
orfestivals
a
on
and
the
the
festivals,
focusing community's
past; examples
history
arelegion.In fact,one couldalmosttalkofa "festivalisation"
ofculture.Common
almostlike
aspectsof festivalsare thattheyare celebratedat regularintervals,
calendarrituals,and thattheytakeplacein specificlocations.Thus,in additionto
on a particular
arealso oftena celebration
ofthelocation
theme,festivals
focusing
wheretheytakeplace. A place can, therefore,
becomeinextricably
linkedto a
certainfestival,and, in thisway,a community
can become "the city"of the
themethatthefestivalcelebrates.
particular
often
thesubjectofthefestivals
is thelocalcommunity
andwhenthis
itself;
Very
is thecase,theemphasisoftheeventis oftendirectedto thecommunity's
pastor
In thisarticle,I discusstwo festivalsthemainfocusofwhichis the
its history.
ISSN 0015-587X
online/06/030297-16;
Journals;
print;1469-8315
Routledge
Taylor& Francis
c 2006TheFolklore
Society
DOI: 10.1080/00155870600928948
Torunn
Selberg
298
inthepastand
ofplacesandtheirpast.Theincreasing
celebration
popularinterest
has
the
of
some
Swedish
historians.
The
been
termed
"use
history"by
history
that
and
for
is
the
is
reused
here
past being staged
underlyingimplication
In
it
than
has
been
that
other
the
of
acquisition knowledge. fact,
argued
purposes
storiesofthepastarebeingemployedto conferdesiredmeaningson thepresent
and narratives
arebeingritualised
(Aronsson2004).Localevents,persons,myths,
are designedto makeus
and actualisedin festivals.
The celebrations,
therefore,
remember
thepast-or thosepartsofit selectedforretelling
duringthefestival.
Festivalsdedicatedto thepast includethosethathave been newlyinvented,as
of olderpublicrituals,or new creationswithan alleged
well as revitalisations
are old or new,they
ofwhetherthefestivals
content.
traditional
But,irrespective
to
local
the
a
that
relates
not
contemporary world,butalso to
only
convey message
While
worldfarbeyondtheboundariesoftheimmediate
theexternal
community.
thefestivals'
uniquenessis directedtowards
emphasison thelocalcommunities'
its
I would suggest,however,thatifa festivalis to be successful,
local identity,
intheoutside
relevant
muststandindialoguewiththosecurrently
localnarratives
oflocaland
world.A festival
can,thus,be viewedas a focalpointforthemerging
and
a
relations
between
and
as
an
occasion
where,
when,
narratives,
space
global
and
levels
are
local
and,
discussed,
negotiated, perhaps,
global,national,regional,
redefined.
and Festival
Place, Past, Narratives,
discussedherearemodernevents,whichtakeplaceintwosmall,
Thetwofestivals
fromeach otherin
places.The festivalsalso differ
yetverydifferent
peripheral,
I
will
about
consider
and
content,
especiallythenarratives
expression, atmosphere.
ofthefestivals.
thelocalpastthatare ritualisedin theperformance
Bycomparing
in whichtheytake
thesetwodifferent
events,and thelocationsand communities
place,I hope to showin bothspecificand generalterms,how place and festival
relatetoeachother.Weshalltravelbetweenthewestand eastofNorway,fromthe
smallNorthSea islandofSelja,toa woodlandregioncalledtheFinnForeston the
border.The festivalthat takes place on Selja is called
Norwegian/Swedish
and
"Seljumannamass" thatrelatingto the FinnForestis called "The Finnish
of an old Churchfeastday,
Settlers'Days." Seljumannamassis a revitalisation
Finnish
Settlers'Days is a new
while
The
whichdatesback to medievaltimes,
festivaldatingfrom1971.
locatedas itis on the
WhiletheFinnForesthas alwaysbeenon theperiphery,
and
as
a
border,
religious
politicalcentredates
history
Selja's
Swedish/Norwegian
in the
backtomedievalNorwegiantimes,as theislandwas a pilgrimdestination
are
still
times
from
MiddleAges.Remainsofthesacredmonuments
early
dating
of
the
Seljumannamass.
standingthere,and forma vitalpartof thecelebration
These structuresare set against the background of the open sea and make a
magnificentimpression. The Finn forest,on the other hand, is an area of
deep forests,scatteredlakes and marshes,and a dispersed population.
The two festivalstakeplace everyyearat thesame time-the second weekend of
July-and while they can be regarded as calendar customs, they are more
celebrationsofplacethanof time.Time is present,however,since narrativesof the
presentin thefestivals.And, as is
pastofthetwo local communitiesare significantly

Festivals
as Celebrations
ofPlaceinModernSociety
299
thecase withso manycontemporary

one ofthegoalsofthetwoeventsis
festivals,
to signify
thatthelocationswheretheytakeplaceareuniquein a globalisedworld.
In thiscontext,
theperceiveddistinctiveness
ofthefestivallocationsare largely
andcreatedthrough,
ofeachlocalcommunity's
derivedfrom,
narratives
past.This,
in itself,is a globalisation
trend-inthecontemporary
westernworld,a global
toa localareais tobe observed(Featherstone
construction
ofwhatis particular
and
Lash 1995,5). As alreadyindicated,however,I would suggestthatsuch local
is notonlylocallyderived,
butalsothata senseofplacewouldappear
particularity
and ideas in circulation
to be createdby meansof dialoguewithnarratives
far
local
borders.
beyond
ofa group's,ora localcommunity's,
cultural
canthusbe
Thearticulation
heritage
to
the
seen as an important
of
festivals.
Swedish
purpose many
According
to
folklorist
BarbroKlein (2000,25), culturalheritagerefers phenomenain a
mustbe protected
value,and therefore
group'spastthataregivenhighsymbolic
forthe future.She also states,however,thatheritageis not something
thatis
it
is
selected
or
means
of
rather,
there;
merely
appointedby
complexprocesses.
Festivalsand public ritualsof various kinds can, therefore,
be regardedas
of
and
which
examples complexprocesses
by
performances
heritageis selected
and articulated.
on
the
canbe used
festivals
circumstances,
Depending
particular
bothtostrengthen
andtomakethecommunity
localidentity,
knowntotheoutside
world-forinstance,
to tourists.
The term"festival"is rarelyused forsuch events,however.Instead,a name
relatedto thepurposeof,or thecoresymbolsof,theeventis employed(Brown
1998,16). Selja,forexample,is famousforthelegendof SaintSunnivaand the
is calledSeijumannamass,
Seljumen-theholyonesofSelja-and theIslandfestival
a name derivedfroma medievalNorwegianchurchfeastdaywiththe same
nomenclature.
Thesignificance
ofthecurrent
revitalisation
ofthisfeastday
gainsin
it
when
is
remembered
that
the
church
is
which
Lutheran,
importance
Norwegian
is thebranchof Protestantism
to whichtheNorwegianStateChurchbelongs.
Saintsand holyplaceshavenot,untilrecently,
beenparticularly
veneratedin the
Lutheran
tradition.
in
the
halfofthe
the
Reformation
second
Norwegian
During
sixteenth
veneration
of
the
it
Catholic
saints
was
was
banned
as
century,
regarded
as a superstitious
Saintshaveno place in Protestant
and in the
activity.
religions,
NorwegianLutheranchurchesthereare no picturesor iconographic
representationsof saints.Duringthe past decade,however,the island of Selja and its
inpeople'sconsciousness,
and it
religiouspasthavebeengrowingin significance
is now regardedas a singularplace enrichedby a pre-Reformation
sacred
tradition.
wherereligiousritualsarere-enacted
on theold hallowedground.
The festivalin the Finn Forestis-as alreadystated-called "The Finnish
Settlers'
settlement
thattook
Days,"a namethatderivesfroma Finnishimmigrant
there
the
seventeenth
and
centuries.
This
was
place
during
eighteenth
immigration
necessitated
methodof farming
and theresulting
by theFinns'slash-and-burn
continualneed fornew desolateareasforcultivation.
TheFinnsdiffered
fromthe
butinmanyotherways
methods,
Norwegianpopulationnotonlyintheirfarming
also-forexample,theyspokea different
language,theyhad strangecustomssuch
as using the sauna, and theirnames differed
fromthoseof the Norwegians.
Becauseoftheseand otherfactors,
theNorwegianpopulationofthearea looked
down on themas strangers
to theregion.Today,however,the"forest
Finns,"as

Torunn
Selberg
300
ofthe
Thus,thecelebration
theyarecalled,havethestatusofa nationalminority.
led
to
a
of
relations
between
festival
ofTheFinnishSettlers'
has
revaluation
Days
thisminority
groupand theNorwegianmajority
population(see Selberg2002).
memoriesofthe
On theislandofSelja therearebothmaterialand immaterial
pastthatmaybe definedas CulturalHeritagewitha capitalC and H. Thereare
ruinsofa Christiancentreofconsiderablesize,whichwererestoredduringthe
past century.In fact,some of the oldest Christianbuildingsin the country,
and monastichouses,weresituatedthere.According
tothe
ofchurches
consisting
on
traditional
narratives
theIsland,thefirst
churchwas erected Seljain
concerning
monkscommenced
thebuildingofa
996.Then,inabout1100,EnglishBenedictine
element
the
dedicated
to
St
Alban.
The
of
site,
however,is a
monastery
pivotal
in
with
old
called
cave
the
an
stone
mountainside
"Sunnivhola,"
altar,
large
meaning,"the cave of Sunniva,"and, in the same area, thereis a natural
freshwater
spring-theso-calledSunniva'sspring.Selja's heritageis clearand
and Gro Steinsland(1997),theNorwegianhistorianof religions,
unambiguous,
has describeditas one ofthemostfascinating
holysitesfromtheinitialphase of
theways
in
of
This
Christianity Norway.
impression Seljaalso seemstoinfluence
in whichthepastcan be expressedand ritualisedin thefestival.
area withlargeforestsand
The FinnForest,on theotherhand,is an interior
minor
The narrativesand
and some
communities.
lakes,scatteredsettlements,
TheFinnForestaremoreambiguousthanthoseofSelja,and
memories
concerning
This
character.
the festivalof The FinnishSettlers'Days also has a different
Finnish
of
of
has
to
a
reassessment
the
led
however,
celebration,
importance
culturein thearea (see Selberg2002).
Selja and theHoly Sunniva
tourist
forexample-as
TheislandofSeljais oftendescribed-inofficial
literature,
the legend of
a
tied
to
an
with
storied
that
as
island
is,
past
"legendary";
StSunniva,theonlyfemaleamongthethreeNorwegianpatronsaints(theothers
on
beingStOlav and StHallvard).Thelegend,whichtellsthatshe died a martyr
theIsland in 996,is preservedin writtenvariantsfromaround1000and 1100.
Accordingto the legend,Sunnivawas the Christiandaughterof King Ottoin
hiskingdom.Wordofherpiety,
Ireland,and shehad inherited
beautyand power
wantedtomarryher,butshe fled
becamewidespreadand a heathenViking-king
fromhim with a followingof pious women and men-the so-called the
orthe"holyones."TheyputtheirlivesinthehandsofGod whenthey
"seljumen,"
setouton thesea withoutsails,oars,weapons,or otherequipment.Sunnivaand
endedup on Selja,which,sinceitis an islandoffthecoast
someofhercompanions
ofNorwayfacingtheopensea, is a likelyplace foranyoneto land iftheysetout
drifteastwardswiththewindsand thecurrents.
fromIrelandand letthemselves
Once on Selja,accordingto thelegend,theytookup residencein a cave,where
theylived in peace untildiscoveredby the heathenson the mainland,who
suspectedthemof being thievesand robbers.The mainlandersurged their
drew
tokillSunnivaandherfollowers
heathenking,H~konJarl,
who,inresponse,
further
backintotheircave,prayingto God thatHe mightsave themfrombeing
theslateroofofthecavecollapsedon topofthem.Noneof
captured-whereupon

Festivals
as Celebrations
301
whichmadeSunnivaa
thepeopleinsidewas everfoundalive,and thisincident,
she
is
with
a stonein herhand.
is
the
reason
martyr,
traditionally
depicted
why
the
sailors
the
island
would witnessa
to
Later,according
passing
legend,
of
and
were
rumours
of
human
column
there
remains,which
strange
light,
in the
emitteda sweetscent,havingbeen foundthere.An important
character
legend is the formerVikingand mightyNorwegianking,Olav Tryggvason.
toNorwaythefollowing
He was baptisedin Englandin 994and returned
yearto
claimsovereignty
ofthecountry.
He thencommencedthetaskofconverting
the
after
to
The
about
the
that,
people
Christianity. storygoes
hearing
strange
phenomenaon Selja, he went therein 996, wherehe foundheaps of sweetbodyofSunnivain thecave.Theboneswere
smellingbonesand theundisturbed
collectedand kepton theisland,and in thesameyearKingOlav was said tohave
builta smallchurchnearthecave,tohouseSunniva'sremains.Thus,the'Sunniva
because
legendgrantsSeljaa majorplacein NorwegianChristian
heritage;
firstly,
ofthecollapsedcave itbecamea pilgrimage
destination
duringmedievaltimes,
and secondly,because in 1070 the Island was chosenas the site forthe first
it retainedfora
Episcopalresidencein thewesternpartofNorway,a distinction
further
it
was
to
and
moved
Sunniva's
Thereafter,
century.
Bergen,
holyshrinewas
to BergenCathedralwhereitremaineduntiltheReformation.
transferred
In this
Sunniva
became
saint.
The
built
c.
1100
way,
Bergen'spatron
monastery,
by
monksand dedicatedto St Alban,reachedthezenithofits
EnglishBenedictine
in thelatethirteenth
and thenwentintodeclineduringthe
importance
century,
of
the
Black
Death.
period
The legendofSunnivacontainsdetailsofbothhistorical
and politicalinterest.
Withtheintroduction
ofthemoderndisciplineofhistory
aroundthemiddleofthe
nineteenth
historians
century,
beganto discusswhethertheSunnivalegendhad
historical
and
the
merit,
any
agreed,moreorless,thatitdid not.In 1853,however,
P.
A.
historian
Munch
for
the
first
that
Olaf
out,
time,
Norwegian
pointed
King
would probablyhad realisedthe value of the humanremainshe
Tryggvason
foundon Seljain thetaskofchristianising
thecountry.
Thekingwas in needofa
saintand a pilgrimage
and Seljawas strategically
in those
destination,
significant
In
this
the
about
Sunniva
and
her
followers
respects.
interpretation, legend
holy
takeson thequalityof poetrywitha nationaland politicalobjective(Djupedal
1996,11). Sporadicdiscussionof the story'shistoricalmerithas occurredever
sincethemiddleofthenineteenth
The interpretations
century.
vary,withsome
scholarsbeingoftheopinionthatthenarrative
is a productoffantasy,
whileothers
averthatthelegendis based on a kerneloftruth.
Butevenifhistorians
havedeclaredtheSunnivalegendtobe withouthistorical
formanypeople,and inmanyways,sheis real.Thelegendhas a prominent
merit,
of Norway,and gave rise to the
place in the historyof the Christianisation
in
celebration
ofa thousand-year
1996-7.
In 1995,theNorwegianchurch
jubilee
celebrated
itsonethousandth
and
then
in1996-7itwas Selja'sturnto
anniversary,
be commemorated
on a grandscale,theclimaxofwhichwas a largeecumenical
serviceon Seljumannamesse
(7 July).Thisservicetookplace in theruinsofthe
monastery.
The jubilee focused attentionon Sunniva and Selja once again; and the
celebrationre-activateda social memorythat led to the revival of the
and also to a renewalofinterest
in thelegendofSt Sunniva.
Seljumannamesse,

Torunn
Selberg
302
on Seljerecently
One ofthefemaleresidents
statedthatSunniva'spresenceon the
Islandhas neverbeenmoreacutelyfeltthanitis today,whennewvariations
and
of
the
and
music
modern
for
representations
legend-in popular
iconography,
In
(see Selberg2005). an articleaboutmodern
example-are beingconstructed
in a popularmagazine(Higlund 2000,220-30),Seljaand thestoryof
pilgrimage
ofwell-known
Sunnivaareincludedamongdescriptions
sitessuchas
pilgrimage
thatat Santiagode Compostella,
Morrison's
and,morecontroversially,
Jim
grave
in Paris.The Island is presentedundertheheadline
in PereLachaisecemetery
and oneofthepilgrims
toSeljastatesthatshecomestotheIsland
"QuietWonder,"
and
becauseof"thesilence,thelandscape,nature,and themedievalatmosphere
"a
"On
from
the
connection
to
strong
feelings
earlyhistory." Selja," pilgrimsays,
can
and
more
from
from
earlier
times
be
even
importantly,
experienced,
people
the point of view of the significance
of the Sunnivalegend,she statesthat:
of
"Sunnivais the onlyNorwegianfemalesaintand thatthe Christianisation
Norway is tied to her legend ... St. Sunniva is in some way the motherof the
to the severeVikings,who
NorwegianChurch,and a femalecounter-balance
believedthatright
belongedtothemightiest"
(H6glund2000,224).In dealingwith
about
the
tells
medievaltimesand connections
Selje, magazine'sstory
pilgrimage,
tohumansfromthepast-topicsthatfindresonancefarbeyondtheshoresofSelja.
in relationto the
And,notleast,thelegendaboutSunnivais beinginterpreted
also
finds
resonancein
which
the
of
femaleaspectof
history Christianisation,
and makingvisiblethefemaleelement
current
ideas concernedwithunderlining
than
is less important
In certainsituations,
in Christianity.
historical
authenticity
the
have
narratives
about
or
role
themythological,
past may
religious, political
had (Anttonen1997,4). Sunniva is, of course,also presentin the current
oftheSeljumannaMass.
celebration
ruins,islandofSelja.Photograph:
JohnLeer,2003.
Figure1. Monastery

Festivals
as Celebrations
303
TheSeljumannamass
In thelateMiddleAges,Seljumannamass
was a feastday"maiusduplex,"thatis,
ofthesecondhighestdegree.One ofthehighpointsofthethousand-year
jubilee
celebrations
on Seljewas theecumenicalMass heldin theruinsofthemonastery.
Thishighlysuccessfuleventled to renewedemphasison thefeast,whichis now
and Sunnivadays.
celebratedwithHigh Mass and is called Seljumannamass
In addition,culturaleventssuchas concerts,
artexhibitions,
and vespersin the
Celtictradition,
takeplace in thelocalChurch.
A new elementin thecelebration
ofSeljumannamass
is organised
pilgrimageand
reference-and
it is being accorded
as
pilgrimage praxis, memory,
increasingly
greatersignificance
today.In theMiddle Ages,when thepilgrims
came to Selja by boat, the island was perceivedas beingbothcentrallyand
situatedin theimportant
sea routebetweenthemedievaltownsof
strategically
Bergenand Trondheim.
Nowadays,places thatcan onlybe approachedby boat
areperceivedtobe bothisolatedand marginalised.
Thispointis illustrated
bythe
a
of
as
which
is
said
to
be
"a
hidden,
description Selja
pilgrimdestination,
windsweptisland"in theWestern
Country(Higlund 2000,224).At Seljumannanumberedseveralhundredon theoccasionswhenI
mass,theparticipants-who
was
oftheIsland,from
myself present-arrive
byboatand aretakentotheinterior
whence theyare broughton a pilgrimjourneyaround the Island. When I
in theevent,aftercomingashore,we weremetby a groupofmen
participated
dressedas Benedictine
StSunniva,who
monks,and a youngwomanrepresenting
led us aroundtheislandto themonastery
and Sunniva'scave.
Figure 2. St Sunniva and the monksleading pilgrimstowards Sunniva's Cave. Photograph:JohnLeer,2003.

Torunn
Selberg
304
Thispilgrimage
journeyaroundtheIsland to theruins-whichbringsSelja's
a
to life-takesone hour,and thereis a numberofstation
as
island
past
pilgrim
route
where
one
the
stopsand listensto the "monks"'storiesabout the
along
and
monastery Selja's past.Then,suddenly,thepathopens,thedramaticruins
canbe
and thetoweroftheold StAlban'schurchwiththesea in thebackground
to the
seen,and itis hardnottobe movedbysuchan exaltedview.The itinerary
ruinsturnsintoa journeythroughthe past as well as througha magnificent
thewalkaroundtheIslandis a kindofpageant
landscape.As a stagedpilgrimage,
and a Monastery
thatactualisesSelja'spastas a medievalpilgrimage
destination
Island.One walksin thelandscapeof Sunniva'slegendand is remindedabout
a
Selja'spastas a sacredplace.Thewalk-and especiallytheboatride-represent
ritualpassage,a liminalphase,wheretheshortvoyagetakesone awayfromwhat
intosomething
is regardedas beingeverydaylife,and preparesone forentering
sacredarea,anothertime,an Islandthatoncewas a livingsanctuary,
different-a
and to whichthousandsofpilgrimscame.
The AmericanhistorianJohnGillisclaimsthatit is an old and widespread
in space,but also
idea thatislandsare not onlyseparatedfromthe continent
in time (Gillis2001). Travellingto an island is also a journeyback in time.
When one joins the staged pilgrimagearound the Island towardsthe holy
Sunniva'scave, one walks in the footstepsof thousandsof earlierpilgrims,
and it
and on holyground.The participants
also walk witha certaindignity,
more
is clearthatthisis not a strollin thebeautifullandscape,but something
and
of
significant-a ritualthatredefines reshapesone's experience theplace.
earlier
The walk is not onlya memorialto earlierpilgrims;it also represents
pilgrims'journeysand recallsSelja as a pilgrimIsland.Whenthepast is being
the past, a social memory
localised,it seems real; the participants
experience
and thepresentis connected
is actualisedthroughtheritualof thepilgrimage,
withtheholyisland of themedievaltimes."It
to thepast,creatingcontinuity
is a beautifulexperienceto participatein the Mass among the old ruinson
Selja," the local paper states,"one hearsthe murmurof the sea, the sky,and
Christianlifeand prayersthroughthousandsof years."
The creation-or ratherrecreation-ofholy places in our time and in a
however,whenviewedin thecontextof the
Norwegiancontextis problematic,
ofplace.
of
which
Lutheran
religiousdefinition
history ideas,
upsetthetraditional
rather
In theideologyofProtestantism,
thesacredis thoughtto be everywhere,
But
in distinct
on
thanbeingconcentrated
Seljaplaces(Amundsen2002,163ff)
oftheidea ofholysites
and inotherplacesinNorwayand Europe-a redefinition
inpilgrimages,
ofpopularinterest
is takingplaceinthecontext
which,inspiteofa
as
are interpreted
break of several hundredsyears in theirperformance,
in
for
local
with
traditions.
The
earlier
writes,
paper Selja
continuity
representing
instance,that:"Forovera thousandyearsSelja has been a sacredplace in our
country... By sea and land the pilgrimscame to the monasteryat Selja in the
in Europe,
MiddleAges.Now new pilgrimsaretravelling
to varioussanctuaries
and the island of Selja is once again an attractivepilgrimagedestination"
ofa larger
9 July,
Tidende,
2001).ByplacingSeljawithintheframework
(Fjordenes
ofa thousandyears,local
network
ofholysitesin Europe,and withina time-span
Andbyso
bothglobalisedand traditionalised.
eventsconcerning
Seljaarethereby
in
timeand
within
a
context
both
also
the
Selja
larger
doing, newspapers
place

Festivals
as Celebrations
305
space,and givetheIsland-the pilgrimsite-an authenticity

beyonddiscussion
(Selberg2005).
TheMagical FinnForest
The Finnforestplaysno partin Norwegiannationalor Christianheritage.The
narrativesof the past in thisregionare concernedwithmarginalgroupsand
and differ
inmanyways-in termsof,for
fromSelja'shistory
locations,
peripheral
name
and
the
the
of
the
settlement,
example,
origin
agricultural
practicesofthe
inhabitants-the
Finns-and theattitudes
oftheirNorwegianneighbours.
Therearetwomajor-and contradictory-popular
narratives
abouttheFinnish
in
and
their
In
settlement
the
forests.
population
Norwegian
manystories,the
Finns are said to have had magical powers,which they used against the
Norwegians.Thismotifis partofa largernarrative
cycleaboutpeoplewhodiffer,
in variousways,fromthemajority
It
can
be used withreference
to
population.
or an ethnicgroupsuchas theSami,forexample.Peasantswereoften
vagrants,
afraidoftrampsand otherstrangers,
whomtheyfearedintermsoftheexerciseof
blackmagicand thebringing
ofall kindsofbad luckintothecommunity.
These
beliefsand narrativeswere an integralpart of the maintenance
and constant
recreation
ofan ethnicborderbetweenthetwogroups-and thesamesituation,
althoughlargerin scale, prevailedin the Finn Forestbetweenthe Finnsand
Norwegians(Mathisen1993).Theseideas abouttheFinnsexisteduntilourown
time,because,as lateas duringthe1960s,itwas saidthattheFinnishlanguagewas
and theFinnsweresubjectedto derogatory
mainlyusefulformagicalformulae,
abouttheirancestors.
remarks
Theywerealso toldthattheysmelledofsmoke-a
to theirold slashand burnfarming
reference
practices(Gustavsson1987).
in theareaproclaim
The Finns'narratives
aboutthereasonfortheirsettlement
a
different
In
however.
these
it
is
told
that
theFinns,after
when
quite
message,
theirlongwanderingsfromtheirhomeland,foundthemselves
on a hilland laid
lakes,theyfeltathome.Onceagain
eyeson theforest
landscapewithitsscattered
had
found
their
"land
of
the
thousand
lakes"-the
they
poeticnameforFinland.
These storiestell thatpeople and landscapefoundeach other,thatthe Finns
locateda smallpieceofFinlandin Norway(Gronoset1974;Sorensenand Olsen
inwhichfateandharmony
areemphasised,
andthestory
1981).Thisis a narrative
resonateswiththeOld Testament
narrative
ofthePromisedLand.
is aboutconflict
and theotheris aboutharmony,
but
Thus,oneofthenarratives
on one level theyboth accentuatethe Finns' perceivedincongruity
in the
Norwegian situation.These two narrativeshave been merged in today's
oftheFinnforestas a touristdestination,
sincewe are toldthat:"The
marketing
Finnscame because of crop failuresand suffering
but foundnew hope in the
here.ThefarmswithFinnishnameslikeSirgelamporLebikoarenot
deep forests
in Finlandbut in theFinnForestin Norway.The Finnssettledin our forestsduring

the seventeenthcentury,theybuilt theirhouses and saunas and carriedon their
ancientslash and burn farming[methods].The old Finns are supposed to know
black magic, and among the thousand lakes and old farmsyou can stillfeelthe
[Touristbrochure])And with referenceto the
magical atmosphere"(Finnskogferie
Finns' supposed magical powers,thetouristleafletadds: "It is easy to understand
thatthe area is stillknown forit's traditionalweatherprophets.The ForestFinns'

306
Torunn
Selberg
butproudoftheirroots."Herethenarrative
descendants
aremodernNorwegians,
abouttheFinnishlandscape,and theFinns'perceiveddangerousmagicalpowers,
inwhichtheirsupposedabilityto
arebeingretold,
but,inthelanguageoftourism,
In thisway,thestories
has
turned
into
attractive.
been
perform
magic
something
of theFinnForestare partof a largernarrative
aboutmagicalplaces-in fact,a
modernway ofdescribing
manytouristsites.
Duringthe 1960s,people in theFinnForestexperiencedthesame problems,
suchas job lossesand emigration-asthosein manyotherperipheral
areas,with
theresultthata sortofgeneralpessimismsetin,and peoplebegantoaskwhether
itwas possibletoreversesucha negativetrend,and howthismightbe done.One
inthatcontext,
thearea'sdistinctiveness-and,
suggestedanswerwas tohighlight
theFinnishcultureoftheregion,whichhad beenvirtually
forgotten
duringthe
was highlightedonce again. Accordingto
course of the twentiethcentury,
fortheFinns,
minority
politicsin generaluntilthe1960s,itwas moreimportant
as a partofmainstream
likeotherminority
society.
groups,topresentthemselves
in
and
an
interest
the
this
situation
to
1970s,
however,
change
By
slowlybegan
ofthe
whatwas perceivedtobe marginaland exoticbegantoemerge.Narratives
FinnForest'spastcontainedelementsthatfitted
thistrend,and eveniftheFinnish
memoriesofit
cultureoftheregionhad,bythistime,beenmoreorless forgotten,
and farms,
and in
intheFinnishnamesoffamilies
innarratives,
werestillpresent,
vernacular
architecture
remainsofthearea (Selberg2002,86).In addition,a small
thetraditional
museum,whichhad been establishedin the1940s,demonstrated
Finnishway oflifein theregionin previouscenturies.
TheFinnForestDays
In 1971thefestival
ofTheFinnishSettlers'
tellingthestory
Days was established,
in theFinnForest.Subsequenttothecreationofthe
oftheold daysofthesettlers
became graduallymore
festival,the narrativeabout the Finnishimmigration
in
and
new
the
ways.Nowadays, storyoftheFinnishpastin
significant developed
on
is
celebrated
annually thesecondweekendofJuly(Selberg2002).
Norway
The purpose of the festivalaccordingto its currentprogrammeis to
"The particularculturalheritageand folklifeof theFinnForest."
demonstrate
ofa feastday datingbacktotheMiddle
WhileSeljumannamass
is a revitalisation
Buteveniftheeventis a
Finn
a
and
modern
festival.
the
Forest
event
is
new
Ages,
recentcreation,
thesubjectofthefestivalis theold daysofFinnishculturein the
and theFinnForestdaysfocus
BothSeljumannamass
region,and itscelebration.
and the
on whatis consideredthenoteworthy
past of theselocal communities,
a time
does
At
of
the
this.
on
the
place
emphasisplaced
perceiveduniqueness
and
of
local
the
construction
characterised
particularity,
by
global expectation
festivalsare appropriatemedia foremphasisingthe uniquenessof a place by
whatare consideredremarkable
eventsin thelocality'spast.
ritualising
The festivalof the Finn ForestDays followsa rathertraditionalpattern,
of the past,
involvingthe celebrationof importantancestors,dramatisations
and how they
includinga pageanttellingabout the Finns'lifein the forests,
suffereddiscrimination
at the hands of the Norwegians.Anotherformof
called"Everydaylifein
dramatisation
ofthepasttakesplace in theperformance
dressand takeon variousroles
theold days,"whenpeople don old-fashioned

Festivals
as Celebrations
307
of"the
costumeand usingold-fashioned
Figure3. A littleboyin old-fashioned
fishing
gearat thecelebration
oldendays"in theFinnForest.Photograph:
JohnLeer,1999.
bothbeggarsand
relatingto thepast.Here we meet,in dramaticpresentation,
in
of
the
are
now
described
from
positiveways.In thiscontext
tramps
past-who
of
a
of
traditional
folk
and
as
culture,
performanceheritage,
figures,
part
arranged
have
whosestatuswas formerly
consideredtobe dubiousand evenfrightening,
both
archaic
themas being
becomean attraction.
Througha processthatportrays
ofheritage(see,for
and exotic,theyare reshapedin thetheatrical
performances
Kirshenblatt-Gimblett
1998,
131ff).
example,
The mostoriginalpart of the eventis the openingof the festivalwiththe
declarationof the"Republicof theFinnForest,"whenthatregion'sseparation
is full
fromtheKingdomofNorwayis playfully
asserted.Thispartofthefestival
an otherwise
ofimprovisations
and surprises-within
well-defined
programme.
Duringthe openingceremonythebannerof theFinnForest-a variantof the
Norwegiannationalflag-is raised,and fliesforthreedays; thatis, forthe'
A "government"
is elected,also forthethreedays,and a
durationofthefestival.
A so-calledvisais demandedofall Norwegian
"border"toNorwayis established.
through
guests,whilethosefromFinlandareinvitedandwelcomedtopass freely
the"border"area.The Finnishambassadorto Norwayis alwayspresentand all
thosewithFinnishbloodin theirveins-whetherfromFinlandorelsewhere-are
welcomed.The declarationof the "Republicof the Finn Forest"incorporates
carnivalfeatures,where relationsbetweencentreand peripheryare being
On one occasionthe"Republic"kidnappedan executiveofthelocal
negotiated.
counciland a ransomfeeforhis "release"was demanded!The ransommoney,it
was said, was the onlycontribution
the community
councilgave towardsthe
of
the
festival!
organisation
This incidentmade funof thehighand mightyas a representative
fromthe
centreofthecommunity
was humiliated
beforethepublic.Andthepointwas also

308
Torunn
Selberg
made by thisincidentthatit was onlyby the demandingof so-calledransom

moneythatfinancialsupportforthefestivalcould be obtainedfromthe local
thatcan stillexistin peripheral
adverseconditions
council,thereby
highlighting
partsofthecommunity.
of
reads"Thedeclaration
president
Duringtheopeningtheevent,thefestival's
the state of affairs,"which includesimaginedgreetingsfromfar and near,
especiallyfromafar-fromthePresidentof theUnitedStatesor theSecretaryGeneraloftheUnitedNations,forinstance.Thus,whiletheFinnsin realityhave
statuswithintheNorwegiannation,the"RepublicoftheFinnForest"
peripheral
is perceivedas havingcentralstatusin thecontextof thewiderworld.Forthe
ofthe
durationofthefestival,
theFinnForestsymbolically
resignsitsmembership
and
and
world
Centre
thus
nation
takes
on
status.
periphery change
Norwegian
and thesmallcommunity
hosting
places,withtheFinnForestbecominga centre,
thefestival
becominga metropolis.
Afterthefirstcelebration
of theFinnishSettlers'Days, therewas a growing
but
notonlyamongtheoriginalFinns'descendants,
awarenessofFinnishculture,
the
revaluation
of
also amongthelocalNorwegianpopulation.An important
part
processoftheareaanditsculturewas totracetheirrootstoFinland-thatis,tothe
ancientor archaicFinnishculture.Thiswas particularly
emphasisedduringthe
and
the
of
Finnish
so
for
rest
the
festival, increasingly
gueststotheareastate
year.
thattheyfindarchaicculturaltraitsand customs,which
thatit is in thisdistrict
have long since died out in Finlanditself.The Finnishforestculture-earlier
to as
looked down on-is now,also amongNorwegiansin the area, referred
and
of
that
as
is
unique,worthy beingpreserved, something
heritage, something
an auraof
tobe proudof.Thus,nowadays,theFinnishheritageoftheareaconfers
on thewholedistrict.
The so-calleddangerousmagicalpowers
theextraordinary
of the Finnishpopulationhave now been translatedintoa kind of mystique
whichmodernpeople appear to find
associatedwithdeep forests-something
is thusbeinglocated
in themarginaland peripheral
A generalinterest
attractive.
a
culture
once
in theFinnForest,and thefestival
perceivedas inferior
celebrating
factorin thisprocess.
has beenan important
ThePast, theLandscapeand Narratives
Withregardtotheperception
ofSeljaas a sacredsite,thelocalvicarsaysthat,on
the Island, the veil thatseparatesthis world fromGod's invisibleworld is
especiallythin.In thiscontext,the vicaris inspiredby ideas emanatingfrom
It is said thattheCeltswereconsciousof
studiesdealingwithCelticspirituality.
the
visibleand invisibleworlds.God was
on
the
border
between
very
living
butcouldalsobe linkedtospecificsacredplaces,whichwere
presenteverywhere,
the
characterised
thinnessoftheveilthatseparatedthemfromheaven(Wood
by
1999;Harpur2002,174;Power2006;see also Selberg2005)."ThelandscapeofSelja
of Ireland,"the vicarwrites,"withit's greenmeadows amidst
is reminiscent
and thechurchhistory
linkedto the
and beaches.Boththegeography
mountains
Sunnivalegend,mediateclosenesstoIrelandand theCelticareasintheWest.I feel
2001,16).Wheninterpreting
(Wohlberg
verymuchakinto theCelticChristians"
theSunnivalegend,turnsforsupporttoa
Seljaas a sacredplace,thevicar,through

Festivals
as Celebrations
309
a narrative
thattodayfindsresonanceinplaces
aboutCelticspirituality,
narrative
farbeyondtheshoresofSelja.
withregardto Celtichistory,
In spite of considerablescholarlyuncertainty
because
of
or
and
it, Celtic ideas and beliefsare
culture, perhaps
religion,
the
world.
A Britishhistorianof religion,
in
of
extremely
popular manyparts
andfascination
fortheCeltsand forCeltic
MarionBowman,statesthattheinterest
butthatit is greaterthanever
has alwaysbeenmoreor less present,
spirituality
within
such
as New Age and paganism
modern
today,especially
religions
Powerhas also statedthattherehas beena
(Bowman1993;1994;2000).Rosemary
and Paganismdatingback overthepast
CelticrevivalbothwithinChristianity
a
toas the"newCelticTwilight"
she
refers
(Power
years, phenomenon
twenty-five
2006,33). Celticqualitiesareclaimedtobe moreof"a spiritual"thana "heritage
Celtic
thing,"and theyare associatedwithexplicitlypositivecharacteristics.
in
with
Within
intuitive
and
tune
nature.
Celtic
as
is
Christianityperceived being
for
as
linked
a
desire
a
of
to
sense
travel,
expressed pilgrimage,
Christianity,
place,
in usingthelivesoftheCeltic
holds a centralposition.Thereis also an interest
femalesaints,as modelsfortoday(Power2006,34).
saints,includingwell-known
Thecurrent
of
interpretationsboththeislandofSeljaand thelegendofSunnivafit
well intotheseideas. Throughthelegendabout Sunniva,a currentand global
is localisedon theislandofSelja.
narrative
aboutCelticspirituality
in thefestival,
also indicatetopicsand
Thenarratives
abouttheFinns,ritualised
main
that
can
be
as
variations
of
seen
popular trends.The
develop
points
totheregion,and in
of
the
festival
was
to
emphasiseaspectsparticular
aspiration
thisway to accentuatethepositiveelementsof theFinnishcultureof thearea.
fortheFinnsin Norway-as withmanyother
Priortothe1970s,itwas important
minorities
elsewhere-topresentthemselvesas Norwegian.Afterthatperiod,
however,the situationchangedwiththe emergenceof an interestin, and an
In
of, marginalcultures,and theirneed forself-articulation.
understanding
that
in
and
of
the
for
that
was
the
relation
to
Sami
culture
case
instance,
Norway,
Finn forest.Variationwas thus considered to be more interestingthen
and,in thisway,whatwas thoughtofas beingunique,particular,
homogeneity,
or exoticcameintofocus.
The perceivedparticularnatureof the Finn Forestis markedby a jocular
separationofthe"RepublicoftheFinnForest"fromthekingdomofNorway.But
in thus symbolicallydelimitingitselffromthe Norwegiannation,the area
to Finland,and this,also, is now beingincreasingly
emphasisesits connection
in
on
the
valued
Norwegianareas.Thelocalpaperreports
positively
surrounding
visitsfromFinnishschoolgirls
totheFinnForest,one ofwhomstated:"Weareof
theimpression
thattheold Finnishcultureis betterpreservedherein The Finn
Forestthenin Finland,and we findit exitingto cometo an area withso many
Finnishnames-so farfromourhomeland.Itis a bitexoticalso foryoungpeople
fromFinland to experience ... the old Finnishculturehere in the area."
ThespecialnatureoftheFinnforest's
culturehasbecomeexoticalso ina tourist
context.A revaluationand a redefinition
has takenplace as black magic is
and theformer
regardedas a mystique,thewildernessis consideredattractive,
ethnicoppositionsare positivelycharacterised
as "multicultural."
The different
theFinnForestis no longerconsideredto be
styleof culturethatcharacterises
it has become attractive
and by virtueof its surroundings
has been
inferior;

310
Torunn
Selberg
labelledand definedas culturalheritage.The festivalhas been an important

vehiclein achievingthis.
A Piece ofIrelandand Finlandin Norway
about
The landscapesofSelja and theFinnForestare thusfilledwithnarratives
discussedhere.The
thepast,suchnarratives
beingritualisedin thetwofestivals
Sunnivalegendis a partofa socialmemorycolouringSelja's landscape,and,by
meansof thenarrative,
Selja's greenaspectand closenessto theocean become
oftheFinnishSettlers'
the
reminiscent
ofIreland.Thefestival
Days hasrevitalised
old Finnishculture,the landscape of the forestswith its scatteredlakes is
reminiscent
ofFinland,and theForesthas becomea sanctuary
forancientFinnish
and
earlier
Finns
the
the
now
culture,
despised
represent heritageofthelarger
region.
in theways
The expressionthat"The Past is a foreigncountry"is illustrated
characterto the local
Selja and The Finn Forestchoose to give a distinctive
tellaboutpeoplewho
the
of
the
The
stories
narratives
past.
community
byusing
in
and
whichtheycame
a
distant
the
camefroma particular
past,
placefrom
place
in
to
which
is
made distinctive
a
how
the
came
role
they
place
plays significant
and celebrated,
and how it is experiencedtoday.Thus,in thecase of The Finn
to theplace fromwhichthe
Forestand Selja,theybecomesingularby reference
from
which
first
or
the
island
Sunnivasetsail in a boat
Finnishimmigrants
came,
Thelandofa thousandlakesand theGreenIsle
withoutoarsorsails,respectively.
inthewestoceanarepartofthementalpicturesutilisedtocreatethestoriesofthe
how comparison
also illustrate
twoplaces discussedhere.Theseinterpretations
withotherplaces and landscapesis oftenused whenwe describeoursenseofa
place.
places.Seljawas onceat thecentreof
Seljaand theFinnForestareverydifferent
the Norwegiankingdom,and the legendabout Sunnivaplayed an important
ofNorway.Today,thelegendhas a place in
politicalrolein theChristianisation
in Norway.On
ofChristianity
thiscontext
as wellas in alternative
interpretations
and diversity.
theotherhand,thehistory
oftheFinnForestis one ofmarginality
in
and
attractive.
are
demand
are
considered
such
however,
qualities
Nowadays,
in termsofthe
toSeljaand ofmystique
Thecharacteristics
ofsacrednessinrelation
inthemarking
themarketing-of
as significant-and
FinnForest,areaccentuated
thesequalitiesbecome closely
theseplaces; and, by means of the narratives,
also produced.
associatedwiththelandscape,and certainmindscapesarethereby
A place or a landscapeis experienced
in a personalway,butat thesame timea
and
deal
shared
cultural
of
established
knowledgeand framesofreference
great
TheIslandofSeljais perceivedas a
also colourtheexperience
1999,
95).
(L6fgren
suffused
with
and
the
deep Finnishforestsas a place fullof
place
legends,
mystery.They are both peripheral places, but at the same time they relate to
locationsbeyond thebordersofNorway.The Finnforesteven withdrawsfromthe
restofthenationonce a year.When relationsbeyond thenationalbordersbecome
essential,the communitiesare no longeron the margins,but are rathercentresin
different
mindscapes and narrativescirculatingin the largerworld.
A place is continuallybeing produced, reproduced, and revaluated, and
festivalscan be instrumental
ofSelja and the
in thisprocess.Thus,thehighlighting

Festivals
as Celebrations
311
FinnForestas singularplacesduringthefestivals
canbe seenas an interpretation
of the two locations' distinctivepast. In addition,the interpretations
and
oftheseselectedpastscan be seen to be in dialoguewithstoriesand
narratives
ideas thatare partof populardiscoursesthatcan be localisedin manyplaces.
Locationsare meetingplaces (see, forexample,Massey 1991). Festivalsare
in thatthey
directedtowardslocalidentity,
buttheyalso communicate
outwards,
maketheplace interesting
to outsiders-tourists,
forinstance.The twofestivals
in thisconnection.
differ
Theidea oftheFinnForestDays was tostrengthen
local
in
with
all
with
Finnish
whether
blood
their
veins,
identity
by connecting
people
FinnsorNorwegianswithFinnishancestors.
ForthreedaystheFinnforest
resigns
in The NorwegianNation,and relatesto Finland.Thus, the
its membership
in orderto
inhabitants
look out overthebordersof theirown local community
their
local
express
identity.
toas a placewherethepilgrims
cameintheir
Selja,on theotherhand,is referred
thousandsin the Middle Ages. The celebrationof Seljumannamassand the
revitalisation
oftheSunnivalegendthusrelatetoa modemand globalisedtrendin pilgrimjourneys.But in thenarrativethatthe Finnforest
renewedinterest
settlerstellaboutthemselves,
elementsthatare ofparticular
interest
to modern
wild forestareas,and the
people are also accentuated-suchas theuntouched,
of
in them.
the
olden
that
is
still
to
survive
mystique
days
thought
Cited
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Festivals As Celebrations of Place in Mo

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Festivals as Celebrations of Place in Moder Society: Two Examples from Norway

Author(s): Torunn Selberg

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