Math 132 - Complex Numbers and Functions

Many engineering problems can be treated and solved by using complex numbers and complex
functions. We will look at complex numbers, complex functions and complex differentiation.
Part I Complex Numbers
In algebra we discovered that many equations are not satisfied by any real numbers. Examples
are:
x 2 2

x 2 2 x 40 0

or

We must introduce the concept of complex numbers.

Definition: A complex number is an ordered pair z ( x, y ) of real numbers x and y. We call x
the real part of z and y the imaginary part, and we write
Im z y .

Re z x ,

Example 1: Re(4,6) 4

and

Im(4,6) 6

Two complex numbers are equal where z1 ( x1 , y1 ) and z2 ( x2 , y2 ) :

z1 z2 if and only if x1 x2 and y1 y2
Addition and Subtraction of Complex Numbers: We define for two complex numbers, the
sum and difference of z1 ( x1 , y1 ) and z2 ( x2 , y2 ) :
z1 z2 ( x1 x2 , y1 y2 ) and z1 z2 ( x1 x2 , y1 y2 ) .
Multiplication of two complex numbers is defined as follows:
z1 z2 ( x1x2 y1 y2 , x1 y2 x2 y1 )
Example 2: Let z1 (3, 4) and z2 (5, 6) then
z1 z2 (3 5, 4 (6)) (8, 2)
and
and

z1 z2 (3 5, 4 (6)) (2,10)
z1 z2 (3 5 4 ( 6),3
( 6) 4 5) (39,
2) .

We need to represent complex numbers in a manner that will make addition and multiplication
easier to do.

Math 132 - Complex Numbers and Functions

Complex numbers represented as z x iy
A complex number whose imaginary part is 0 is of the form ( x,0) and we have
( x1 ,0) ( x2 ,0) ( x1 x2 ,0) and ( x1 ,0) ( x2 ,0) ( x1 x2 ,0)
and
( x1 ,0) ( x2 ,0) ( x1 x2 ,0)
which looks like real addition, subtraction and multiplication. So we identify ( x,0) with the real
number x and therefore we can consider the real numbers as a subset of the complex numbers.
We let the letter i (0,1) and we call i a purely imaginary number.
and so we can consider the complex number
Now consider i 2 i i (0,1) (0,1) ( 1,0)
2
i 1 = the real number 1 . We also get yi y (0,1) (0, y )
And so we have:

( x, y ) ( x,0) (0, y ) x iy

Now we can write addition and multiplication as follows:

z1 z2 ( x1 x2 , y1 y2 ) x1 x2 i ( y1 y2 )
and

z1 z2 ( x1 x2 y1 y2 , x1 y2 x2 y1 ) = x1 x2 y1 y2 i ( x1 y2 x2 y1 ) .

Example 3: Let z1 = (2,3)= 2 +3i and z 2 = (5,-4) = 5 -4i , then

z1 z2 (2 3i ) (5 4i) 7 i
and
z1 z2 (2 3i ) (5 4i ) 10
15i 8i
12i 2 22 7i

The Complex Plane

The geometric representation of complex numbers is to represent the complex number ( x, y ) as
the point ( x, y ) .
y-axis

g x iy

2
1
1

x-axis

g(2, 3) 2 3i
2

Math 132 - Complex Numbers and Functions

So the real number ( x,0) is the point on the horizontal x-axis, the purely imaginary number
yi (0, y ) is on the vertical y-axis. For the complex number ( x, y ) , x is the real part and y is
the imaginary part.
Example 4. Locate 2-3i on the graph above.
How do we divide complex numbers? Lets introduce the conjugate of a complex number then
go to division.
Given the complex number z x iy , define the conjugate z x iy x iy
We can divide by using the following:
z1 x1 iy1 x1 iy1 x2 iy2 x1 x2 y1 y2 i ( x2 y1 x1 y2 )

z2 x2 iy2 x2 iy2 x2 iy2

x22 y22

Example 5.

2 3i (2 3i)(3 4i ) 6 12i 2 8i 9i
6
17

i
2
3 4i (3 4i )(3 4i)
9 16i
25 25

Problem Set I
Find
1. i 2

2. i 3

3. i 4

5. i 1

4. i 21

6. i 2

Let z1 5 6i and z2 3 2i and z3 1 3i , find

10. z1 z2 z3
11. 2 z2 3 z1
13. z1 z2
Graph the following:

z1
z3
16. 2 i
14.

17. i

19. Find the solutions of

x 2 2 .

20. Find the solution of

x 2 2 x 40 0 .

7. i 3

8. i 4

9. i 24

12. z3 z 2
i
15.
z2
18. 1 3i and its conjugate.

Complex Numbers in Polar Form

It is possible to express complex numbers in polar form. If the point z ( x, y ) x iy is
represented by polar coordinates r , , then we can write x r cos , y r sin and
3

Math 132 - Complex Numbers and Functions

z r cos ir sin rei . r is the modulus or absolute value of z, | z | r x 2 y 2 , and is

y
the argument of z, arctan . The values of r and determine z uniquely, but the converse
x
is not true. The modulus r is determined uniquely by z, but is only determined up to a multiple
of 2. There are infinitely many values of which satisfy the equations x r cos , y r sin ,
but any two of them differ by some multiple of 2. Each of these angles is called an argument
of z, but, by convention, one of them is called the principal argument.
If z is a non-zero complex number, then the unique real number , which satisfies
x z cos , y z sin ,
is called the principal argument of z, denoted by arg( z ) .
Definition

Note: The distance from the origin to the point ( x, y ) is z , the modulus of z; the argument of z

is the angle arctan

y
. Geometrically, is the directed angle measured from the positive xx

axis to the line segment from the origin to the point ( x, y ) . When z 0 , the angle is
undefined.
The polar form of a complex number allows one to multiply and divide complex number
i
i
more easily than in the Cartesian form. For instance, if z1 r1e 1 and z2 r2e 2 then

z z

y
z1 z2 r1r2ei (1 2 ) ,

z1 r1 i (1 2 )
e
. These formulae follow directly from DeMoivres formula.
z2 r2

Math 132 - Complex Numbers and Functions

Example 6. For z 1 i , we get r 12 12 2 and arctan

principal value of is

9
, but
would work also.
4
4

arctan1 . The
x
4

Multiplication and Division in Polar Form

Let z1 r1 cos 1 ir1 sin 1 r1 (cos 1 i sin 1 ) and z2 r2 (cos 2 i sin 2 ) then we have
z1 z2 r1r2 (cos(1 2 ) i sin(1 2 ))

and

z1 r1
(cos(1 2 ) i sin(1 2 ))
z2 r2

z2 3 i 2 cos i sin
Example 7: z1 1 i 2 cos i sin and
4
4
6
6

5
5

i sin
Then z1 z2 2 cos i sin 2 cos i sin = 2 2 cos
4
4
6
6
12
12

10 5

Since
4 6 24 12
And

2 cos i sin
z1
4
4
2

cos i sin
=
=

z2

2
12
12
2 cos i sin
6
6

) i sin( ) = r 2 (cos 2 i sin 2 )

We can use z 2 z z r r (cos(
And so:
DeMoivre's Theorem:
z n r n (cos n i sin n )
where n is an positive integer.
5

Math 132 - Complex Numbers and Functions

Let r 1 to get:

(cos i sin ) n cos n i sin n .

Example 8: Compute (1 i )6
6

1 i 2 cos i sin
4
4

2 cos 6 i sin 6
4
4

3
3

8 cos
i sin
2
2

8i
6

Roots of Complex Numbers:

Consider z r (cos i sin ) = wn R n (cos n i sin n )

(Equation 1)

where w R (cos i sin ) . Then R n r , and so n or

.
n

. And
n n
4
6
n 4 implies
. However n 6 implies
.
n n
n n

However n 2 also satisfies Equation 1 and so

And continuing n k implies

We get

. for k any integer up to n.

n n

k 2 )
k 2 )
z n x cos
i sin
,
n
n

Example 9:

k=0, 1, 2, 3, ggg, (n-1).

Find the square roots of i.

i sin , we let
2
2

1
1
1
1
w1 1 cos i sin
cos
i sin

i
is one square root of i . The
4
4
2
2
2 2
2 2

second square root of i is :

Since i cos

5
5
1
1


w1 1 cos i sin
cos
i sin

i
.
4
4
2
2
4
4

Math 132 - Complex Numbers and Functions

Example 10. Find the sixth root of 1.
There will be six roots:

3 1


z1 6 1 cos i sin
i
2 2
6
6

2
2
z2 6 1 cos i sin
i
6 6
6 6

3 1
4
4
z3 6 1 cos i sin

i
2 2
6 6
6 6

3 1
6
6
z4 6 1 cos i sin

i
2 2
6 6
6 6

8
8
z5 6 1 cos i sin
i
6 6
6 6

3 1
10
10
z6 6 1 cos

i
i sin
6
6
2 2
6
6

Math 132 - Complex Numbers and Functions

Example 11: Compute

4i

3
3

4 cos
i sin = 2(cos i sin )
2
2

(3 k 2 )
3 7 11 15
, ,
,
Where
. So
2 4
8 8 8
8
Solution:

4i =

4i 2 cos i sin
8

= 2 cos
i sin
8

3
2(0.3827 0.9239i )
8
7
2(0.9239 0.3827i)
8

11
11
2 cos
i sin
2(0.3827 0.9239i )
8
8

15
15
2 cos
i sin
2(0.9239 0.3827i ) .
8
8

Problem Set II
Write in polar form:
1. 3i

2. 2 2i

2 3i

3.

Write in rectangular form:

3
3

i sin
4. 32 cos
4
4

5. 3(cos i sin )

7. Find (2 2i ) 4

8. Find

9. Find 4 16 16i

10. Find

3 i
5

32

6.

2 cos i sin
4
4

Math 132 - Complex Numbers and Functions

Part II Functions, Neighborhoods and Limits
We consider the concept of a function of a complex number. For y f ( x) x 2 , where x and y
are real numbers, we know about limits, continuity and derivatives. Let the complex number
w f ( z ) z 2 , where z x iy and w ( x iy ) 2 x 2 y 2 2 xyi . Here x and y are independent
variables and w u iv where u x 2 y 2 and v 2 xy . This is an example of a complex
valued function, w, of a complex variable z. In general, let
w u iv

where u u ( x, y ) and v v( x, y ).
gw
gz

Distance in the complex plane.

In the complex plane let z1 x1 iy1 and z2 x2 iy2 then
| z1 z2 | ( x1 x2 ) 2 ( y1 y2 ) 2
is the distance between the complex numbers z1 and z2 Note that | z | x 2 y 2 is the distance
from the origin to z.
Definition: A neighborhood N ( z0 , r ) of the point z0 in the complex plane is the set of points z
where r 0 and {z | z z0 | r}
Definition: A function w f ( z ) is said to have a limit L as z approaches z0 ( and written
lim f ( z ) L ) iff f ( z ) is defined in a neighborhood N ( z0 , r ) , r 0 except at z0 and the
z z0

values of f are close to L for all z close to z0 . Mathematically: for every 0 , we can find
0 such that for all z z0 in the neighborhood N ( z0 , r ) , so that if 0 | z z0 | , then
| f ( z ) L | .
Notice that this definition of a limit is similar to the definition in calculus. The difference here is
that z can approach z0 from any direction in the complex plane.
f ( z) L .
Definition: A function w f ( z ) is continuous at z z0 if f ( z0 ) is defined and lim
z z0
By definition a complex function that is continuous at z0 is defined in a neighborhood of z0 .
f ( z ) is continuous in a domain D if it is continuous at each point in the domain D.

Math 132 - Complex Numbers and Functions

The derivative of a function f ( z ) at a point z is defined as:
f '( z ) lim
h 0

f ( z h) f ( z )
h

provided that limit exists.

Example 12: Let f ( z ) z 2 . To compute f '( z ) we consider
( z h) 2 z 2
z 2 2 zh h 2 z 2
2 zh h 2
lim
lim
lim
lim(2 z h) 2 z
h 0
h 0
h0
h 0
h
h
h

The rules for derivatives are the same for calculus:

(cf )' cf ' c=constant
( f g )' f ' g '
( fg )' f ' g fg '
f
f ' g fg '
'
g2
g
Definition: A function f ( z ) is defined to be analytic in the domain D if f ( z ) is defined and has
a derivative at all points of D.
The Exponential Function e z
The definition of the exponential function e z e xiy e x eiy is given in terms of the real functions
e x , sin y , and cos y.
e z e xiy e x eiy e x (cos y i sin y )
To show why this is true, consider the power series expansion: e x =1 x
and substitute iy for x, to get:
(iy ) 2 (iy )3
(iy ) n
= 1 iy
e 1 iy

2!
3!
n!

y2 y4 y6
y3 y5
iy
1

i
y

=
+
e

2! 4! 6!
3! 5!

iy

10

x 2 x3
xn

2! 3!
n!

y 2 iy 3
(iy ) n

2! 3!
n!

y7

= cos y i sin y .
7!

Math 132 - Complex Numbers and Functions

The formula

e z e xiy e x (cos y i sin y ) is known as Eulers formula.

Theorem:

e z is never zero.

Proof: e z e z e 0 1 , therefore, e z cannot be zero.

iy
If y is real, then e 1 .

Theorem:
2

iy
iy
Proof: eiy cos 2 y sin 2 y 1 and e 0 , which implies e 1 .

Theorem:

e z 1 if and only if z 2n i , where n is an integer.

Proof: If z 2n i , e z cos 2n i sin 2n 1 . Conversely, suppose e z 1 , then

e x cos y 1, e x sin y 0 . Since e x 0 , this implies sin y 0 ; and y k where k is an integer.
Substituting this into e x cos y 1 implies e x (1) k 1 . Hence k is even, since e x 0 . Therefore,
e x 1 and x 0 .
Theorem:

e z1 e z2 if and only if z1 z2 2n i , where n is an integer.

Proof: e z1 e z2 if and only if e z1 z2 1 . Then use the previous theorem.

Definition of sin z and cos z
To get the definitions of sin z and cos z we substitute y for y in Eulers Formula to get:

y2 y4 y6
y3 y5 y 7
i

+
e iy = 1

= cos y i sin y .
2! 4! 6!
3! 5! 7!

Adding eiy and e iy together and dividing by 2, we get:

eiy e iy
cos y .
2
Subtracting e iy from eiy , and dividing by 2i , we get: sin y

We now define sin z

eiz e iz
2i

and

eiz e iz
.
cos z
2

11

eiy e iy
.
2i

Math 132 - Complex Numbers and Functions

Substitute ix for y in cos y

eiy e iy
e x e x
to get cos(ix)
cosh x .
2
2

Similarly we get sin(ix) i sinh x .

Facts:
1. For z x 0i , to get e z e xi 0 e x
2. The derivative of e z is e z .
3. e z1 z2 e z1 e z2
4. For z iy we get eiy cos y i sin y .
5. In polar form z x iy r (cos i sin ) rei .
6. It now follows that e z 2 i e z e 2 i e z 1 e z .
7. e i 1
8. cosh z

e z e z
2

sinh z

e z e z
2

sin( z ) sin z

9. sin 2 z cos 2 z 1

cos( z ) cos z

Logarithmic Functions
If z e w then we write w ln z , called the natural logarithm of z. Thus the natural logarithm
function is the inverse of the exponential function and can be defined by
w ln z ln r i ( 2 k ) where k 0, 1, 2, 3,
where z rei rei 2 i .
So we have that w ln z is multiple-valued, and in fact is infinitely many-valued. If we let k 0
then w ln z ln r i ( 2 k ) ln r i , where 0 2 called the principal value or
principal branch of ln z .
To find the values of ln(1 i ) , let z e w , where z rei r (cos i sin ) and so
w u iv which implies z eu iv eu (cos v i sin v) .

12

Math 132 - Complex Numbers and Functions

We equate the real and imaginary parts:
(1) eu cos v r cos

(2) eu cos v r sin

Squaring (1) and (2) and adding, we find e 2u r 2

or eu r . Thus, from (1) and (2),

r cos v r cos

r sin v r sin

and so v 2k .

Hence we have

w u iv ln r i ( 2k )

Example 13: Compute ln(1 i ).

Since 1 i 2e 1 i 2e

7 i
2 k i
4

, we have
1
7 i
7 i

2k i ln 2
2 k i
2
4
4

ln(1 i ) ln 2
The principle value is

1
7 i
ln 2
(let k 0 ).
2
4

Problem Set III.

Sketch the point sets defined by the following
1. | z 1| 2
2. | z 2 | 3
3. | z 1 i | 2
Show that
4. sin z sin( z )

5. cosh z cosh( z ) 6. (e z ) 2 e2 z

Evaluate each of the following

7. e 2 i

8. ei 1

9. sin(3 i) 10. e 2 i

11. cos i

Find all possible values of ln z :

12. ln 2i

13. ln(9)

14. ln(1 2i )

15. ln(i 3 )

16. ln(1 i )

17. ln(1)

18. cos(2 3 i)

19. sec(1 i )

1
cos(1 i )

20 Show that e z 1 if and only if z 2n i where n is any integer.

13