Curtin University

Department of Mechanical
Engineering
Fluid Mechanics
Lab Report
Flow Through Pipes

By
Name: Dhruv Patel
Student Id: 18109775
Date Lab Performed: 26th May 2016
Due Date: 9th June 2016

Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction....................................................................... 1
2.0 Objective...........................................................................1
3.0 Background.......................................................................1
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4

Reynolds Number.....................................................................1
Hydraulic Gradient...................................................................3
Friction factor..........................................................................3
Moody Chart............................................................................4

4.0 Procedure.......................................................................... 4

4.1 Apparatus................................................................................4
4.2 Water manometer readings......................................................5
4.3 Mercury Manometer Readings...................................................5

5.0 Experimental results..........................................................6

6.0 Analysis............................................................................. 9
7.0 Discussion.......................................................................10
8.0 Conclusion.......................................................................11
9.0 Appendix..........................................................................12

Appendix I....................................................................................12
Appendix II...................................................................................14
Appendix III..................................................................................15

List of Tables and figure

Table 1: Properties of water, mercury and pipe...........................6
Table 2: Water Manometers Reading..........................................6
Table 3: Mercury Manometer Reading........................................6
Table 4: Results Sheet..............................................................7
Table 5: Experimental and Theoretical Friction Factor.................9
Y
Figure 1: Laminar flow in a Pipe................................................2
Figure 2: Turbulent flow in a pipe..............................................2
Figure 3: Transitional flow in a Pipe...........................................3
Figure 4: Laboratory equipment for the study of flow through a
pipe......................................................................................... 4
Fig 5: Hydraulic Gradient vs Mean velocity.................................8
Fig 6: Friction factor vs Reynolds Number..................................8

1.0 Introduction
The purpose of this laboratory session is to further develop the
understanding of flow in pipes where the laminar, turbulent and
transitional flows were flows that were dealt with. In this experiment, the
pressure gradient in the pipe was measured and the pipes friction factor
was evaluated for different flow rates.

2.0 Objective
The main objectives of this experiment are as follow:

To identify the values of Reynolds number for the three laminar,

transitional and turbulent flows in a pipe with a circular crosssectional.

To understand the concept of friction applied in pipe flow and to

obtain the friction factor for different flow rates and Reynolds
number using both the diameter of the pipe and the graphical
method.

To identify the floe-speed regions for different flow from relationship

of the velocity and the hydraulic gradient using the graphical
method.

To carefully understand the concept of the Darcy friction and know

how to calculate for laminar and turbulent flow.

3.0 Background
Before performing the experiment there few aspects, which needs to be
looked down fully to understand the fluid, flow through pipes.

3.1Reynolds Number
The Reynolds number is the dimensionless quantity used to predict the
flow patters in the different fluid flow situation. Reynolds number is a
measure of the importance of inertia to viscosity effects.
Reynolds Number (Re)
Fluid density ( ) X Typical Flow speed (Um) X Typical length(D)
Dynamic viscosity of the fluid ( v )
There are three types of flows that can be determined by using the
Reynolds Number:

1. Laminar flow
2. Transitional flow
3. Turbulent flow
There values can be affected by the friction factor within the pipe.
For the flow in round pipe, we have:
Re < 2100- Laminar flow
2100 < Re < 4000- Transitional flow
Re > 4000 - Turbulent flow
When the Re<2100, the flow is said to be laminar and therefore it is
steady and smooth. As the velocity increases the Re increases and
therefore the flow enter a transitional phase where the range of Re is,
2100<Re<4000, in this phase the fluid is not considered to be smooth or
chaotic. As the velocity increases further, the fluid enters the turbulent
flow where the fluid loses energy and the range of turbulent flow is,
Re>4000.
The flow is laminar at very low flow rates and dominates viscous effect. In
the fully develop region, the viscous forces are in equilibrium with
pressure forces so that the velocity profile and pressure gradient remain
constant along the pipe. The velocity at the pipe wall is zero hence; the
fluid is no slip at wall. The velocity reaches maximum at pipe centreline.

Figure 1: Laminar flow in a Pipe

In turbulent flow (Re > 4000), the fluid experiences random, chaotic
motion, including strong eddy transport on a macro scale, compared with
the molecular motion in laminar flow. At high velocity, the fluid
continuously undergoes changes in both size and magnitude by which it
mixes in an irregular manner and results to a change in the flows
behavior constantly. It is however time dependent as it takes time to be
created. At the higher flow speeds associated with the turbulent flow the
in pipes the effect of viscosity only penetrates a small region close to wall
as shown in figure below.

Figure 2: Turbulent flow in a pipe

Lastly transitional flow, this is when the velocity of the fluid increases at
some certain point when the flow is neither laminar nor turbulent.
Because the increase in velocity the fluid flow is first broken down then
turns to turbulent flow. It is a mixture of laminar and turbulent flow as
shown in figure.

Figure 3: Transitional flow in a Pipe

3.2

Hydraulic Gradient

Hydraulic gradient is the ratio of loss of head to length. It is define as:

h
i= L
L
As the fluid flow through the pipe the viscosity of the fluid and surface
inside the pipe offers resistance to the flow and in overcoming the same,
energy of flowing water is lost. This loss of energy over the weight of
water is called loss of head hL and is given by
Darcys formula:
2
LV
h L=f
D2g
Where, D is the diameter of pipe, V is the mean velocity of fluid flow and L
is the length across which the loss is measured and f is know as Darcys
friction coefficient.

3.3

Friction factor

The friction factor (f) is the ratio of wall shear stress to internal force of
the flow. Its is define as:

P
f=

( DL )

V
2

Darcys Friction Factor

This is used to calculate the friction factors for laminar and turbulent
flows.

For laminar flow;

64

From the above equation, it shows that when the Reynolds Number
increases the friction factor decreases.
f=

For Turbulent flow in smooth pipes and Re < 100,000.

f=

0.316
1

4
Dracys Friction factor depends on Reynolds number and relative

roughness
. is define as the small diameter of small uniform and
D
grain coated inside the pipe wall that yield the same limiting value for
rough condition
Furthermore, friction factor can be found using Moody chart (shown in

Appendix A). It is a function of relative roughness

where = pipe
D
roughness and D = pipe diameter. The moody chart shows all three flows,
for each flow there is a corresponding value for the friction factor, the
relative roughness and the Reynolds Number.

3.4

Moody Chart

The Moody chart or Moody diagram is a graph in non-dimensional form

that relates the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor f, Reynolds number Re, and
relative roughness for fully developed flow in a circular pipe. It is used to
find estimate friction factor.

4.0 Procedure
4.1Apparatus
A small horizontal pipe of diameter 3mm is utilised to measure the friction
loss. The figure below displays the positioning of the lab that outlines the
path of water from the supply to the bell-mouth opening to a straight
pipe. The water is carried to the straight pipe through a flexible hose. It is
4

through this pipe that the friction loss will be measured. An upstream
section is made at a distance of 45-pipe diameter from the entrance of
the pipe, where piezometer trappings are located. Similarly, a
downstream exists 40 pipe diameters away from the pipe exit. The
accuracy of the distance of the streams needs to be maintained so that
the results are not being influenced by disturbances near the pipe
entrance or exit. The differential pressure is measured when the
piezometer tapping is connected to an inverted U-tube manometer. The
rate of flow along the pipe is measured using the timing of water
collection in a measuring cylinder.

Figure 4: Laboratory equipment for the study of flow through a pipe

The first step is to make sure that the manometer and the other
instruments are all on the one level and stand vertically. The readings are
taken in 2 sets. The lower flow rates are measured using the water
manometer and the mercury manometer is used for higher flow rates.
The readings are taken in 2 sets due to the large range of head
differences. In total, 30 reading were recorded in the following manner:

4.2Water manometer readings

1. Open the bench supply valve and adjust until there is a steady flow
down the supply tank overflow pipe.

2. Made sure the needle valve is closed initially and overflow was
allowed to occur before starting the experiment.

3. Turned on the isolating tap to read the manometer.

4. Used the needle valve to regulate the flow rates through the pipe
for the 12 readings, started from a low flow rate.

5. Took readings of water manometer h1 and h2.

6. Collected a suitable quantity of water in measuring cylinder and

recorded the time taken for the collection, hence made sure the exit
pipe is above the water and kept the cylinder below the apparatus.

7. 12 results were recorded after repeating steps 4, 5 and 6.

4.3Mercury Manometer Readings

1. The water supply to the pipe is directly from the bench supply
instead of the elevated tank, this will allow higher flow rates.

2. Isolate the water manometer by switching the tap to the mercury

manometer.

3. Made sure the needle valve was closed initially to make sure that
both mercury manometers levels are equal.

4. Used the needle value to regulate water flow by turning it by a

quarter and then read the mercury levels of h1 and h2.

5. Suitable amount of water was collected in the cylinder and the time
was noted down for collecting the amount.

6. 18 tests were taken by repeating step 4 and 5 for the transitional

and turbulent flows.

7. Calculate the flow rates in a similar way as in the 1st procedure.

5.0 Experimental results

Table 1: Properties of water, mercury and pipe
Density of water (kg/m3)
1000
Dynamic viscosity of water at 20C
(N.s/m2)
Diameter of pipe (mm)
Length of pipe between piezometer
trappings (mm)
Roughness height of pipe-wall
material, (mm)

0.001002
3
524
0.0015

Density of mercury (kg/m3)

13500

Table 2: Water Manometers Reading

Tes
t
No.

Qty
(ml)

t (s)

Flow rate, Q
(m3/s)

V (m/s)

h1
(mm)

h2
(mm)

Hydraulic
gradient, i

10

19.63

5.09424E-07

0.073

352

338

0.027

50

41.42

1.20715E-06

0.171

360

328

0.062

50

27.48

1.81951E-06

0.258

364

318

0.088

50

19.28

2.59336E-06

0.367

374

308

0.126

50

14.8

3.37838E-06

0.478

382

295

0.167

50

12.26

4.0783E-06

0.577

391

282

0.209

50

20.8

2.40385E-06

0.341

410

260

0.287

100

19.25

5.19481E-06

0.735

423

245

0.34

150

17.08

8.7822E-06

1.243

438

229

0.399

10

150

25.13

5.96896E-06

0.845

454

208

0.47

11

150

24.36

6.15764E-06

0.872

469

195

0.523

12

150

22.98

6.52742E-06

0.924

489

165

0.619

h2
(mm)
140
135

Hydraulic
gradient, i
0.072
0.334

Table 3: Mercury Manometer Reading

Test
No.
13
14

Qty
(ml)
100
100

t (s)
30.93
18.64

Flow rate, Q
(m3/s)
3.23311E-06
5.36481E-06

V (m/s)
0.458
0.759

h1 (mm)
143
149

15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30

150
200
250
250
300
300
300
350
350
400
400
400
500
500
500
500

21.74
22.16
23.12
20.59
22.43
21.66
20.21
21.27
21.27
22.83
33.1
20.86
25.98
24.93
24.44
23.99

6.89972E-06
9.02527E-06
1.08131E-05
1.21418E-05
1.33749E-05
1.38504E-05
1.48441E-05
1.64551E-05
1.64551E-05
1.75208E-05
1.20846E-05
1.91755E-05
1.92456E-05
2.00562E-05
2.04583E-05
2.0842E-05

0.977
1.277
1.53
1.718
1.893
1.96
2.101
2.328
2.328
2.479
1.71
2.713
2.723
2.838
2.895
2.949

154
161
170
178
185
193
198
204
210
217
219
223
228
234
239
247

130
123
116
109
102
95
92
86
81
75
73
69
64
59
55
48

0.573
0.907
1.289
1.646
1.98
2.338
2.529
2.815
3.078
3.388
3.483
3.674
3.913
4.175
4.39
4.748

Table 4: Results Sheet

Laminar Flow-L
Test No. Hydraulic gradient, i
Transition Flow-T
Turbulent
1 Flow-TU
0.027
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26

0.062
0.088
0.126
0.167
0.209
0.287
0.34
0.399
0.47
0.523
0.619
0.072
0.334
0.573
0.907
1.289
1.646
1.98
2.338
2.529
2.815
3.078
3.388
3.483
3.674

V (m/s)
0.073
0.171
0.258
0.367
0.478
0.577
0.341
0.735
1.243
0.845
0.872
0.924
0.458
0.759
0.977
1.277
1.53
1.718
1.893
1.96
2.101
2.328
2.328
2.479
1.71
2.713

Reynolds
number, Re
215.775
511.307
770.681
1098.46
1430.967
1727.431
1018.188
2200.344
3719.843
2528.25
2608.166
2764.792
1369.435
2272.351
2922.489
3822.799
4580.083
5142.862
5665.173
5866.566
6287.473
6969.823
6969.823
7421.219
5118.623
8122.072

L
L
L
L
L
L
L
T
T
T
T
T
L
T
T
T
TU
TU
TU
TU
TU
TU
TU
TU
TU
TU

Friction
factor, f
0.2967
0.1252
0.0831
0.0583
0.0448
0.0371
0.0629
0.0291
0.0173
0.0254
0.0246
0.0232
0.0468
0.0282
0.0219
0.0168
0.0385
0.0374
0.0365
0.0362
0.0355
0.0346
0.0346
0.0341
0.0374
0.0333

27
28
29
30

3.913
4.175
4.39
4.748
R = 0

2.723
2.838
2.895
2.949

8151.772
8495.108
8665.427
8827.972

TU
TU
TU
TU

0.0333
0.033
0.0328
0.0327

Hydraulic Gradient vs Mean Velocity

5
4

Laminar Flow

R = 0.79

Linear (Laminar Flow)

Hydraulic Gradient i

Transient Flow
Linear (Transient Flow)

Turbulent Flow

1
0

Linear (Turbulent Flow)

1

1.5

2.5

3.5

Mean Velocity V (m/s)

Fig 5: Hydraulic Gradient vs Mean velocity

Experimental Friction Factor and Reynolds Number

0.04
0.04

Laminar Flow

0.04

Logarithmic (Laminar
Flow)

Friction Factor, f 0.03

Transient Flow
Linear (Transient Flow)

0.03

Turbulent Flow

0.03
0.03

Linear (Turbulent Flow)

0

5000

10000

Reynolds Number, Re

Fig 6: Friction factor vs Reynolds Number

6.0 Analysis
The theoretical values of friction were obtained by plotting the values of
Reynolds number on the Moody chart. For the turbulent flow, the value of
friction was predicted by plotting the range of Reynolds numbers on the
moody chart using the equivalent roughness /D. Where is the
roughness height of the pipe wall material and D is the Diameter of the
Pipe. To choose the curve from the Moody graph we use equivalent
roughness and plot the range of Reynolds numbers on the curve to obtain
corresponding friction factor value.
0.0015
=
=0.0005 mm
D
3
The obtained theoretical values from Moody chart are as follow:
Table 5: Experimental and Theoretical Friction Factor
Test No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26

Reynolds number,
Re
215.775
511.307
770.681
1098.46
1430.967
1727.431
1018.188
2200.344
3719.843
2528.25
2608.166
2764.792
1369.435
2272.351
2922.489
3822.799
4580.083
5142.862
5665.173
5866.566
6287.473
6969.823
6969.823
7421.219
5118.623
8122.072

Friction factor, f
(EXPERIMENTAL)
0.2967
0.1252
0.0831
0.0583
0.0448
0.0371
0.0629
0.0291
0.0173
0.0254
0.0246
0.0232
0.0468
0.0282
0.0219
0.0168
0.0385
0.0374
0.0365
0.0362
0.0355
0.0346
0.0346
0.0341
0.0374
0.0333

L
L
L
L
L
L
L
T
T
T
T
T
L
T
T
T
TU
TU
TU
TU
TU
TU
TU
TU
TU
TU

Friction factor, f
(THEORETICAL)
0.095
0.07
0.06
0.059
0.048
0.0375
0.05
0.028
0.017
0.028
0.0245
0.0235
0.052
0.028
0.023
0.017
0.038
0.0362
0.036
0.036
0.0345
0.034
0.034
0.0338
0.036
0.032

10

27
28
29
30

8151.772
8495.108
8665.427
8827.972

0.0333
0.033
0.0328
0.0327

TU
TU
TU
TU

0.032
0.032
0.0321
0.031

Due to the transparency of the chart the obtained values are not
accurate. From the fig5 it is observed that the range of transition zone is
2200.343114<Re<3822.798281. The flow-speed regions of laminar and
turbulent flow are shown in fig5.

7.0 Discussion
In this experiment it is clearly shown that there is a relationship between
the Hydraulic Gradient (i) and the friction factor f and also a relationship
between the Reynolds Number (Re) and the flow rate. In order to get the
accurate results through out the experiment the density of water and
mercury, diameter and volume of pipe were kept constant.
The first 12 readings show a laminar regime and a transitional regime as
shown in the table2 above. It is noticeable that there is a linear
relationship between the hydraulic gradient and the velocity of the fluid
for the first twelve tests. However there were a few errors in the
experiment as the graph is not 100% linear. These errors can include
systematic or human error, as the values may have not been read
properly. If the Moody chart is carefully studied it can be seen that the
experimental values were close to the theoretical values. The theoretical
values of the Reynolds number for the laminar regime was Re<2100 and
the highest experimental value found in this experiment was 1727.431,
which is only off by 1.02% of the theoretical value. Figure 5 shows that at
low velocity the turbulent flow moves to transitional regime and back to
laminar regime as the velocity of the flow increases. However as soon as
there in an increase to the velocity (1m/s) the flow turns to the
transitional regime and that is when the actual transition happens. To
have more accurate results, increase the number of tests and add 50ml
every time instead of 100ml, this will not give the exact values but it can
reduce the number of errors and give a better accurate average value.
In figure 6 the turbulent regime can clearly be seen and compared to the
Moody chart the turbulent flow is more chaotic and less linear. The
experimental turbulent regime starts at Re=4580.083 and the theoretical
Re> 4000. There is an error and therefore to improve the test results
more tests should be done for every test, at least 3 people should record
the time taken to fill the cylinder and have an average of all 3.
The inconsistencies can be accounted for by the amount of friction loss
occurred through the pipe. The dynamic viscosity of water and mercury
affects the Reynolds number and these 2 factors are altered by
temperature. Errors have occurred whilst discovering the hydraulic
gradient. One proposed reason for the errors is the discharged collection
timings. For example, a higher flow of mater results in a difference in
height, which lowers the hydraulic gradient.
11

The friction factors are calculated using the data obtained in the
experiment. Compared to Moody chart, the line 0.0005 matches in
context to roughness. The values for the friction factors are seen in table
5, and the Moody chart is found in the appendix. This can allow for a
visual representation between the similarity of the theoretical friction
factors and the Moody chart.
Compared to the Moody chart, the starting friction factor value is 0.2976,
which is a bit too high in the laminar region. The end value of the
experimental friction factor is 0.0371 and the Reynolds Number is
1727.431 as compared to this Moody chart, the end value is 0.0375. The
experimental value was only by around 0.006, which is very low
considering that the starting friction factor was too high.
For the transitional region, the theoretical value for the friction factor is
about 0.038 and the experimental value is 0.0385, a difference of 0.005,
which is quite low.
For the turbulent flow, the nature of it is that it decreases the friction
factor and that it has been justified in the experiment as seen in table 3.
It can also be justified in the Moody chart. The friction factor remains
constant as the Reynolds Number increases. Relative roughness constant
ks
was used for comparing the values.
D
Equipment error and human error are the 2 main sources of error. It is
more likely to be human error due to inaccuracy of value as the values
were taken with the assumption of the human eye. Temperature and the
layout of the apparatus can give a difference in theoretical and practical
results.
Friction factor and Reynolds number are inversely proportional, as
observed from the experimental results. This complies with the theory. For
example, a high Reynolds number with laminar flow will have a higher
friction factor whilst with turbulent flow, the vice versa will occur. A large
friction factor will create a viscous effect. The loss of velocity profile will
only occur when the inertial pressure inside the pipe is too large the effect
of friction is no longer relevant.

8.0 Conclusion
The results obtained prove that operation was successful as all the
objectives were achieved. The Reynolds number and the friction were
calculated as well as identifying the types of flows. This experiment helps
to understand the concept of fluid flow through pipes with a relative
roughness and teaches how to calculate the friction factors for the
different regimes. Furthermore, it also helps in understanding the
relationship between the hydraulic gradient and the friction factor.
A background research was carried out and as expected the laminar flow
was linear, the transitional regime had both laminar and turbulent

12

characteristics and lastly the turbulent flow had a chaotic nature and was
not linear.
This experiment contains errors such as human errors that do not make it
100% accurate, but the level of accuracy is relatively high. This can be
improved by increasing the number of tests and getting an average time
for the water to fill up the cylinder, moreover, having the cylinders high at
an eye level will improve the accuracy. However this will be time
consuming.

9.0 Appendix
Appendix I
Calculations:
1. Flow rate,

Q(m 3 /s) :

Flow rate, Q =

Volome ,V ( m3 )
Time ( s )

1 ml=1 106 m3

Test 5: Qty (ml) = 50, Time (s) = 14.8

Therefore,
Flow rate, Q =

Volome ,V ( m3 ) (50 106 )

=
=3.38 106 m3 / s
Time( s)
14.8

2. Mean velocity calculation,

Mean velocity, V =

V (m/s ) :

Flow rate ,Q(m 3 / s)

Area( m 2)

and

Area=

(D )
4

13

Test 5: Q =3.38

6 3
10 m /s , Area =

7.07 10 m

Therefore,
Flow rate ,Q(m3 / s) (4.01 106 )
=
=0.478(m/ s)
V=
Area(m 2)
7.07 106

3. Hydraulic gradient, i:
L=524 mm=0.524 m
For water manometer:
(h h )
i= 1 2
L
For mercury manometer:
(h h )(12.5)
i= 1 2
L

4. Reynolds number, Re:

=
Where

D
v
v=

5. Friction Factor calculation:

For laminar flow:
64
f ==

For turbulent flow:

0.316
f ==
1
4

14

Appendix II
Moody Chart attached.

15

Appendix III
Lab Sheet 1 and 2 attached.

16