Impression Management in the Resume and Its Cover Letter

Author(s): Stephen B. Knouse, Robert A. Giacalone and Hinda Pollard

Source: Journal of Business and Psychology, Vol. 3, No. 2, Recent Developments in
Non-Traditional Employment Testing (Winter, 1988), pp. 242-249
Published by: Springer
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25092182
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JOURNAL OF BUSINESS AND PSYCHOLOGY

Volume

3, No.

2, Winter

1988

IN THE

IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT

RESUME AND ITS COVER LETTER

B. Knouse

Stephen

Louisiana

of Southwestern

University

Robert A. Giacalone
of Richmond

University

Hinda

Pollard

Bryant

ABSTRACT:
2 (impression
(impression
versus
low

ment

versus

self-monitor)

design

resume

agement
cussed

management

but

perceptions

versus

management
rated

Managers

managers

Eighty-one

in terms

the

impression
on
positively

read application

nonimpression
nonimpression
and
completed

management
self-confidence.

materials
cover

management
management
a survey
cover

letter

resume)
on

but a limited possible

in a

arrayed
letter)
x 2

(high

their

perceptions.
on several
negatively
man
the
impression

rated
They
across
the
board.
almost
Implications
negatively
of impression
role
of the apparently
counterproductive

in the resume

College

were

dis

manage

role in the cover letter.

in the job market,

With
increased
emphasis
greater
competitiveness
the
in
is being placed on the employment
process,
particular
application
on the proper prepa
cover letter. Advice
resume
and its accompanying
is a
oneself
and cover letter in order to "market"
ration of the resume
& Brannen,
theme
1986).
(e.g., Broussard
popular
the first in
the resume and its cover letter are frequently
Because
an
a
about
receives
formation
popular
applicant,
employer
potential
a good first impression
1979).
articles
stress creating
(Wyant & Vice,
even
at
and
times
is
of
credentials
Moreover,
encouraged
exaggeration
In other
1982).
(Kiechel,
appropriate
"gamesmanship"
use
are
to
advised
management
impression
words,
being
applicants
and
to control
motivation,
images of one's competence,
(IM)?attempts
evidence
Current
others
toward
1980).
(Schlenker,
experience
projected
condoned

P.O.

as

B. Knouse,
to Stephen
for reprints
Address
all request
Department
LA
of Southwestern
Box 43570, University
Louisiana,
Lafayette,

CO1988 Human Sciences Press

of Management,
70504-3570.

242

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STEPHEN B. KNOUSE ET AL.

243

a variety
in the re
of IM techniques
from
for positive
events),
dissociating
impressive
responsibilities
describing
(Broussard & Bran
(vanity awards)
are
1984). In addition,
nen, 1986; Schlenker,
1980; Vecchio,
applicants
cover
letter
the
in
with
such
well
to present
themselves
being advised
as complimentary
other
techniques
management
impression
accepted
one
toward
comments
directed
enhancements
ingratiating
(flattering
are using
is that many
applicants
sume: entitlements
(taking credit
failure
events),
(omitting negative
and duties,
and self-enhancements

with pres
in reflected
reader), basking
glory (associating
is better
the
and self-presentation
institutions),
(why
applicant
tigious
&
than other applicants)
1979).
1980; Wyant
(Schlenker,
Vice,
on creating
the
advice abounds
through
good impressions
Although
the
resume
cover
evidence
that
is
there
and
letter,
potential
increasing
as the reader of these materials
is becoming more discriminat
employer
& Brannen,
within
contained
the information
(Broussard
ing about
a
there
is
1984). Moreover,
parallel mar
1982; Vecchio,
1986; Kiechel,
self with

the

in the resume,
ket in advice about detecting
management
impression
inflated
for exaggerated
such as searching
job titles
job responsibilities,
and
attention
academic
embellished
and salary
credentials,
levels,
it is hypothe
& Brannen,
awards
1986). Therefore,
(Broussard
getting
are less
as typical
of resume
readers
sized that managers,
packages,
cover
resumes
and
letters
toward
inclined
impres
employing
favorably
sion management

techniques.

Self-Monitoring
A considerable
has arisen around a particular
literature
type of im
is
the high self-monitor
1979). This person
(Snyder,
pression manager,
as correct behavior;
of what
defines
the situation
i.e.,
highly
perceptive
is appro
for cues about what
the environment
he/she
searches
actively
a
in particular
situation
and then draws upon a varied behavioral
priate
a maximally
for that situa
to produce
effective
repertoire
impression
to internal
tion. The obverse
is the low self-monitor
who is more attuned
cues about what
and thus produces more
is appropriate
consistent
be
havior

over

situations.

much
of the literature
focuses
self-monitors
upon high
one
of impression
management
attempts,
study has ex
as the recipient
of such attempts.
amined
the self-monitor
Jones
and
were
Baumeister
in
less favorably
(1976) found that high self-monitors
clined
low self-monitors
than
toward
tech
impression
management
toward
them. It is therefore
directed
that readers
niques
hypothesized
who are high self-monitors
to IM tactics
react less positively
in the re
sume and cover letter than do low self-monitors.
as

Although
the source

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JOURNAL OF BUSINESS AND PSYCHOLOGY

244

METHODS
Subjects
and 26 females) who were at
(55 males
Subjects were 81 managers
a
an
MBA
at
executive
small New
program
college
tending
England
Each
and who participated
subject read a set of application
voluntarily.
a
and then completed
two surveys:
materials
(cover letter and resume)
on
the
their
these
materials
of
and
survey
Self-Monitoring
perceptions
of their responses
Scale. Subjects were assured
(the research
anonymity
was
ers were not their instructors).
Mean
29.8
years. Mean
subject age
was
4.4
time of service with
read
their present
years. Subjects
company
a mean
a month.
of 2.7 resumes
were
in service
health
industries:
Subjects
employed
primarily
(16%), retail
other service

(14%), government
(45%). Manufacturing

Experimental

Application

and defense
(11%), financial
was 9%.
and construction

(5%), and

Materials

= 40).
(n

was
Cover
Letter
constructed
Cover Letter
The Basic
cover
in
to managerial
letter
the
for
information
according
preferences
1987). Four short paragraphs
(Feild & Holley,
1976; Spinks & Wells,
was applying
for
stated that a hypothetical
Johnson,
George
applicant,
a managerial
his current
status as an MBA
described
student,
position,
com
to the reader's
contribute
that he would
the belief
expressed
time.
the reader for his/her
pany, and thanked

Basic

=
IM tactics
(n
41). Several
(IM) Cover Letter
Impression
Management
were
state
into
&
1979)
1980; Wyant
Vice,
(Schlenker,
incorporated
in the letter: complimentary
other enhancement
ments
("y?ur progres
such as yours"),
"excellent
company
sive, fast-paced
growth
company";
"I
self-enhancement
("my extremely
good fit to your requirements";
and
am extremely
and
informed,
loyal"),
sharp,
hardworking,
energetic,
for taking your valuable
time").
("I apologize
flattering
apology
=
was constructed
of six sec
Basic Resume
(n
41). The Basic Resume
resumes
in
for
information
(Feild
tions reflecting managerial
preferences
The
&
1987).
& Holley,
Wells,
1984; Spinks
Employ
1976; Hutchinson,
stated a desire to obtain an entry level managerial
ment Objective
posi
showed
section
The
Education
in
tion with
retailing.
growth
potential
an MBA
at a small New England
col
the applicant
pursuing
currently
a
Rele
in
BSBA
received
he
which
from
management.
previously
lege
was
and Honors
section
listed an
listed. The Awards
vant coursework
in American
The Em
club award and Who's Who
academic
Colleges.
as assistant
shoe
current
the
section
listed
job
applicant's
ployment

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STEPHEN B. KNOUSE ET AL.

245

store manager
store clerk and
and previous
hardware
jobs as part-time
cook. Relevant
listed for each position.
The
job duties were
and Interests
section
included
and basketball.
fishing, hunting,
the References
section
listed the MBA director,
another
Finally,
profes
sor, and the shoe store manager.

part-time
Hobbies

=
were
statements
(IM) Resume
(n
40). Several
Impression
Management
reworded
IM
tactics
1984):
1980; Vecchio,
(Schlenker,
using
complimen
as "fast-track manage
tary other enhancement
Objective
(Employment
ment
in a fast-growing
self-enhancement
dynamic
position
company"),
as "how to make
coursework
effective
deci
(Education
management
and save money"),
association
sions, increase
("very pres
productivity,
and entitlements
awards),
tigious" and "highly competitive"
("responsi
as job duty).
ble for huge inventory
of diversified
footwear"

Self-Monitoring

Scale

a 25-item
the Self-Monitoring
true-false
Scale,
Subjects
completed
=
test-retest
with
criterion
(r 0.83),
questionnaire
validity
validity
and discriminant
in a
validities
established
(r = 0.45) and convergent
of studies
number
Because
the
struc
1974, 1979).
(Snyder,
underlying
ture is considered
to be one discrete
factor, a median
split of scores is
to identify High and Low Self-Monitors
recommended
(Snyder, 1974). In
score
were
the present
scored
at
thus
the median
responses
study,
split
were
as
of 11. Subjects
in
the
half
thus
top
scoring
designated
High Self
=
= 40).
as
in
Monitors
the
and
half
bottom
Low
Self-Monitors
41)
(n
(n

Experimental

Design

The application
materials
and Self-Monitoring
Scale thus produced
a 2 (Basic versus
x 2 (Basic versus
x 2
IM Cover Letter)
IM Resume)
versus
Low
factorial
Self-Monitor)
(High
design.

Dependent

Variables

A 15-item
of applicant
likeabil
survey
tapped subjects' perceptions
ity, competence,
potential,
college work, writing
ability,
interpersonal
cover letter be
and employability;
skill,
self-confidence,
truthfulness,
and impression;
and resume
lievability,
quality,
believability,
quality,
and impression.
Items were rated on a 7-point scale. Demographic
infor
mation
included
subjects' age, sex, industry, years with the current com
of resumes
read per month.
pany, and number

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246

JOURNAL OF BUSINESS AND PSYCHOLOGY

RESULTS
Multivariate
cover
letter,

for

a significant
of variance
revealed
main
effect
=
= 0.36. Table
1
2.22, p<.05,
eta-squared

analyses
F(15,59)

Table
Mean

Ratings

Cover

Letter

for Application

Resume

Impress

Impress

Basic
Mgmt
MMMM
Item(n= 41)
(n = 40)

Survey

Applicant
Likeable

Materials

Basic

Mgmt
F

eta2

(n= 40)

(n = 41)

eta2

2.76

3.90

Competent

3.44

3.68

Potential

3.66

4.02

College
Performance

3.41

3.68

Writing
Ability

2.29

2.68

2.49

3.13

2.84

5.41

4.20

10.23**

0.10

4.77

4.85

Truthful

3.24

4.02

5.38*

0.06

2.82

4.41

30.28***

0.27

Employable

2.20

2.97

5.19*

0.07

2.13

3.02

7.80**

0.10

Believable

2.32

3.38

9.03**

0.11

2.50

3.17

3.24*

0.04

Quality

2.22

Interper
sonal Skill

11.54**

0.13

<1
1.58

<1

2.93

3.71

4.23*

0.05

3.20

3.90

5.10*

0.07

3.55

4.12

2.69

3.18

3.90

9.28**

<1
1.92

3.02
2.35

3.24

10.65**
6.64*

0.11

0.12
0.08

Self
Confidence

<1

Letter

2.50

<1

2.00

2.71

6.36*

0.07

1.90

2.15

<1

1.70

2.34

4.63*

0.06

Believable

3.88

3.97

<1

Quality

2.76

2.55

<1

2.32

2.20

<1

Impression
Resume

Impression
Note:
df =
*
p < .05
**
p < .01
***
p < .001

2.88

4.95
1.90

1.67

2.83

3.39

37.20***

0.33

23.88***

0.21

15.67***

0.15

1,73

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STEPHEN B. KNOUSE ET AL.

247

effects. The IM Cover Letter

shows univariate
main
signifi
produced
of applicant
lower perceptions
truthfulness,
cantly
likeability,
employ
On the
of the letter than the Basic Letter.
and believability
ability,
was perceived
to be signifi
of the applicant
other hand, self-confidence
on the IM Letter.
cantly higher
for the resume,
main
also significant
Multivariate
effects were
= 0.47. Univariate
=
in
main
effects
F(15,59)
3.35, p<.001,
eta-squared
1 show that the IM Resume
lower
Table
ratings
produced
significantly
for applicant
abil
college performance,
writing
likeability,
competence,
cover
letter
be
and
ity, interpersonal
skill, truthfulness,
employability;
resume
and
and
lievability,
impression;
believability,
quality,
quality,
and

than did the Basic Resume.

impression
were non
main
effects for Self-Monitoring
While
the multivariate
one
was
main
univariate
there
F(15,59)<1.00,
significant,
significant
resumes
to
be
of
effect. High Self-Monitors
all
higher
quality
perceived
=
=
(M = 2.93) than did Low Self-Monitors
(M
2.38), FU,73)
4.38, p<.05,
eta-squared

.07.

were nonsignificant
for Self-Monitor
The multivariate
interactions
x Resume,
x Cover
and Self-Monitor
Letter,
F(15,59)<1.00,
F(15,
lit
59) = 1.22. For univariate
interactions,
High Self-Monitors
perceived
resume
tle difference
in
Low
of
between
Self-Mon
truthfulness;
type
rated
the IM Resume
lower than the Basic Resume,
itors, however,
= 0.06.
=
saw the
Self-Monitors
F(l,73)
7.13, p<.01,
eta-squared
High
IM Letter as less believable
than the Basic Resume;
Low Self-Monitors
=
= 0.08.
saw little difference,
F(l,73)
7.30, p<.01,
eta-squared

DISCUSSION
Impression

Management

in Application

Materials

As

readers
reacted
less favorably
toward
hypothesized,
impression
in both the cover letter and the resume.
There
management
attempts
were
and more
reactions
and larger
(lower ratings
stronger
negative
a greater
toward the resume,
among
eta-squared
range of perceptions)
however.
This might
indicate
that some carefully
worded
impression
statements
be
in the cover letter.
effective
management
might
possibly
saw the applicant
readers
in the impression
Indeed,
let
management
ter as more
self-confident?a
to
em
attribute
many
positive
potential
ployers.
on the other hand,
In the resume,
tactics
impression
management
led to negative
results almost across the board. One explanation
for this
reaction
is that impression
decidedly
negative
management
attempts
sent ambiguous
the applicant
about
to the reader, which
in
messages

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248

JOURNAL OF BUSINESS AND PSYCHOLOGY

turn distorted
the reader's process of evaluating
the applicant
(Oliphant
& Alexander,
this finding
the apparently
1982). Further,
grow
supports
ac
readers, who apparently
among resume
ing trend toward skepticism
and questionable
statements
&
(Broussard
tively search for ambiguities
credentials.
1986); i.e., they seek "red flags" in the applicant's
Brannen,
a general
This
is not surprising
in employment
considering
tendency
to weight
more highly
selection
such "red flagged" negative
information
in the selection
than positive
information
decision
1964). Con
(Webster,
seem ad
this strongly
reaction
it would
from readers,
negative
sidering
warn
visable
that resume
away from
preparation
"experts"
applicants
resume
in
the
rather
than
such
impression
management
encourage
efforts.

In fact,

the data

that impression manage

previous
findings
the impression
may
(Giacalone,
1985), leaving
attempts
a
no
in
if
tactics
than
such
had been
less
desirable
manager
position
to
used. Employers,
need
consider
whether
therefore, may
downgrading
in
who have used a failed
applicants
management
strategy
impression
an
in
their application
incorrect
materials
result
selection
decision.
may
show that employees
who have
There appear to be no data to date which
used
in
the
selection
process
impression
management
employment
on the job than those who have not. Certainly,
perform more
poorly
from consideration
candidates
be eliminating
whose
may
employers
are sound and whose
basic credentials
followed bad
only fault is having
advice about the use of impression management.
man
of impression
involve
the number
Another
may
explanation
statements.
The finding
in the present
per
study of a more
agement
resume
reaction
to the impression
than
management
negative
vasively
in part by the greater
be explained
to the cover letter might
of
number

ment

support
backfire

statements
for impression
afforded
by the
management
opportunities
If number
of impression
broader
scope of the resume.
management
statements
the point at
future research might
determine
is significant,
which
their number
their effectiveness?the
point at which
outweighs
there is "too much
of a good thing" (Baron, 1986). Baron found that only
a negative
two such efforts, although
effect
of different
types, produced
for
written
in an interview
If
this
is
impres
finding
setting.
replicated
is re
sion management
the applicant
find
that he/she
may
efforts,
in the cover letter.
to at most one good attempt
stricted perhaps

Self-Monitoring
the hypothesized
Only the letter believability
supported
perception
The general
of self-monitoring
and impression management.
interaction
self-monitors
toward
reaction from high
lack of support
for a negative
from others
contradicts
seemingly
management
attempts
impression

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STEPHEN B. KNOUSE ET AL.

249

be ex
and Baumeister
(1976) study. This discrepancy
might
In
in
in
the
the
experimental
protocols.
part by differences
plained
a
of
viewed
two
and
Jones
Baumeister
study subjects
people
videotape
to each other; the focus was upon a single
manage
impression
talking
on the other hand,
ment
In the present
device,
study,
ingratiation.
a
of
read
materials
number
subjects
impression management
containing
statements
with whom
written
they could not directly
by applicants
interact.
have hampered
this
environment
may
Perhaps
complicated
find
the otherwise
self-monitor.
Such
mixed
perceptive
high
typically
some
a
to
theorists
&
have
led
call
for
1988)
Cheek,
ings
(e.g., Briggs
the Jones

rethinking
sion

of the

concept

of self-monitoring

and

its relation

to impres

management.

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