338

Int. J. Sustainable

Development,

Marine ecotourism as a potential agent for

sustainable development in Kaikoura, New Zealand
Mark B. Orams
Coastal-Marine Research Group, Massey University
Bag 102 904, North Shore MSC, New Zealand
(e-mail: M.B.Orams@massey.ac.nz)

Marine ecotourism

Vol. 5, No. 3, 2002

at Albany, Private

Keywords: 'indigenous people, Kaikoura, Maori, marine mammals,

Zealand, whale-watching.

The concept of 'ecotourism'

has, in part, arisen as a result of concerns about the
sustainability of tourism based on natural attractions and also as a reaction against more
traditional 'mass tourism' [4]. Mass tourism is usually viewed as the more conventional
form of tourism development where short-term free-market principles dominate and the
maximization of income is paramount. It has been vilified in recent times as the negative
impacts of tourism have become more and more apparent [4], As a result, an alternative
paradigm

for tourism

has arisen

this view rejects

the mass tourism

approach

and

encompasses those tourism activities that deliberately plan for and seek to minimize
negative effects. This 'alternative tourism' is, therefore, inherently based on principles of
sustainability

Abstract: The terms 'sustainability' and 'ecotourism' have become much used
in recent years, yet there have been few examinations of how they might apply
in practical cases. Kaikoura, a small coastal town (population 3600) on the east
coast of New Zealand's South Island, has a rapidly developing tourism
industry. This industry has helped to transform the town from an economically
depressed area with few opportunities for local employment into one of New
Zealand's 'boom towns'. However, this growth has not been without costs and
controversies. The development of a successful ecotourism business by local
indigenous Maori has caused some resentment amongst residents, and there is
evidence that the marine mammals targeted by the tourism industry are
experiencing increasing pressure. As a consequence, researchers and local
people recognize that sustainability is an important issue for the future of the
area. This case study provides important insights into the challenges associated
with the rapid growth of an ecotourism destination.

33S

in Kaikoura

- particularly

in an environmental

and socio-cultural

sense.

Fennell [4] considers ecotourism to be one type of alternative tourism (Figure 1) that,
while it may not always achieve it, at a minimum attempts to be environmentally
sustainable. The idea that tourism should contribute to the health and viability of the
natural attraction upon which it is based is an appealing one. The concept and the term
have been widely adopted and ecotourism has been hailed by some as the 'answer' to
nature-based tourism and 'its supporters argue that ecotourism is the only tourism
development that is sustainable in the long term' [5]. Others, however, remain sceptical
and view ecotourism as simply nature-based tourism 'dressed up' under a new, attractive
label [6, 7, 8].
Environmentally
unsustainable act.ivities

Environmentally
, sustainable activities

New

111

Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Orams, M.B. (2002)

'Marine ecotourism as a potential agent for sustainable development in
Kaikoura, New Zealand', /nt. J. Sustainable Development, Vol. 5, No. 3, pp.
338-352.

mass
tourism

1 Introduction
The development of tourism as an area of academic inquiry is relatively new [I]. As a
consequence, there are, as yet, few widely accepted theories and models that underpin the
field. What is apparent is that there is a growing understanding that tourism development
has wide-ranging
impacts on natural and human societies. Related to this has been a
'mushrooming'
of tertiary education courses, conferences and journals based on tourism.
Furthermore, other social and natural sciences are now finding the tourism phenomenon
an area worthy of more careful consideration. Thus, it is both timely and appropriate that
the International Journal of Sustainable Development examines tourism and ecotourism
as a topic for this special issue. The issue of sustainability is central to the widespread
discussion regarding the impacts of tourism. Although tourism has been viewed as a
potentially sustainable industry by some [2], many commentators remain sceptical about
the sustainability of tourism ventures. For example, Zell [3] states:

A further related issue is the argument put forward by authors such as Wallace and Pierce
[ll] who argue that ecotourism is travel that is based not only on nature but also on 'the
people (caretakers) who live nearby, their needs, their culture, and their relationships to
the land'. This represents a significant extension of the ecotourism concept beyond
simply a focus on the maintenance and improvements of natural communities to an
inclusion of social and cultural objectives. It further complicates the already confused

Tourism creates more tourism, the location becomes well known and thus
desirable creating demand, more supply and ultimately destruction of the
original reason for going there.

debates regarding ecotourism and sustainability are widespread in the literature and these
discussions have resulted in little consensus. However, in the recently published

Copyright @ 2002 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

Figure 1 Relationshipsbetweenmasstourism,alternativetourismand ecotourism.

state that exists with regard

to what ecotourism

actually

is

or should

be. Semantic

340

M.B. Orams

Marine ecotourism

341

in Kaikoura

11

.1
.

Encyclopedia of Ecotourism [12] the following characteristics

ecotourism:
The natural (non-human)
tourist.
2

environment

are identified as central to

!i

or a feature of it is the prime attraction for the

The basis of that attraction is an inherent appreciation/educational

natural environment or natural environmental feature.

""

Ta5man

interest in that

Sea

,.

SOIlIf) Paciftc

Ocean

.~

t...

A management regime/effort directed at the conservation/sustainable use of that

natural environment exists.

~tt~;

Auckl

Although these general characteristics are useful to by-pass the semantic debate over
definitions of ecotourism, they do little to contribute to an understanding of the
management and application of the concept. This paper provides a case study on
Kaikoura, a small town on New Zealand's South Island, as a contribution to increasing
understanding of how ecotourism is being applied in practice. It further seeks to establish
whether ecotourism is, in this case, alternative tourism that is sustainable or if, as some
authors claim, it is simply the dressing up of mass tourism under a new more palatable
label.

.~

~\

'f~i '\.

Hamilt~,f'I. ~"(aurang~

North Island

NewPlymout~'

~?

Gi$;.~r

Ii

~NaPier

1'
i

o ]5Y .~I

Case study: Kaikoura, New Zealand

VYf

~l{INGTON

;:1
I

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;...

2.1 Background
Kaikoura is a small coastal community
located around a small peninsula on the
northeastern coast of New Zealand's South Island (Figure 2). It has a long history of
human habitation associated with its plentiful marine resources. It is a place of special
significance to the indigenous Maori of New Zealand, who have inhabited Kaikoura for
around 1000 years. The abundance of marine resources in the area is associated with the
continental shelf, which is close to shore near the Kaikoura Peninsula, coming as close as
a kilometre from shore just south of the township. The rapid increase in depth associated
with the shelf, from as little as 30 metres to over a thousand in a short distance, and the
convergence of offshore currents in the vicinity, produces an upwelling of nutrient-rich
waters that supports an abundant marine food chain. Numerous commercial fish species,
as well as the crayfish (spiny lobster) from which the town derives its Maori name, has
provided the base for a local fishing industry that has been an important source of
employment in the past. This abundant marine ecosystem has also provided a food source
for a number of species of whales, dolphins and seals that are resident in the area for
much of the year.
The closest cities to Kaikoura are Blenheim (population 30 000) 100 km to the north
and Christchurch (population 330000) 200 km to the south [13]. Kaikoura is, therefore,
a small (population 3500) [14], relatively isolated town that has been viewed in the past
as an economically depressed area with few opportunities for local people [15, 16].

Kaikoura

i2hristchurch

In11&roaf.9il!,.
,

';.

1'1

Il!l
"
1
I

~~

.>
.-~..

ijl1!

L,
,

South Pacific
0

Dunedln

cean

:D Stewart
Island

I
I ,
I1I
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o
150 3OOk!l1
'~~T~_
-~.-r'---~~-,
o
,;,1)
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Figure 2

Map showing the location of Kaikoura,

il,
I

342

M.B. Orams

Marille ecotollrism

343

ill Kaikollra

'I;

I'
2.2

Tourism development

Prior to the late 1980s, Kaikoura's

tourism industry

was relatively

small. It functioned

primarily as a brief stopover point for travellers driving along State Highway I between
Blenheim and Christchurch, and as a small-scale holiday destination for New Zealanders
who owned holiday cottages in the area. In 1988, an American whale researcher/nature
photographer
and a local fisherman started a small-scale whale-watching
operation,
which they named NatureWatch. This operation was joined in 1989 by Kaikoura Tours, a
company set up as an employment initiative by local Maori. In 1991-92 the local Maoriowned company, with the assistance of the larger Ngai Tahu 'iwi' (tribe), bought the
permit and boats from NatureWatch and became the sole whale-watch operator in the
area [17]. This new company, Whale Watch Kaikoura, is a non-profit Maori enterprise
48% owned by Ngai Tahu (the local iwi) and 52% by the local 'hapu' (sub-tribe). The
company employs local Maori and provides income to the local 'marae' (communal
tribal community). This venture has grown rapidly to become very successful [18].
The whale-watching activities in Kaikoura have lead to the establishment of a variety
of other tourism operations based on marine mammals, including dolphin watching and
swimming, seal watching and swimming, and whale watching from aircraft [19]. This
ecotourism industry has grown quickly to become the most important economic activity
in the area [20].
Local residents have been quick to recognize the economic and social benefits of this
tourism development.
Local Maori, Lorraine Hawke, typifies the thoughts of many
locals:
The impact of Whale Watch Kaikoura on the local township has been major. Prior
to the establishment of the company. Kaikoura was seen as an economically
depressed area. Businesses were on a downturn. and people were having to leave
the area to get work. Following the establishment of the company which brought
increasing numbers of tourists, businesses across the board began to benefit
through increased sales... A host of new businesses have sprung up in the
accommodation and catering areas. New craft shops and takeaway bars, as well as
novelty shops. have also appeared. Real estate prices have also increased, and the
tempo of life has picked up a little. Without Whale Watch Kaikoura. I think our
town may have eventually given up the ghost and died [21].
Socio-economic
indicators back up Hawke's impressions. In 1991, soon after the marine
mammal based tourism began in Kaikoura, unemployment
in the area was still higher
than the national average for New Zealand. Household income was significantly lower

than the New Zealand average

- only 29% of the district's

residents reported incomes

higher than NZ$30 000 per year, as opposed to 44% nationally.

Annual visitor numbers to Kaikoura, estimated to be around
increased dramatically

to over 100000 by 1993, and to 873000

10000

in 1989,

in 1999 [22]. The current

annual growth rate of tourism in Kaikoura is around 14%, significantly higher than the
New Zealand average. Overall, the industry is estimated to directly contribute around
NZ$28 million annually to the community. The tourism industry directly employs 330
people in the town
representing 30% of the jobs [23]. In addition, these tourism jobs
likely support significantly more employment in the community through the spending of
the employees of tourism-based businesses. Tourism expenditure is currently increasing
by about NZ$4.4 million annually and resulting in around 33 new full-time jobs in the
town each year [23].

Tourism has, therefore, provided a significant impetus for economic development

and, as a consequence, Kaikoura is no longer viewed as an economically depressed
region, but as one of the 'boom towns' in New Zealand's South Island [5].

2.3 Issues and controversies

The development of ecotourism in Kaikoura has not been without its problems. These
challenges are illustrative of the difficulties that can arise whenever rapid economic
growth occurs in a small community. Furthermore, such growth provides additional
challenges when it is associated with increasing numbers of 'outsiders' (tourists) who,
despite being temporary visitors to the town, have a significant influence over its
character and its community.

2.3.1 Exclusive rightsfor Maori

One of the more challenging

aspects of ecotourism

has been the argument

that this kind

of tourism development should be inclusive of, sensitive to, and beneficial for indigenous
peoples [24]. The use of natural and cultural resources for tourism as a means of
economic development and cultural support for indigenous peoples is well supported in
the literature [24, 25]. However, the practical application of this approach has proved
controversial in the case of Whale Watch Kaikoura.
The relationship between early European colonists of Aotearoa (New Zealand) and
the indigenous Maori was formally defined in 1840 under the Treaty of Waitangi. This
agreement between the Crown (government) and Maori guaranteed Maori certain rights
and privileges, including the 'full, exclusive and undistur~ed possession of their land,
forests and fisheries' [26]. Important related concepts dealt with under the Treaty include
the rights of Maori to have 'rangatiratanga'
(control or sovereignty) and 'kaitiakitanga'
(guardianship)
over their 'taonga' (treasures), including their natural, cultural and
spiritual resources [26]. As in many other countries, the Maori of New Zealand argue that
these and other rights have been ignored and usurped by European colonizers.
It is clear from the historical record that Maori in the vicinity of Kaikoura had (and
continue to have) an important spiritual relationship with whales [27]. Thus, they are
certainly considered 'taonga' for local Maori. Furthermore, local Maori had a strong
influence over early European exploitation of marine mammals in the Kaikoura area.
They would often levy whaling boats entering local harbours and, in effect, 'licensed'
European whaling operations, in return offering protection for those whalers from other
tribes [28]. Thus, Ngai Tahu has argued that they had, and continue to have,
'rangatiratanga'
over the whales as a resource at Kaikoura. Consequently,
according to
Ngai Tahu, whales and the use of them (even in a modern context) are covered under the
principles of the Treaty ofWaitangi [28].
.
This historical background and the recent development of a new use for whales at
Kaikoura (for tourism) led Ngai Tahu to claim that they had exclusive rights to the use of
whales in the area. This contention was argued through the High Court to the Court of
Appeal in New Zealand in 1994 and 1995, when Ngai Tahu sought to restrict the
granting of any further permits for whale-watching at Kaikoura [29]. The finding of the
court provided some support for Ngai Tahu's argument and agreed that rights pertaining
to economic development
for indigenous
peoples were becoming
'recognized
and

344

accepted in international jurisprudence'.

More specifically, the court found that the
principles of the Treaty of Waitangi required 'active protection' of Maori interests. As a
result, the court directed the Department
of Conservation
(the government
agency
charged with administering New Zealand's Marine Mammal Protection Act) to take into
account the protection of Ngai Tahu interests before awarding further whale-watching
permits in the area [30]. So, although the court did not grant exclusive rights to whalewatching in this case, in effect it provided strong direction that this was a favoured
option. Subsequent to this, and despite many applicants, no additional sea-based whalewatching permits have been issued for the Kaikoura area. This has raised the ire of many
locals who see the situation as an unfair monopoly based on cultural/racial
grounds. It
has also been argued that there is a conflict of interest for Maori who own and run Whale
Watch Kaikoura as a commercial enterprise and who are also, via the Treaty of Waitangi,
a powerful party in decision-making

regarding the use of those whales.

Local Maori argue that the whales are their taonga (treasures). Because the
provisions of the Treaty of Waitangi guarantee Maori sovereignty over their
taonga, Ngai Tahu rightly feel that they should be consulted about the use of
natural resources such as the whales. The difficulty in this situation is that the
organization to be consulted on the basis of their guardianship (kaitiakitanga)
of the whales also has both a direct economic interest in their exploitation and
an interest in keeping permits out of the hands of competitors. Thus, their
statutory and commercially dual positions have some philosophical difficulties
associated with them [15].
The resentment amongst some locals has contributed to racial tension in the town [15].
However, some of this resentment may be related to jealousy over the commercial
success of a Maori-run business because 'Kaikoura Whale Watch and other prosperous
Maori enterprises give lie to the notion, held by many New Zealanders, that Maori are
not very good at business' [18]. Even in the early years of Whale Watch Kaikoura's
in November 1990 all eight
operation evidence of racially based resentment existed

motors for the venture's boats were sabotaged, causing NZ$25 000 worth of damage. In
February 1991 the company's bus was set alight and petitions were circulated amongst
the local community seeking to ban the company from berthing their boats in the harbour
[26]. Thus, the development of a successful ecotourism business specifically benefitting
local indigenous people has not been without its difficulties in Kaikoura. It is, however,
an extremely
Tourism

successful

for Tomorrow

345

Marille ecotourisl1l ill Kaikoura

M.B. Drams

enterprise
Award

winning many awards

- one

of the world's

- including

top prizes

the British Airways

for ecotourism

[29].

The

company turnover is estimated in the millions of dollars each year [31], and the
downstream effects in its support of local Maori, their marae and the wider community
are far greater [26].

2.2.2 Impacts on marine mammals

Kaikoura is now viewed as one of the premier marine mammal tourism destinations in
the world [19]. The large number of operators taking hundreds of thousands of tourists
out to view, swim and otherwise interact with the wildlife has caused concern regarding
the impact on these animals [32]. The Department of Conservation
has established
regulations, which require any commercial marine mammal tourism operator to obtain a
permit from the department [20]. These permits are restricted in number and control the
operator in terms of where they can operate, the size and number of vessels, the species

they may target, the activities they may conduct and the times they may operate [20]. A
recent summary of the number of permitted marine mammal tourism operators in
Kaikoura shows a potential total of 365 trips per week to watch or swim with the animals
including [32]:
Whale-watch

boats (one company,

Dolphin/seal

watch/swim

four boats)

- 112 trips

boats (three operators,

per week.

four boats) -78

Boat-based

seal swimming

(four operators, four boats) -119

Land-based

seal swimming

(two operators)

Land-based

seal watching (two operators)

- 35

trips per week.

trips per week.

trips per week.

- 21 trips

per week.

These figures represent the maximum number of permitted trips and, as a consequence,
this capacity is unlikely to be reached (owing to lack of customers or weather). It does,
however, provide an indication of the scale of the marine mammal tourism industry in
Kaikoura.
The regulations
also require commercial
tourist operators
to provide
'educational value to participants or to the public' and most operators do make an effort
to provide education for their clients.
Research on the impacts of the high level of visitation on,the marine mammals of the
area has revealed extensive pressure on these animals. For example, a long-term study on
the effects of boat-based watching and tourists swimming with dusky dolphins found that
boats were present within 300 metres of the dolphins 72% of the time during the summer
months. 'Once dolphins were located at dawn, their movements and positions were
almost continuously followed until dusk by commercial whale- and dolphin-watching
skippers'
[33]. While these vessels were found to have transgressed
regulations
governing behaviour around the dolphins only 7.4% of the time, the simple presence of
vessels in the vicinity of the animals for such long periods was of concern.
Similarly, research has shown that sperm whales in Kaikoura respond to the presence
of whale-watching
boats by having shorter surfacing intervals and thus decreased
respiratory periods [34]. This may be detrimental to sperm whales, a deep-diving
mammal for which surface respiration is critical. Additional research found that the
amount and type of reaction to vessels varied considerably from one individual whale to
another [35]. Some whales were more tolerant of boats than others - this may represent
habituation by some individuals to vessels or it may simply reflect variation in 'the
individual sensitivity of different whales. The study also revealed that careful and
sensitive boat handling around the whales, including adherence to the whale-watching
regulations, did reduce negative reactions. Additional experiments concluded that noise
levels produced by tourist traffic were within the range of current levels of background
noise in the area - if sudden noises were avoided and adequate distance was maintained
from the animals (greater than 75 metres) [36].
Research on the impacts of tourists on New Zealand fur seals in the vicinity of
Kaikoura also revealed some disturbance. A study of the effect of close approaches to fur
seals at two haul-out sites showed a marked difference in seal response dependent on
gender [37]. Female seals, juveniles and pups always responded to close approach (less
than five metres) by moving away - in most cases by entering the water. Bulls and subadult males most often responded with a threatening gesture and/or by moving a short
distance away. An additional finding of significance was that in the case of females,

i!1

346

M.B. Orams

Marille ecotourism

juveniles and pups the disturbance caused by close approaches from people frequently
continued for many minutes after the visitors had left the area. The researchers found that
fur seals spent about 17% of their time (daylight hours) responding to interactions with
visitors [37). It has also been noted that in some cases when the seals escape into the
water that snorkellers from commercial 'swim with seals' operators await the animals as
they enter the water [32).
Interactions with additional marine animals, such as orca, common dolphins, pilot
whales,

Hector's

dolphins,

sea birds,

fish and invertebrates

occur

at Kaikoura

- however,

there is no reported research on impacts on these animals [32). It is clear that the
development of tourism has resulted in increased pressure on some marine species that
frequent the area. It is also likely that this increased pressure may be detrimental to the
animals in some cases.

2.3.3 Impacts on visitors

Visitors to Kaikoura fall into three distinct categories [38). Short-stop travellers who are
driving along State Highway 1 between Christchurch and BlenheimlPicton are generally
New Zealanders and they use Kaikoura as a food and rest stop for an hour or two. These
visitors have little impact on the town (other than supporting road-side food outlets and
gas stations). Day visitors most commonly travel from Christchurch for the day and
participate

in one

or two

marine

mammal

tourism

activities

49% go whale-watching,

ill Kaikoura

347

half (48.5%) also report personal negative effects [15). These effects are specified as
things such as less parking available in town, crowding, higher property taxes, a higher
cost of living, increased traffic, and a 'loss of community'. Interestingly, the study found
that over 30% of respondents stated their single greatest concern about tourism
development in the area was 'sustainability' [15). More specifically, they refer to the
sustainability of the tourism industry itself in the area and, by implication, the continued
presence and availability of the marine mammals for tourism in Kaikoura.

Analysing the Kaikoura case

Although

Kaikoura

has noi deliberately

set out to become an ecotourism

destination

it is

being promoted as such, and the majority of companies operating there consider
themselves to be ecotourism operators. Consequently,
Kaikoura can be evaluated in
terms of the three key components of ecotourism identified earlier [12). First, it is
obvious

that a feature

of the natural

environment

- specifically

marine

mammals

is the

main attraction for the area. Second, visitors to Kaikoura identify marine mammals as an
attraction with educational interest, and it can be assumed that there is also an inherent
appreciation
management

for these animals by those who wish to experience

them. Third, a
regime directed at the sustainable use of marine mammals does exist. The

44% visit the seal colony and 5% go dolphin watching/swimming. This group is a
mixture of international and domestic tourists, many of whom travel by bus on a
'packaged' day tour. Overnight visitors are predominantly international tourists (60% of
whom are from Europe) who stay for between one and four nights in the area. They
participate in many tourism activities but they particularly focus on marine mammals.
These visitors rate whales (50%), dolphins (17%) and other marine features (5%) as
important attractions at Kaikoura. The top three activities for this group are marine

New Zealand Marine Mammal Protection Act and, more specifically,

the associated
Marine,Mammal
Protection Regulations (Section 4) administered by the Department of
Conservation, explicitly state that their purpose is to:

mammal based

In addition, the regulations (section 6h) require that all commercial operations 'should
have sufficient educational value to participants or to the public' [41). Thus, the
management regime in place attempts to promote conservation and sustainable use of the
marine mammals as tourism attractions. Consequently, Kaikoura can be legitimately
considered an ecotourism destination.

- 63%

visit the seal colony, 53% go whale-watching

and 32% go dolphin

watching or swimming [38).

Both day and overnight visitors reported high levels of satisfaction with their visit to
Kaikoura. Research on the effect of marine mammal tourism experiences indicates that
tourists' awareness and knowledge about marine mammals was significantly modified,
thus the experiences can be said to have some educational value [39). However, no
significant improvement in the conservation values of participants in these experiences
was detected. Research elsewhere has indicated that increasing environmentally
responsible behaviour as a result of marine mammal tourism experiences is particularly
difficult [40). This also appears true with regard to Kaikoura, prompting some
researchers to argue that there is a general need to increase the educational value of the
tours in the area [32, 39).

2.3.4 Impacts on the local community

The reaction of the local community to the development of tourism in Kaikoura has been
largely positive. However, some within the community (particularly older residents) are
concerned about the rapid growth of tourism and feel that tourism development has 'gone
too far and is ruining the things that they like about their home' [15). Residents recognize
the employment and economic benefits of tourism development for the area, but almost

Make provision for the protection, conservation, and management of marine

mammals ... (and) ... regulate human contact or behaviour with marine
mammals either by commercial
operators or other persons, in order to prevent
adverse effects on and interference with marine mammals [4IJ.

Debate remains, however, over whether the rapid and intensive ecotourism
development in Kaikoura is truly sustainable. There is evidence to suggest that increased
pressure and stress is being experienced by sperm whales, dusky dolphins and New
Zealand fur seals in the area. Whether that increased pressure has longer term
implications for the health and viability of those populations is not known. There is also
evidence that the promotion of a local indigenous people through the development of an
ecotourism attraction has caused resentment and some division in the local community.
While this issue does not necessarily reflect on sustainability, it nevertheless reveals that
there are socio-cultural impacts associated with ecotourism development at Kaikoura.
Local

residents

are also

aware

of other

'costs'

associated

with

the growth

of the town

increased traffic, less parking and a higher cost of living may impact the ability of some
individuals to 'sustain' their standard of living in the area.
For Kaikoura, questions remain regarding the development of ecotourism. Will it
ultimately be alternative tourism in an environmentally sustainable sense or will it
become an example for those cynical about the concept? The answer for Kaikoura may

348

be related to scale. Inevitably.

and. as a result. Kaikoura

with increasing numbers come increasing

may find that its tourism-induced

transition

negative impacts

the human

moves it along a

sustainability

development path that is ultimately unsustainable. Figure 3 provides an illustration of

types of tourism placed according to their host environment. educational content and
environmental sustainability. The review of the development of Kaikoura shows that the
town is undergoing

a transformation.

Placed on this model (Figure 3), this transformation

is viewed as a movement away from smaller scale environmentally sustainable

ecotourism to a potentially less sustainable state that could be viewed as outside the
realm of ecotourism.

marine

residents

are key in ensuring

of Kaikoura.

Issues

of environmental

that. the benefits of the development

and social

in tourism to the

some Kaikoura residents are experiencing some of these 'costs' on a personal level. It is
also obvious that the environmental sustainability of the industry is fundamental to the
continued economic welfare of the Kaikoura area.
What is fortunate

content

in the Kaikoura

situation

is that the local people seem to be aware

of the potential 'down side' of tourism development.

Unlike other locations where
tourism development has been embraced in the past with little understanding
of the
implications. many Kaikoura people appear willing to become involved in planning and
decision-making
on the issues surrounding tourism development. It is also fortunate that
New Zealand has strong natural resource management statutes. The potential exists,
therefore, to manage tourism growth in Kaikoura on a sustainable
basis. Legal
mechanisms are in place and local will exists to carefully consider issues of sustainability
in tourism management for the area [22].

natural

artificial

environments

environments

environmentally

environmentally
unsustainable
activities

sustainable
activities

low educational

content

3.1

and

area continue to outweigh the costs. Cases elsewhere show that rapid development of
tourism in small communities can cause widespread resentment from locals as they face
issues such as crowding, overloaded
water and sewage systems. demand-induced
inflation, increased crime and alienation from their own area. There are indications that

high educational

Figure 3

34S

Marille ecotollrislII ill Kaikoll/'Q

M.B. Drams

Types of tourism. sustainability and Kaikoura.

The future

Tourism development is at a crossroads in Kaikoura. To date, the development of

tourism has been largely a positive economic influence for the area; however, rapid
visitor growth of 14% a year and tourist numbers approaching one million annually.
provide significant challenges for a town of 3500 residents. There is evidence of potential
problems for the marine mammals that are the major draw-card for visitors to the area.
Careful planning and management is therefore critical for the long-term future for both

Conclusion

The concepts of ecotourism

and sustainability
are ideals with worthy objectives.
However. labels are easy to apply and 'talking the talk' has become fashionable in
tourism circles. as evidenced by the increasing number of publications on the subject.
What remains difficult, however, is the successful application of these concepts in real
life. We have made important first steps in recognizing that tourism development is not a
panacea and that negative impacts inevitably accompany the positive. Communities that
are developing as tourism destinations also recognize this and are looking for ways to
mitigate the costs associated with tourism. This is good news. for the first step in solving
a problem is to recognize that there is one! A second step is to examine cases where
ecotourism has developed and to improve our understanding of how such destinations are
transformed by such activities.
.
Kaikoura
is a location typical of many worldwide
where rapid ecotourism
development
has provided an impetus for improved economic and social conditions.
Concurrently. negative impacts are starting to occur. While this is widely recognized at
Kaikoura. the difficulty lies in managing the popularity of the activities. Despite the best
efforts of management agencies (such as the Department of Conservation) to ensure that
the effects of tourism on marine mammals are not harmful and are ultimately sustainable.
the scale of tourist operations is such that increasing pressure on marine wildlife in the
area is inevitable. Thus. the popularity of Kaikoura has resulted in a movement away
from true ecotourism toward a more mass tourism approach. Herein appears to be the
heart of the issue: ecotourism operations or destinations that grow too popular move
down a path of development away from sustainability toward a situation where they can
become unsustainable
and indistinguishable
from mass tourism. How to arrest. this
evolution is the challenge. Part of the answer lies in management agencies taking a strong
stand and restricting development; mostly. however. a complete reversal of the traditional

350

Marine ecolourislll in Kaikoura

M.B. Orams

business model is needed. Ecotourism businesses should not be judged on the basis of
growth, size or profitability; rather, their success should be judged on their focus on
sustainability and their contribution to the health and viability of the host environment.
Until that paradigm shift is achieved ecotourism will struggle to live up to its lofty
aspirations.

A great deal of work has been conducted on the development and impacts of tourism on
Kaikoura by staff and students from the Tourism Research and Education Centre at
Lincoln University in New Zealand. Publications arising from their work have been

16 Orams, M.B. (1999) Marine Tourism: Developme1ll, Impacts and Managemel1l, Routledge,
London.
17 Zeppel. H. (1997) 'Maori tourism conference 'Te Putanga Mai',' Journal of Travel Research,
Vol. 36, No. 2, pp. 78-80.
19

Buurman, D. (1999) 'Dolphin encounters', Whale World, Vol. I, No. 2, pp. 1-2.

20

Baxter, A.S. (1993) 'The management of whale and dolphin watching Kaikoura, New
Zealand', in Postle, D. and Simmons, M. (Editors) Encou1llers with Whales '93, Great BalTier
Reef Marine Park Authority, Townsville, pp. 108-120.

21

Hawke, L. (1995) 'Whale Watch Kaikoura', in Colgan, K., Prasser, S. and Jeffery, A.
(Editors) Encou1llers with Whales 1995, Australian Nature Conservation Agency, CanbelTa,
pp. 37-39.

22

Sinunons, D.G. and Fairweather, J.R. (1998) Towards a Tourism Plan for Kaikoura, Report
No.1O Tourism Research and Education Centre, Lincoln University, Canterbury, New
Zealand.

23

Butcher, G., Fairweather, J.R. and Simmons, D.G. (1998) The Economic Impact of Tourism
on Kaikoura, Report No. 8 Tourism Research and Education Centre, Lincoln University,
Canterbury, New Zealand.

24

Boo, E. (1990) Ecotourism: The Potel1lial and Pitfalls, World Wide Fund for Nature,
W\lshington DC.

25

Weiler, B. (Editor) (1992) Ecotourism Incorporating the Global Classroom, International

Conference Papers, Bureau of Tourism Research, CanbelTa.
Poharama, A., Henley, M., Smith, A., Fairweather, J.R. and Simmons, D.G. (1998) The
Impact of Tourism on the Maori Community in Kaikoura, Report No.7 Tourism Research and
Education Centre, Lincoln University, Canterbury, New Zealand.

helpful in the writing of this paper, and the author acknowledges

the
of this research. References to this work are provided in the reference list for

this paper. The review and comments

University at Albany, two anonymous
USD have also been particularly

of Kaye Thorn and Michael Barker from Massey

referees and the editor of this special issue of the

helpful in improving this paper.

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41

353

lm. J. Sustainable Developmem, Vo/. 5, No. 3, 2002

Monetary valuation as a tool for planning and

managing ecotourism

BrianGarrod
Faculty of Economics and Social Science, University of the West of
England, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol, BS 16 1QY, UK
(e-mail: Brian.Garrod@uwe.ac.uk)
Abstract: While the techniques of monetary valuation are firmly grounded in
economic theory and have a substantial record of practical application,
planners and managers of ecotourism have not embraced them with particular
enthusiasm. The explanation offered in this paper has two main strands. On the
demand side, those involved in planning and managing ecotourism have, for a
number of reasons, tended to be wary of monetary valuation. Consequently,
most of the monetary valuation studies that have been commissioned and
subsequently undertaken have tended to be overly conservative in their aims
and scope. On the supply side, meanwhile, economists have too often failed to
explain how the results of such studies could be used to promoie the objectives
of ecotourism. Planners and managers of ecotourism have therefore remained
largely unconvinced of the practicality of monetary valuation. Arguably,
however, there is a considerable latent potential for the application of monetary
valuation techniques in the ecotourism context. This paper attempts to
demonstrate this potential by identifying and illustrating a number of practical
uses for monetary valuation in the context of planning and managing
ecotourism.
Keywords:
contingent valuation, ecotourism,
valuation, planning, travel cost method.

management,

monetary

Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Garrod, B. (2002)

'Monetary valuation as a tool for planning and managing ecotourism', Int. J.
Sustainable Development, Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 353-371.

Introduction

Even a brief review of the relevant

literature

will reveal that monetary

valuation

has

rarely been used in assessing and evaluating ecotourism. This is perhaps surprising in
view of the growth of popularity of monetary valuation among academic economists and
consultants, who now commonly apply techniques such as contingent valuation and the
travel cost method across a wide range of practical contexts. Moreover, the techniques of
monetary valuation are based on an increasingly sophisticated body of theory, and have a
growing record of successful application. The question arises
eschewal of such methods by those responsible for planning
The argument put forward in this paper has two main strands:
and a supply-side explanation. Clearly these two strands of
extent.

Copyright @ 2002 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

as to what can explain the

and managing ecotourism.
a demand-side explanation
explanation overlap to an

]
I'i
I,
11
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