Flight Training

Attitudes and Movements

Attitudes

Pitch Attitudes
Bank Attitudes

Movements, Controls, and Axes

Pitching -> lateral axis

Rolling -> longitudinal axis
Yawing -> normal (vertical) axis

Straight and Level Flight

Level: no change (constant altitude)

Straight: Wings level, dash parallel with horizon, wing tips equidistant above horizon

Magnetic Compass

Errors occur, accelerate indicates turn to north, decelerate indicates turn to south

Power
Increase in power: nose pitch up, yaw left
Decrease in power: nose pitch down, yaw right
Attitude + Power = Performance
Reducing Airspeed: Throttle back, apply back pressure, keep wings level, trim
Increasing Airspeed: Advance Throttle, apply forward pressure, keep wings level, trim

Climbs

Best Rate

Best rate of climb is airspeed that will afford the greatest gain in height in a given time.

Best Angle
Best angle of climb is used to achieve the greatest gain in height in a given distance, to avoid
obstacles for example. It is possible for engine to overheat so normal climb speed should be
resumed ASAP.

Normal Climb

Normal climb speed is climb speed of aircraft in normal circumstances. Speed is higher than both
best rate and best angle climb speed because forward visibility is better and cooling.

En route Climb
Carried out between normal climb and normal cruise speed. Watch out for slip-stream yaw to left
at low airspeeds (rudder). Operate flight controls and power controls simultaneously. When
airspeed is established, adjust attitude to attain desired speed, check power setting, trim,
vertical speed indicator and altimeter should have steady increase in altitude and constant
vertical speed.

To return to straight-and-level flight, normal cruise attitude, accelerate to cruising airspeed,

reduce engine power for normal cruise flight, readjust attitude to maintain altitude, recheck
power settings and trim.

Density
Density plays an important role in climb performance. The more dense the air, the better the
performance. Density decreases when height increases, temperature increases and humidity
increases. Rule of thumb is to decrease the recommended indicated sea level climb speed by
1.75% every 1000 feet increase in altitude. Density altitude is the altitude corresponding to a
given density in a standard atmosphere.

Effect of Weight

Effect of weight greatly influences the climb performance especially after takeoff due to ground
effect.

Overshooting Approaches
It may be necessary to overshoot approaches, take-off power must be applied smoothly and
promptly, with flaps fully extended, attitude must be estimated by outside visual references,
application of power will most likely pitch aircraft upward, therefore appropriate forward pressure
should be applied, flaps retracted promptly and trim adjusted accordingly. During prolonged
climbs, nose should be lowered momentarily or change heading to search for other aircraft in the
vicinity.

Descending

Two types: Power-on and Power-off. Power on gives pilot more control.

Best Glide Speed

The recommended best glide speed provides the best lift/drag ratio and an attitude that achieves
the greatest range still in the air.

Estimating Range
1.
Positions on the ground that can move up and down from fixed positions on the
windshield are ground positions that we can reach and fly over.
2.
Position on the ground that remains stationary is the ground position the aircraft should
reach.
3.
Positions on the ground that appear to move up from the fixed positions on the
windshiled are positions that the aircraft cannot reach.

Power-off Descents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

To Enter
Checklists
Search the sky.
Close the throttle.
Keep straight adjusting yaw and allow airspeed to decrease.
Assume approximate attitude for best glide airspeed.
Trim.
Make minor pitch adjustments to attain correct airspeed and retrim.
Note steady decrease in altitude on altimeter and rate of descents on VSI.

1.
2.

To Return to Straight and Level Flight

Search sky ahead and above.
Note altimeter reading.

3.
Advance throttle to power setting for cruise flight, assume cruise attitude until aircraft
accelerates to cruise speed, keep straight with rudder adjustments.
4.
Trim
5.
Adjust power and flight controls to maintain desired airspeed and attitude.
6.
Retrim.

Power on Descents
When power is on, adjust power accordingly after trimming on descent to achieve desired
airspeed and rate of descent.

Angle of Descent

Reduced airspeed steepens the descent, and with a steeper descent, there is more visibility. With
flaps down, the airspeed can be reduced additionally and a steeper descent attitude can be
achieved. A steeper descent attitude gives more visability.

1.
2.
3.

Turns

Gentle - up to 15 degrees
Medium - 15 to 30 degrees
Steep - over 30 degrees

other than level turns, we have climbing turns and descending turns.
Adverse yaw can be compensated by rudder pressure towards turn direction.
At a given airspeed, the greater the angle of bank, the greater the rate of turn, smaller the radius
of turn, higher the stalling speed and greater the load factor. The higher the airspeed at a given
angle at bank, the lower the rate of the turn and the larger the radius of turn.
To achieve a turn of the smallest radius and greatest rate for a given angle of bank, fly at lowest
possible airspeed for that angle of bank.

During a Turn
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
horizon.
6.

Make sure that aircraft is in accurate straight-and-level.

Look for other aircraft.
Roll aircraft gently to the desired bank attitude with aileron control. Maintain.
Use rudder to compensate for adverse yaw.
Use elevators to maintain the aircraft in the correct pitch attitude in relation to the
Maintain the look-out.

As aircraft settles into an accurate turn:

1.
Nose will move steadily around the horizon, neither rising nor falling.
2.
Airspeed is constant.
3.
Turn indicator will show a constant rate.
4.
The ball will be centered in its glass tube.
5.
The altimeter will be steady on the selected attitude.
To prevent excessive use of rudder, do not apply rudder except when controlling adverse yaw.
To recover from turn.
1.
Look around.
2.
Roll wings level with aileron control.

3.
At the same time, use appropriate rudder pressure to control adverse yaw.
4.
Keep wings level.
5.
Maintain correct pitch attitude with elevator control
6.
Keep straight.
7.
Look around.
8.
Trim.
In descending turn, angle of bank will tend to remain constant but in a climbing turn, the angle of
bank will tend to increase and therefore require aileron input.

Steep Turns
Enter steep turn from medium turn. Apply appropriate back pressure and power when bank
increases beyond 30 degrees. If nose pitches too far down in a steep turn, use coordinated
aileron and rudder pressure to reduce the angle of bank slightly and then correct the pitch
attitude.

Instrument Indications
Turn-and-Bank Indicator
The needle will deflect in direction of turn and indicate the rate at which aircraft is turning. In a
coordinated turn, the ball will be centred, if ball is off to inside of turn, the aircraft is slipping into
the centre of the turn or vice versa.
Airspeed Indicator
Decrease in airspeed due to more drag in turn.
Altimeter
In coordinated turn, altimeter needle will remain stationary.

10

Flight for Range and Endurance

Range flight is the cruise speed right before drop of 10 knots per 100 RPM (usually drop of 5
knots). Endurance is speed before stall speed.
HASEL means:
Height: Must be more than 200

11

Slow Flight

Entry Procedure
1.
2.
3.

Setup: Slow Cruise 2000 RPM

Reduce 100 RPM increments
When below 60 KIAS, increase power back to 1700 - 2100 RPM

Recovery from Slow Flight

1.
2.
3.

Increase PWR to cruise

Lower nose
Return to CRUISE

Safety
1.
HASEL
2.
Be aware of Engine Temp, try not to maintain high nose-up attitude for excessive
amount of time.
3.
Keep ailerons NEUTRAL and use RUDDER to keep wings level.
4. If you do not, risk of SPIN occuring.

12

Stalls

A stall occurs when wing stops lift. The aim is to learn to recognize symptoms and recover from
stall. The reason is that recognizing helps prevent stalls.

Entry
1.
2.
3.
4.

Establish CRUISE flight

HASEL
Reduce power, set flaps
Control yaw and keep straight

and remember... as airspeed decreases you must back pressure to maintain attitude.

Recognition - Approaching Stall

1.
2.
3.

Airframe buffeting
Reduced control effectiveness
Stall warning

Recognition - Full Stall

1.
2.
3.

Nose will drop/pitch forward

Loss of attitude
Unable to maintain altitude.

Recovery
1.
2.
3.
4.

Relax back pressure

Power-full
Keep Straight
Return to Cruise

Safety
1.
2.
3.
4.

HASEL <- mandatory

Smooth control inputs
Keep ailerons as neutral as possible, use rudder
Aggravated stall CAN occur and may result in a spin.

14

Spiral Dive

Steep turn with excessive nose down attitude and rapidly increasing airspeed mismanagement

Recovery
1. Engine throttle idle
2. Roll wings level
3. Pull out of dive

4. Return to cruise, returning cruise power only after airspeed has decreased.

Safety
1.
2.
3.
4.

H.A.S.E.L.
DO NOT pull out of dive if wings arent levelled
Smooth control inputs/power changes
Take your time, not a race. DO IT RIGHT THE FIRST TIME.

15

Slips

Forward Slip increase rate of descent without increasing airspeed

Side Slip counteract drift during crosswind landing

Difference
Long axis
Rudder input
aileron

Side-Slip
Parallel with desired path
Required amount
Required amount

Forward-Slip
@ an angle
Full rudder
Required Amount

Entry
1.
2.
3.
4.

H.A.S.E.L.
Establish Descent
Apply full rudder opposite to slip direction
Apply required aileron in desired direction of slip to prevent turn

Recovery

Simultaneous release of both rudder & aileron inputs.

16

Normal Takeoff

Ref. FTM 88-89 P.O.H.

Outline
1.
2.
3.
4.

Normal Takeoff
Factors Affecting one Takeoff
Takeoff Performance
Safety

AIM

Learn Procedures for normal takeoff.

Motivation
Proper technique is important. At this stage of flight, we are slow and low to the ground (slow
flight similarities)

Link

In order to fly, we must take off. Natural progression from Range & Endurance, Slow Flight,
Stalls, Climbs, Taxiing.

Normal Takeoff
1. After receiving clearance, align aircraft with runway centerline.
2. Feet OFF the brakes (heels on the floor), neutral, full power (verify), eyes on the FAR end
of the runway

3. Maintain directional control as aircraft accelerates (taxi)

4. Apply backpressure on control yoke to establish medium nose-up attitude (Vy)
5. Once airborne, control adverse yaw and track centerline.

Factors Affecting our takeoff

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Weight and balance.

Winds
Temperature/density
Runway Surface Conditions
Runway

Takeoff Performance Charts

C172S P.O.H. Section 5

Safety
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Takeoff briefing
Checklist follow it!
Clearances DO NOT enter the runway without a clearance
Lookout
Hand on throttle during takeoff
Yaw control
Avoid forward pressure on yoke.

17

Circuits

Ref: FTM pg. 99-103 FGM

Outline

1. Circuit Pattern
2. Entering & Leaving the Circuit
3. Safety

AIM
To learn the procedures for flying the specified paths when operating near an airport.

Motivation

We fly a circuit every time we arrive at an airport for landing.

Link
Flying circuits for practice allows us to perfect our takeoff, approach & landing techniques.

Circuit Pattern
1.
2.
3.
4.

Takeoff
Crosswind
Downwind
Base -> final approache
- left-hand approach (unless otherwise noted RWY 15)
- circuits flown at 1000 AGL (unless otherwise noted)

Entering & Leaving the Circuit

CYKZ all known methods of entry are permitted
- No turns below 500 AGL (1150 ASL) on normal departure or circuit
- RWY 15 departures (leaving the circuit) is a LEFT HAND TURN and you are not
permitted to do so until reaching 1000 AGL (1650 ASL)

Safety
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Lookouts
Radio transmissions listen carefully, respond when spoken to DO NOT clog frequencies
Downwind/pre0landing checks
Transfer of Controls
NEVER allow a SKID to occur when turning to final <- stay coordinated
Stay ahead of the aircraft.