WAGON REPAIR WORKSHOP

NORTH CENTRAL RAILWAY, JHANSI (U.P.)

REPORT ON VOCATIONAL TRAINING AND PROJECT ON
AIR COMPRESSOR

Submitted To:

Submitted By:

MR. RAVI GUPTA

(CHIEF INSTRUCTOR B.T.C)

MANJEET SINGH
(B.Tech) Mechanical Engg,

WAGON REPAIR WORKSHOP,JHANSI

BUNDELKHAND UNIVERSITY
JHANSI (U.P.)
1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We express our sincere gratitude and heartiest thanks to Er. Atulya Sinha
(Chief Workshop Manager) for allowing us to complete our vocational training successfully
at Wagon Repair Workshop NCR Jhansi.
We are thankful to
Er. R.K. Khurana Dy.CME (I)
For allowing us at wagon repair workshop NCR Jhansi.
We also would like to thank

Shri Ravi Gupta (CHIEF INSTRUCTOR , INCHARGE)

Shri Syed Kazim Raza Abidy (Sr. INSTRUCTOR)
Shri C.P. Jain (Sr. INSTRUCTOR)
Shri Ram Nivas (Sr. INSTRUCTOR)

For lectures on these topics and timely tips without which it would not have been possible to
complete the project.
We would like to thank all those people who directly or indirectly helped and guided us to
complete our training and project on time.
I have no word to express my gratefulness to my project teachers for their inspiring guidance
valuable help and angelic support for the completion of my project.
Any other names, which desire a mention and have not been because of my negligence. I
would like to apologize.

CONTENTS
1. Introduction.......4
2. Brief History Of Railway Workshop Jhansi.5
3. Statistics Of Jhansi Workshop.....6
4. Railway Organization...7
5. Wagon Repair Process..8
6. Overview of Different Shop:- .10
6.1) Millwright.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)

MOTOR SHOP.11
MACHINE SECTION......11
CRANESHED.......15
COMPRESSOR SHOP.....18

6.2) WELDING SHOP...21

6.3) Air Brake Lab......29
6.4) Wheel Shop..32
6.5) Machine Shop ....35
6.6) Tool Room..40
6.7) Fitting Shop........42

7.) Detail Explanation of the Project-Air Compressor ..44

8.) Bibliography..58

INTRODUCTION
3

The Wagon Repair Workshop, Jhansi is one of the major workshop of Indian Railway spread
across an area of 3.4 lakh Sq m with 65000 Sq. m under covered shed, it is also the biggest
Wagon Repair Workshop of Indian Railways . The target outturn of the workshop is 650
wagons per month, it undertakes 18% of Wagon P.O.H.
In addition to these the Jhansi workshop also undertakes training of supervisors and
technicians in the direction of equipping them with the latest knowledge and skills so that
they can contribute towards betterment of the shops. Supervisors training centre and Basic
Training Centre work under the aegis of Jhansi Workshop where various courses are
conducted to keep them updated with the latest maintenance practices.
Since the inception of Jhansi Workshop, continuous innovations have been undertaken in
order to improve the productivity of the workshop and to develop world class maintenance
infrastructure. It is due to continuous endeavour of the dedicated manpower of the workshop
that it has been awarded with world class standards such as ISO 9001: 2000 in 2001, ISO
14001:2004 and OHSAS 18001:2007 in 2014,thereby reaching a world class stature in
quality, effective environment strategy and safety. Adding more feathers to the hat,
BOXHAM conversion was commenced in Jhansi Workshop from January, 2012 since when a
total of 10 rakes have been turned out.
In addition to these the Jhansi workshop also undertakes training of supervisors and
technicians in the direction of equipping them with the latest knowledge and skills so that
they can contribute towards betterment of the shops. Supervisors training centre and Basic
Training Centre work under the aegis of Jhansi Workshop where various courses are
conducted to keep them updated with the latest maintenance practices. In addition to the basic
training ,various personality development courses are also conducted so as to make the
employees more presentable.
Besides Basic Training, Jhansi workshop also sponsors its staff to undergo specialised
training in various standardised workshop to get in line with the various developments and
advancements prevailing all over the country. Such training programs are aimed at
developing and following a universal workshop practise all over the country. In the near
future Jhansi Workshop is planning to fully operationalise the coach MLR workshop and also
undertake the modernization of Jhansi workshop. In addition to these, setting up of a CTRB
overhauling section and a new BTC is also being undertaken and will be completed soon.

BRIEF HISTORY OF RAILWAY WORKSHOP JHANSI

4

Year

Achievement

1889

Commencement of Construction of Jhansi Workshop.

1895

Steam Loco, Coach & Wagon Repair activities started by Indian Midland Railways.

1930

Loco Repair transferred from Jhansi to Parel Workshop

1961

Introduction of Incentive Scheme

1990

Introduction of POH of BOX N/ BCN wagons

1997

Discontinuation of coach POH.

2001

ISO 9001: 2000 Certificate awarded to Jhansi workshop

2008

Coach MLR Workshop sanctioned at a cost of Rs. 83.67 crores.

Modernization Project sanctioned at a cost of Rs. 71.44 crores.

2009

POH of Tower Wagons started on regular basis from 2008-09.

Stainless Steel BONR wagons turned out from May 2009.

2010

GM Observation Car, RA Furnishing, RA Air conditioning

2011

Commencement of Turn Key Project. BRN Conversion for Rail loading DMT

2012

Conversion of BOXN to BOXNHAM started. First ever rake of BOXNHAM in

Indian Railway has been flagged of on 25.05.12. Work of Turn key projects in
progress, MBFU of Kanpur based ART has been converted into air brake with
BMBS.

2013

2014

New Rehab Shop was inaugurated by GM/NCR during Annual Inspection of JHSW
on 02.09.13 and operationalized in Oct13. Cashless PRS Centre and 2000 KVA DG
set were dedicated to service on 02.09.13.
Cashless PRS centre and 2000 KVA DG sets were dedicated to service on
02.09.2013
ISO 14001:2004 and OHSAS 18001:2007 certificates awarded to Jhansi Workshop.
New Paint Shop was inaugurated by GM/NCR Sh. Pradeep Kumar on 27.06.2014.

STATISTICS OF JHANSI WAGON WORKSHOP

Established
P.O.H Repair Started
Total Area
Covered Area

1889
1895
3.4 Lakh m2
65000 m2

Total Staff

5810

Total Budget WMS

Revenue

Rs 376.76 Cr
Rs 90.36 Cr

Description of Task

Wagon P.O.H
Box and Wagon
Rehabilitation
BOXN Conversion
Tower Wagon POH
Wheel Supply
B.C.N Wagon ReRoofing

2013-14
Target
Fixed
610 per
month
75
15
04 yearly
350
05

Target
Obtained
611.4 per
month
57.3

2014-15
Target
Fixed
646.2 per
month
50

Target
Obtained
647 per
month
22.16

13.3
04 yearly
330
9.75

25
04 yearly
500
7.5

12.58
02 yearly
440
4.2

2015-16
Target
Fixed
660 per
month
50
02 yearly
8.3

Target
Obtained
640.4 per
month
47.2
4.3
370
2.6

WAGON REPAIRING PROCESS

8

INTRODUCTION
Various processes which are carried out once a wagon reaches in the workshop
premises are as follows:

Firstly wagon come in pocket yard.

Senior Section Engineer (S.S.E) of inspection department inspect deeply the

wagon and that time coding is done according to work.

Light Repair- 1

H/Repair- 6

Under Frame- 5

RE Floor- 6RF

RE Roofing- 6RR

Re Hab- RH

For Condemn- U/Inspection

In the yard noted that which wagon required POH, ROH & NPOH.

In the inspection department the repairable part of wagon marked.

From the yard the box is directly send in stripping shop.

All corrosive parts separated by cutting operation and clean well.

After parts is clean well and then according to work demand wagon is send to
different shops.

Usually vacuum brake wagon sending in BWR shop, Heavy repairable wagon
sending in BNR-I and BNR-II and Re Hab wagon is send in Re habitation shop.

Firstly in shop the BP of wagon and centre pivot pin of wagon is cut and after cut
the lifting the wagon and lowered on tassels by separating of body parts of wagon.

After dismantle of wagon is sending in wagon shop and the wheel is sending in
wheel shop for the new profile with Ultrasonic Testing (U.S.T).

After then lower the body parts on tassels air brake parts like as Auxiliary
Reservoir(A.R.),
Controlling
Reservoir(C.R.),
Brake Power(B.P.),
Distributor
Valve(D.V.),
collector,

Dirt
Angle

cock is separated.

Rail Wagon

All parts of air brake are sending in the air brake shop, all air brake steam tested on 10

kg/cm2.
All parts after handling assemble in a wagon to make a perfect BOXN.

According to painting schedule paint is done on wagon.

After doing Stenciling the writing work on wagon is done.

After complete this operation/s the testing of air brake is done by single wagon test
ring (S.W.T.R.).
10

Millwright

A millwright is a craftsman or tradesman who installs, dismantles, repairs, reassembles, and

moves machinery in factories, power plants, and construction sites. As the name suggests, the
original function of a millwright was the construction of flour mills, sawmills, paper
mills and fulfilling powered by water or wind, mostly of wood with a limited number of
metal parts. Since both of these structures originated from antiquity could be considered,
arguably, as one of the oldest engineering trades and the forerunner of the modern mechanical
engineer.

In modern usage, a millwright is engaged with the erection of machinery. This includes such
tasks as leveling, aligning and installing machinery on foundations or base plates and setting,
leveling and aligning electric motors or other power sources such as turbines with the
equipment, which millwrights typically connect with some type of coupling

Millwrights install, maintain, repair and troubleshoot stationary industrial machinery and
mechanical equipment in sites such as factories, production plants and recreational facilities.
However, the exact duties of a millwright vary depending on whether they are unionized or
not, with union rules typically being more restrictive than non-union situations, which may
have their own job description.

11

Motor Shop
Motor Shop section is provided in the millwright section and usually consists of light motors
and transport vehicles. In motor shop light repairs and motor work is usually done in order to
maintain the various small sections which have to be repaired.

Machine Section
Light Lathe:
On/Off/ Speed Control
1) The lower lever will turn the spindle on and off and will select either high or low.
2) The left buttons in the second picture will adjust the speed further.

Brake
1) The upper right button is the brake. It is activated when the spindle is off. It prevents
the spindle from freewheeling when it is shut off. To turn the spindle manually, the
brake must be off.
XY Display
1) The XY display will let you know the position of your cutting tool in reference to
where you set your zero. You can set your zeros at any point by pressing the
appropriate button. We will usually zero the tool at the beginning of the cutting
operation by touching off, explained later.
2) The coordinate system is set up such that if you are standing in front of the machine,
looking down over it, the positive X-direction is to the right and the positive Ydirection is towards the wall.
XY Adjustments
1) The larger wheel is the X-adjustment; clockwise will move the tool in the positive Xdirection.
2) The smaller wheel is the Y-adjustment; clockwise will move the tool in the positive Ydirection.
Power Feeds

12

1) The left most lever is the X-power feed. Up turns the power feed on, down shuts the
feed off.
2) The next lever to the right is the Y-power feed. Up turns the power feed on, down shuts
the feed off.

1) The carriage feed is the speed adjustment for both power feeds.
2) When using the Y-power feed, right moves in the positive Y direction, left moves in the
negative Y-direction.
T

2) The tool holder will slip over the dovetail of th

3) Push the lever away from you to release the tool holder.
4) Pull the lever towards you to lock the tool holder in place
S

1) Before you insert the collet, blow out the threads and the leaves. With you hand, wipe
the male taper of the collet and the female taper of the hole.
2) Make sure that the collet release lever is to the right and insert the collet. There is a
keyway you will need to align.
3) Near the collet release lever there is a black wheel. Turn the wheel clockwise. You are
now screwing the female threads onto the collet. Your part should be in the collet now.
4) Once you feel the threads catch, give the wheel a few more turns and push in the
thumb lever on the wheel to lock the wheel in place.
5) Push the collet release lever to the left. You should feel some resistance after a few
inches and then the lever will pop into place. If you dont feel any resistance, you
need to tighten the wheel more and try again. If you feel too much resistance you are
probably too tight and need to loosen the wheel. Once you do it once, it will be easy
to gauge the force necessary. Like anything else in the shop, NEVER force it.
6) Remember to lock the thumb lever each time.
Chucks
1) There are three and six jaw chucks in the shop. You will mostly be using the three jaw
chucks.
13

2) The chucks can hold onto the outside of the part or the inside, depending on the jaws
that you use.
1) Before inserting the chuck onto the spindle, wipe the female taper of the chuck, wipe
the male taper of the spindle, and blow out the keyway on the outside of the spindle
taper.
2) Lock the spindle in place with the spindle lock. You may need to turn the brake off and
turn the spindle by hand (using the black wheel) until it locks in place.
3) Line up the chuck with the keyway and push the chuck onto the spindle. When it stops,
turn the top of the chuck AWAY from you. This is important. When the spindle is
moving, the top moves towards you. You want the end of the keyway to be applying
pressure onto the chuck at all times.
4) Next, insert the square key into the top of the chuck in one of the three square holes on
the outside of the chuck.

5) With a rubber mallet strike the key three sharp times away from you so that you are
moving the key farther into the keyhole.
6) Three moderately sharp taps are sufficient. DO NOT over do it.
7) Dont forget to remove the key.

14

In heavy lathe machines the longer workpiece are machined which cannot be done in the
machine shop. The lathe machines as shown in the above figure are heavy and can
accommodate bigger workpiece. Bolsters or other concerned wagon parts are directly
machined on these lathe machines.

15

CRANESHED
A crane is a type of machine, generally equipped with a hoist, wire ropes or chains, and
sheaves, that can be used both to lift and lower materials and to move them horizontally. It
uses one or more simple to create mechanical advantage and thus move loads beyond the
normal capability of a human.

Basic Lifting Parts Of The Crane

(a). Lever
(b). Pulley
(c). The hydraulic cylinder
(d). A balance crane contains a horizontal beam (the lever) pivoted about a point called the
fulcrum.
(e). A jib crane contains a tilted strut (the jib) that supports a fixed pulley block. Cables are
wrapped multiple times round the fixed block and round another block attached to the load.
(f). For stability, the sum of all moments about any point such as the base of the crane must
equate to zero.

16

TYPES OF CRANE
On the basis of modern crane study and advancement there are two basic types of cranes:1.) Fixed crane
2.) Mobile or movable crane
(a). A fixed crane is the type of crane which lift the loads without any appreciable movement.
(b). A mobile crane is the type of crane which moves from one place to another as
well as movement of the crane basic tools.

TYPES OF FIXED CRANE

TOWER CRANE
The tower crane is a modern form of balance crane. Fixed to the ground (and sometimes
attached to the sides of structures as well), tower cranes often give the best combination of
height and lifting capacity and are used in the construction of tall buildings.
Specification:
Lifting Capacity: -

max 25t.

Working Radius: -

70 m to 75m.

Tower crane is generally used for high rise infrastructure and project.

SELF-ERECTING CRANE
Specification:
Lifting Capacity: -

max 6t to 8t.

Working Radius: -

45m.

Use:
It is mainly used on construction site to transport the material from one place to other place.

HAMMERHEAD CRANE
17

The "hammerhead", or giant cantilever, crane is a fixed-jib crane consisting of a steel-braced

tower on which revolves a large, horizontal, double cantilever; the forward part of this
cantilever or jib carries the lifting trolley, the jib is extended backwards in order to form a
support for the machinery and counter-balancing weight.
Specifications:

Lifting capacity: -

max 350tons.

Working radius: -

up to 70m.

Use: Ship-yard work including construction of ship and heavy duty building construction.

GANTRY CRANE
This type of crane is similar to the bridge crane except that it runs on a runway at the floor
level. The bridge is supported by a pair of rigid steel legs which are carried by a pair of end
trucks along the floor level runway.
Specifications:

Lifting Capacity: -

5 tones to 10 tones.

Working Radius: -

23 m.

Use:(a). In the construction of Bridge superstructure for lifting heavy girder.

(b). In Ship manufacturing industry, for lifting heavy parts of ships.

OVERHEAD CRANE
(a). Overhead Crane can build top running cranes, under running cranes, double girder
cranes, and single girder cranes ranging from:
(b). Capacities - 1/4 ton through 100 tons
(c). Spans - 5' through 125
(d). Use: The most common overhead crane use is in the steel industry.
18

COMPRESSOR SHOP
Introduction of Air Compressor
Air compressor is a machine, suck low pressure low temperature air form atmosphere
and compressor it to high pressure and high temperature by reciprocating or rotary
motion of compressor. It is driven by external source like as prime mover. The
compressor used for supplying large amount of air to machine.

Use of Compressed Air

(a). To start large diesel engine.
(b). To clean workshop machine.
(c). To operate blast furnaces.
(d). To operate lift, reams and pump.
(e). To inject drill, hammer, air brake for locomotive and water sprays.
(f). For supercharging of I.C. engine.
(g). For filling the air in tube of tire.
(h). To cool large building.

Classification Of Air Compressors

19

Reciprocating Air Compressor

Construction
(a). It consists of cylinder and piston assembly.
(b). Assembly of crank shaft and connecting rod.
(c). Inlet and delivery valve etc.

Working
(a). The single stage reciprocating compressor is shown in figure.
(b). The single stage reciprocating compressor working is same as engine.
(c). During the downward motion of the piston, the pressure inside the cylinder falls
below
(d). Atmospheric pressure and the inlet valve is opened due to the pressure.
(e). The cycle is repeated.

20

ROTARY COMPRESSOR
Construction
(a). In screw compressor, the suction and delivery valve replaced by port and a piston
replaced by helical screw.
(b). It consists of two helical screws which are mesh with each other.
(c). An electrical motor drives a male rotor and female are driven by male rotor.

Working
(a). The screw compressor is shown in figure.
(b). The screw compressor is driven by external source like electric motor.
(c). When the male rotor shaft is rotate then female is mesh with male gear.

(d). The air, gas is drawn into the inlet port, the rotor is continuous to turn inter lobe space
increase in size, and gas, air flow continuously into compressor.
(e). Male lobe with female inter lobe space on the suction end and progressively
compresses the air in axial direction of discharge proof.
(f). At the point determine by the designed built in volume ratio, the discharge port is
uncovered and the compressed air is discharge.
(g). The cycle is repeated.

21

WELDING SHOP

INTRODUCTION
Welding is a process for joining two similar or dissimilar metals by fusion. It joins
different metals/alloys, with or without the application of pressure and with or without the
use of filler metal. The fusion of metal takes place by means of heat. The heat may be
generated either from combustion of gases, electric arc, electric resistance or by chemical
reaction. During some type of welding processes, pressure may also be employed, but this is
not an essential requirement for all welding processes. Welding provides a permanent joint
but it normally affects the metallurgy of the components. It is therefore usually accompanied
by post weld heat treatment for most of the critical components. The welding is widely used
as a fabrication and repairing process in industries.

WELDING POSITIONS
There are four types of welding positions:

(a). Flat or down hand position.

(b). Horizontal position.

(c). Vertical position.

(d). Overhead position.

A worker is shown in the figure performing a weld on the plate of the trolley of the wheel. He
is performing the weld in horizontal position. The joint being formed is butt joint, the
welding is gas welding done at high temperatures to join or disjoin meta parts. The welding
here is done to join broken plate to the fixed plate of the wheel

22

TYPES OF WELDING JOINTS

(a). Butt joint

(b). Corner and Tee joint
(c). Lap joint
(d). Edge joint

CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING PROCESSES

23

OXY ACETYLENE GAS WELDING

In this process, acetylene is mixed with oxygen in correct proportions in the welding
torch and ignited. The flame resulting at the tip of the torch is sufficiently hot to melt and join
the parent metal. The oxy-acetylene flame reaches a temperature of about 3300C and thus
can melt most of the ferrous and non-ferrous metals in common use. A filler metal rod or
welding rod is generally added to the molten metal pool to build up the seam slightly for
greater strength.

Oxy Acetylene Welding Setup

Acetylene and oxygen gas is stored in compressed gas cylinders. These gas cylinders

differ widely in capacity, design and colour code. However, in most of the countries, the
standard size of these cylinders is 6 to 7 m3 and is painted black for oxygen and maroon for
acetylene. An acetylene cylinder is filled with some absorptive material, which is saturated
with a chemical solvent acetone. Acetone has the ability to absorb a large volume of
acetylene and release it as the pressure falls. If large quantities of acetylene gas are being
consumed, it is much cheaper to generate the gas at the place of use with the help of
acetylene gas generators. Acetylene gas is generated by carbide-to-water method.

24

METAL INERT GAS WELDING

Metal inert gas arc welding (MIG) or more appropriately called as gas metal arc
welding (GMAW) utilizes a consumable electrode. MIG welding uses a welding wire that is
feed automatically at a constant speed as an electrode. A short arc is generated between the
base metal and the wire. The resulting heat from the arc melts the welding wire and joins the
base metals together. Since the wire is fed automatically at a constant rate, this method is
called semiautomatic arc welding.
During the welding process, either inert gases or active gas shields the weld from the
atmosphere and prevents oxidation of the base metal. The type of inert gas used depends on
the base material to be welded. For most steels welds, carbon dioxide is used a shield gas.
The power supplies are always of the constant voltage type only. The current from the
welding machine is changed by the rate of feeding of the electrode wire. Normally DC arc
welding machines are used for GMAW with electrode positive (DCRP).

25

TUNGSTEN INERT GAS WELDING

In this process a non-consumable tungsten electrode is used with an envelope of inert
shielding gas around it. The shielding gas protects the tungsten electrode and the molten
metal weld pool from the atmospheric contamination. The shielding gases generally used are
argon, helium or their mixtures. Both AC and DC power source can be used for TIG welding.
DC is preferred for welding of copper, copper alloys, nickel and stainless steel whereas DC
reverse polarity (DCRP) or AC is used for welding aluminium, magnesium or their alloys.

WELDING DEFECTS
Lack of Penetration
It is the failure of the filler metal to penetrate into the joint. It is due to
(a). Inadequate de-slagging.
(b). Incorrect edge penetration.
(c). Incorrect welding technique.

Lack of Fusion
26

Lack of fusion is the failure of the filler metal to fuse with the parent metal.
(a). Too fast a travel
(b). Incorrect welding technique
(c). Insufficient heat

Porosity
It is a group of small holes throughout the weld metal. It is caused by the trapping of gas. It is
caused by the trapping of gas during the welding process, due to
(a). Chemicals in the metal
(b). Dampness
(c). Too rapid cooling of the weld.

Slag Inclusion
It is the entrapment of slag or other impurities in the weld. It is caused by
(a). Slag from previous runs not being cleaned away,
(b). Insufficient cleaning and preparation of the base metal before welding commences.

Undercuts
These are grooves or slots along the edges of the weld caused by
(a). Too fast a travel
27

(b). Bad welding technique

(c). Too great a heat build-up.

Cracking
It is the formation of cracks either in the weld metal or in the parent metal. It is due
(a). Unsuitable parent metals used in the weld
(b). Bad welding technique.

Poor Weld Bead Appearance

If the width of weld bead deposited is not uniform or straight, then the weld bead is
termed as poor. It is due to improper arc length, improper welding technique, damaged
electrode coating and poor electrode and earthing connections.

Distortion
Distortion is due to high cooling rate, small diameter electrode, poor clamping and slow arc
travel speed.

Overlays
These consist of metal that has flowed on to the parent metal without fusing with the defect is
due to
(a). Contamination of the surface of the parent metal
(b). Insufficient heat

Blowholes
28

These are large holes in the weld caused by

(a). Gas being trapped, due to moisture.
(b). Contamination of either the filler or parent metals.

Burn Through
It is the collapse of the weld pool due to
(a). Too great a heat concentration
(b). Poor edge preparation.

29

AIR BRAKE
INTRODUCTION
An air brake is a conveyance braking system actuated by compressed air. Modern trains rely
upon a fail preventive air brake system that is based upon a design patented by George
Westinghouse on March 5,1872. In the air brake's simplest form, called the straight air
system, compressed air pushes on a piston in a cylinder. The piston is connected through
mechanical linkage to brake shoes that can rub on the train wheels, using the resulting friction
to slow the train.
AIR BRAKE SYSTEM OPERATION
The compressor in the locomotive produces the air supplied to the system. It is stored in the
main reservoir. Regulated pressure of 6 kg/cm2 flows to the feed pipe through feed valve and
5-kg/cm2 pressure by drivers brake valve to the brake pipe. The feed pipe through check
valve charges air reservoir via isolating cock and also by brake pipe through distributor valve.
The brake pipe pressure controls the distributor valves of all the coaches/wagons which in
turn control the flow of compressed air from Air reservoir to break cylinder in application and
from brake cylinder to atmosphere in release.
During application, the driver in the loco lowers the BP pressure. This brake pipe pressure
reduction causes opening of brake cylinder inlet passage and simultaneously closing of brake
cylinder outlet passage of the distributor valve. In this situation, auxiliary reservoir supplies
air to brake cylinder. At application time, pressure in the brake cylinder and other brake
characteristics are controlled by distributor valve.During release, the BP pressure is raised to
5 kg/cm2 . This brake pipe pressure causes closing of brake cylinder inlet passage and
simultaneously opening of brake cylinder outlet passage of the distributor valve.

LAYOUT:-

30

The
distributor
valve connects brake cylinder to

atmosphere. The brake cylinder pressure can be raised or lowered in steps.

In case of application by alarm chain pulling, the passenger emergency alarm signal device
(PEASD) is operated which in turn actuates passenger valve (PEV) causing exhaust of BP
pressure through a choke of 4 mm. Opening of guard emergency brake valve also makes
emergency brake application.
There are two case of braking, when only loco move and when entire train move.
Consequently there are two valves in the driver cabin viz SA-9&A-9. Braking operation of
above case is shown in chart below.

VALVES

A-9 Valve
The A-9 Automatic Brake Valve is a compact self lapping, pressure maintaining Brake
Valve which is capable of graduating the application or release of locomotive and train
brakes. A-9 Automatic Brake Valve has five positions: Release, minimum Reduction, Full
Service, Over Reduction and Emergency.

SA-9 Valve

31

SA-9 Independent Brake Valve is a compact self lapping, pressure maintaining Brake
Valve which is capable of graduating the application or release of Locomotive Air Brakes
independent of Automatic Brake. The SA-9 Independent Brake Valve is also capable of
releasing an automatic brake application on the Locomotive without affecting the train brake
application. The SA-9 Brake Valve has three positions : quick release, release and
application.

MU 2B VALVE
The MU-2B Valve is a manually operated, two positions and multiple operated valve
arranged with a pipe bracket and is normally used for locomotive brake equipment for
multiple unit service between locomotives equipped with similar system in conjunction with
F-1 Selector Valve.

D-1 Emergency Brake Valve

The D-1 Emergency Brake Valve is a manually operated device Which provides a means of
initiating an emergency brake application.

32

In the air brake lab POH of cylinders are done. The compressed air is filled in these cylinders
and then the POH is done. The image above shows a view of air brake lab in which a cylinder
UNPOH of size 8 is kept. This cylinder is kept for POH, the cylinders are the main part in a
air brake system as they help the compressed air to create a force on the wheel when the
brakes are applied.

WHEEL SHOP
A train wheel or rail wheel is a type of wheel specially designed for use on rail tracks. A
rolling component is typically pressed onto an axle and mounted directly on a rail
car or locomotive or
indirectly
on
a bogie,
also
called
a truck.
Wheels
are cast or forged (wrought) and are heat-treated to have a specific hardness. New wheels are
trued, using a lathe, to a specific profile before being pressed onto an axle. All wheel profiles
need to be periodically monitored to ensure proper wheel-rail interface. Improperly trued
wheels increase rolling resistance, reduce energy efficiency and may create unsafe operation.
A railroad wheel typically consists of two main parts: the wheel itself, and the tire (or tyre)
around the outside. A rail tire is usually made from steel, and is typically heated and pressed
onto the wheel, where it remains firmly as it shrinks and cools. Monobloc wheels do not have
encircling tires, while resilient rail wheels have a resilient material, such as rubber, between
the wheel and tire.

Shown in the figure are the wheels kept in wheel shop. In wheel shop the wheels are
machined on CNC machines. CNC lathe machine is used to machine the sides of the wheel.
The wheels are attached to the railway wagon which slides on the tracks moving the wagon
33

forward, thus the wheel gets weared out

due to excessive travel. Thus it is
repaired in the wheel shop.
Also there are bearing shops aside wheel
shops where the roller bearing in the
sides of the wheel are replaced. The
lubrication of the roller bearings is done.
The overhead cranes are used in these
sections which transport the heavy
wheels from one place to another.

WHEEL SLIDE PROTECTION

EQUIPMENT
Operates as a pressure regulation device of the air pressure inside the brake adjusted the
braking force to the wheel to rail friction conditions so as to prevent the wheels from locking
and reduce the barking distance
In the case of the adhesion coefficient provided by a dry rail, the device does not interact
with the pneumatic system. The device enters into action when a loss of adhesion of the axles
is detected and, moment by moment, it adjusts the braking force to the present adhesion
conditions.
The operation is controlled so that the skidding wheel is allowed to find the most favorable
area for the adhesion-skidding characteristics.
The action of the device is controlled in order to keep the skidding wheel in the most
favorable area of the adhesion-skid characteristic.
Speed signal derived for CDTS.

Wheel Slide Protection Equipment

Speed sensor Phonic wheel

Dump Valve Connector

34

Speed Sensor
Generates pulse frequency proportional to the number of revolutions and teeth of the phonic
wheel. It comprises a magnetic sensor which exploits the principle of magneto-resistance, by
which the value of the resistance across the sensor terminals is modulated by variation of the
air gap in the magnetic circuit made up of the phonic wheel and the sensor itself.
The pluses coming from the frequency generators are proportional to the number of axles
revolutions and are amplified and converted into digital data as a function of the peripheral
wheel speed and the effective wheel diameter. Each bogie microprocessor device controls and
manages the signals originating from the two axles of the relevant bogie.

35

The coupler provides a means of mechanically connecting individual adjacent vehicles in

order to make a train. The coupler is located at both ends of each vehicle. When connected to
a coupler of an adjacent vehicle, it allows the vehicles to move independently to
accommodate track curvature and elevation change while remaining connected (coupled)
together. The coupler is opened manually using the coupler operating rod and is closed
automatically when the couplers on adjacent vehicles are mated. The coupler automatically
locks when fully mated.LHB coaches have been provided with tight lock centre buffer
couplers instead of screw coupling.

MACHINE SHOP
INTRODUCTION
Every machine needs proper care and with the time there parts get worn out, so these
parts needs to replaced or maintained. This function performed in Machine shop. Here
different parts of machines are repaired. This shop has many heavy machines. For example
lathe machine, milling, shaper, grinding, radial drilling etc.

LATHE MACHINE
36

It is commonly known as the mother of all other machine tool. The main function of a
lathe is to remove metal from a job to give it the required shape and size. The job is secure1y
and rigid1y held in the chuck or in between centre on the lathe machine and then turn it
against a single point cutting tool which will remove metal from the job in the form of chips.
Lathe can be used to carry out other operations also, such as drilling, reaming, boring, taper
turning, knurling, screw thread cutting, grinding etc.

CENTRE OR ENGINE LATHE

This lathe is the important member of the lathe family and is the most widely used.
Similar to the speed lathe, the engine lathe has all the basic parts, e.g., bed, headstock, and
tailstock. But its headstock is much more robust in construction and contains additional
mechanism for driving the lathe spindle at multiple speeds.The engine lathe can feed the
cutting tool both in cross and longitudinal direction with reference to the lathe axis with the
help of a carriage, feed rod and lead screw. The power may be transmitted by means of belt,
electric motor or through gears.

37

Shaper Machine
Shaper is a reciprocating type of machine tool in which the ram moves the cutting tool
backwards and forwards in a straight line. These surfaces may be horizontal, Vertical, or
inclined. A shaper is used to generate flat (plane) surfaces by means of a single point cutting
tool similar to a lathe tool. A single point cutting tool is held in the tool holder, which is
mounted on the ram. The work piece is rigidly held in a vice or clamped directly on the table.
The table may be supported at the outer end. The ram reciprocates and thus cutting tool held
in tool holder moves forward and backward over the work piece. In a standard shaper, cutting
of material takes place during the forward stroke of the ram. The backward stroke remains
idle and no cutting takes place during this stroke. The feed is given to the work piece and
depth of cut is adjusted by moving the tool downward towards the work piece. The time
taken during the idle stroke is less as compared to forward cutting stroke and this is obtained
by quick return mechanism.

38

Radial Drilling Machine

The radial drilling machine consists of a heavy, round vertical column supporting a
horizontal arm that carries the drill head. Arm can be raised or lowered on the column and can
also be swung around to any position over the work and can be locked in any position.

The drill head containing mechanism for rotating and feeding the drill is mounted on a radial
arm and can be moved horizontally on the guide-ways and clamped at any desired position.
These adjustments of arm and drilling head permit the operator to locate the drill quickly over
any point on the work. The table of radial drilling machine may also be rotated through 360
deg. The maximum size of hole that the machine can drill is not more than 50 mm. Powerful
drive motors are geared directly into the head of the machine and a wide range of power
feeds are available as well as sensitive and geared manual feeds. The radial drilling machine
is used primarily for drilling medium to large and heavy work pieces.

Slotting Machine
The slotter or slotting machine is also a reciprocating type of machine tool similar to a
shaper or a planer. It may be considered as a vertical shaper. The chief difference between a
39

shaper and a slotter is the direction of the cutting action. The machine operates in a manner
similar to the shaper, however, the tool moves vertically rather than in a horizontal direction.
The job is held stationary. The slotter has a vertical ram and a hand or power operated rotary
table.

Grinding Machine
Grinding is a material removal and surface generation process used to shape and
finish components made of metals and other materials. The precision and surface finish
obtained through grinding can be up to ten times better than with either turning or milling
usually a rotating wheel brought into controlled contact with a work surface. The grinding
wheel is composed of abrasive grains held together in a binder. These abrasive grains act as
cutting tools, removing tiny chips of material from the work. As these abrasive grains wear
and become dull, the added resistance leads to fracture of the grains or weakening of their
bond. The dull pieces break away, revealing sharp new grains that continue cutting.
The requirements for efficient grinding include:
(a). Abrasive components which are harder than the work.
(b). Shock- and heat-resistant abrasive wheels.
(c). Abrasives that is friable. That is, they are capable of controlled fracturing.
40

Milling machine
A milling machine is a machine tool that removes metal as the work is fed against a
rotating multipoint cutter. The milling cutter rotates at high speed and it removes metal at a
very fast rate with the help of multiple cutting edges. One or more number of cutters can be
mounted simultaneously on the arbour of milling machine. This is the reason that a milling
machine finds wide application in production work. Milling machine is used for machining
flat surfaces, contoured surfaces, surfaces of revolution, external and internal threads, and
helical surfaces of various cross-sections. In many applications, due to its higher production
rate and accuracy, milling machine has even replaced shapers and slottersAs the workpiece
moves against the cutting edges of milling cutter, metal is removed in form chips of trochoid
shape. Machined surface is formed in one or more passes of the work. The work to be
machined is held in a vice, a rotary table, a three jaw chuck, an index head, between centres,
in a special fixture or bolted to machine table. The rotatory speed of the cutting tool and the
feed rate of the work piece depend upon the type of material being machined.

TOOL ROOM

41

A tool room is a room where tools are stored or, in a factory, a space where tools are made
and repaired for use throughout the rest of the factory. In engineering and manufacturing, tool
room activity is everything related to tool-and-die facilities in contrast to production line
activity.
Originally a tool room was literally in one room, but like emergency room, the term has been
figuratively extended in both substantive and adjectival senses to all such places and the
methods used there, regardless of the physical space. The name was originally
styled tool room or tool-room, but tool room is now the norm in engineering and machining.

Making, repairing, and storing tools

The simplest sense of the word tool room refers to the storage of tools. A broader use of the
term includes reference to a space where tools are made, repaired, inventoried, and/or
distributed for use within the factory. This extension of the latter sense reflects the
development of greater systemization in manufacturing. During the 19th century, there
gradually developed a division of labor whereby the people who made, repaired, kept records
of, stored, and retrieved tools were not necessarily the same people who used the tools to do
the manufacturing work itself. Examples of such division of labor had existed in prior
centuries, but most manufacturing had been done on a craft basis, where there had been no
need for the idea of a tool room separate from the rest of the workshop.
The simplest sense above can also be conveyed by the word toolcrib (sometimes styled toolcrib or tool crib).

Tool-and-die facilities and methods

In engineering and manufacturing, a tool room is everything related to tool-and-die facilities
and methods, in contrast to the factory floor and production line activity. For people not
familiar with these fields, in order to understand the specialist usage, some explanation is
needed:
Within the general field of machining there is a rough but recurring division between (a) tool
room practice and (b) production practice (the making of large numbers of duplicate parts). It
is the difference between manufacturing itself and the tool-and-die work that is done in
support of the manufacturing. Anecdotal examples of similar distinctions can probably be
found here and there throughout human history, but as a widespread part of the "fabric" of
material culture, this distinction (and the terminology with which to talk about it) has evolved
since the Industrial Revolution, and most especially since the advent of armory practice and
later mass production.
42

A good, simplistic way to summarize the change in ideas is to compare the making of a
certain product in different time periods. In 1750, a rifle was made in a workshop by a
craftsman using hand tools, and if he needed a new tool, it is likely that he would make it
himself using the same tools and methods that he would use to make his product, the rifle
(smithy, files, woodcarving knives, etc.) This type of craftsmanship can still be done today,
but it is expensive in terms of skilled labor time per unit of output, and therefore it implies
small total output volume and high unit price. However, today the way to make rifles in large
quantity with low unit price is to first do the tool-and-die work (tool room work) (that is,
make, or have someone else make, machine tools, jigs, and fixtures), and then use those
specialized tools to mass-produce the rifles in an automated way that involves no tool room
methods.
Another example, instead of comparing different centuries, simply compares different
methods of tool path control that could be chosen today: If you need a certain hole location
on each part for your drill bit, will you dial it carefully by hand many times (once for each
part produced), or will you dial it carefully by hand only oncewhile making a drill jig for
subsequent drilling to be quickly and effortlessly guided by?
The manufacturing of small batches has often presented the biggest challenge to this division
of methods. When only a small batch of output is demanded, will one (a) produce each piece
using "custom" methods (handcrafting or tool room-style layout and machining), which
drives up unit cost; or (b) maintain the capital-cost-intensive tool room-production division,
which also drives up unit costs in its own ways? In other words, is it worth one's time to
make a fixture, and is it worth tying up a drill press's availability by setting it up for dedicated
use with that fixture? The drill press may be needed tomorrow for a different part, with a
different setup. For 100 parts, the costs of making a fixture and tying up a machine's
availability are justified. For 5 parts, maybe one should just make each of the 5 using tool
room-style layout and tool path control.
The evolution of IT and its integration into manufacturing is changing the questions and
equations still further. For example, CNC and robotics have led the way to rapid
prototyping and instant manufacturing, which shift the tool room-production division by
giving an up-front tool room investment the flexibility to be quickly and easily used for any
product design, with batch size irrelevant. In large corporations there may be a very distinct
division of labor between tool room work and production machining, with different
employees for each, whereas job-shop .

FITTING SHOP

43

Fitting Shops are used in wagon workshops usually to repair wagons and provide
necessary supplies and fittings. The various shops such as roller bearing shop and wheel shop
were a part of it. The basic function of the shops is that the wagon is directly sent from the
stripping section to repair it. Here all the parts including bolster, bearing, case and everything
is repaired. Fitting shops test each part and send them to required shop.

In fitting shops there were various sections BWR 1, BWR 2, BWR 3 these sections had
specific purposes. The WR1 shop had bolster repair, trolley repair, etc. The workers were
distributed accordingly and then tasks were assigned. The bolster section had workers
working on welding and repairing the bolster part that was required.
Similarly other sections also were being used to fit various parts and repair the wagon. The
overhead cranes were being used to lift sections of wagons from one part to another.
The wagon is sent directly to the fitting shop from the stripping section thus the wagon is
already dissembled, thus the concerned part is sent to its section. In BWR the wagon is
repaired and the various parts are tested. The BWR shop lies in the C-Shed.

44

Fitting Shops view is shown the workers are working on the bolster plates, welding
operation is being done. The various dissembled pieces are kept which will be repaired here.

Bolsters are shown kept in fitting shops according to speed, the various bolsters are
shown as Bolster M1 , Bolster M2 , Bolster M3.

PROJECT STUDY
45

THE AIR COMPRESSOR

INTRODUCTION-

An air compressor is a device that converts power (using an electric motor,

diesel or gasoline engine, etc.) into potential energy stored in pressurized air (i.e., compressed
air). By one of several methods, an air compressor forces more and more air into a storage
tank, increasing the pressure. When tank pressure reaches its upper limit the air compressor
shuts off. The compressed air, then, is held in the tank until called into use. The energy
contained in the compressed air can be used for a variety of applications, utilizing the kinetic
energy of the air as it is released and the tank depressurizes. When tank pressure reaches its
lower limit, the air compressor turns on again and re-pressurizes the tank.

Air Compressor System provides high pressure compressed air with subsequent
reduction in volume for a range of industrial and domestic applications. They have become
imperative equipment in almost every industry. Due to its high efficiency, feasible operational
parameters and diverse range of applications, they have gained widespread popularity and no
industry is complete without a compact compressor system. The primary objective of this
report is to understand the importance of air compressor systems. In addition, the report
covers a wide spectrum of compressor applications and processes. The different types of
compressors, along with their merits and demerits have been delineated. The important
operational parameters have been defined along with their importance in the compression
process. "Air is free, whereas compressed high pressure air is not". True to the phrase,
generating high pressure compressed air is not an economical and energy efficient process.
High initial and maintenance costs can increase the overall compressor cost to a great extent.
Proper and well maintained compressor systems can reduce energy consumption from 3050%. Various steps to reduce energy consumption and increase overall efficiency have been
detailed in the report.
In most industrial applications, compressed air is considered as the "fourth utility",
preceded by the three essential utilities; water, electricity and natural gas. Typically, a simple
air compressor is an industrial device that intakes ambient air and increases the pressure with
reduction in volume by doing work on the working fluid, namely air or gas.
The primary objective of employing a compressor is to provide high pressure air using least
possible power consumption. The compression can occur in any one of the three ways;
adiabatic, isothermal or polytrophic. For an Adiabatic compression process, there is assumed
to be no heat loss or gain from the system. When the temperature of air at inlet equals
temperature of compressed air at outlet, the compression process is Isothermal. Normally, a
typical compression process involves Polytrophic Compression. The pressure, temperature
and volume of air it inlet and outlet vary with the respective conditions. The least possible
work of compression is achieved in an adiabatic compression process as the net work done by
the system is zero. The adiabatic efficiency is the maximum possible compressor efficiency
46

and compressors are designed with compressor efficiencies such that, there is little or no
variation among the two.

As mentioned earlier, compressed air is considered a utility because of their diverse

applications in various industrial and metallurgical operations. The compressed air supply is
clean, convenient, safe and flexible for use. Industrial uses can be attributed to when they are
in connection with compressed air motors for functioning of pneumatic tools, raw material
conveying through ducts, in connection with a reservoir for storage of compressed air for
future applications.

47

HISTORY OF AIR COMPRESSOR-

The earliest documented use of the compressor dates back to around 4th century B.C.
In those times, the compressor was termed as a "water organ". The water organ was invented
by Ctesibius of Alexandria. The design comprised of a chamber filled with air and water, a
water pump, collection of pipes of various dimensions and connecting tubes and valves. The
mechanism of operation was relatively simple; by pumping water into the chamber, the air
gets compressed. With advancement of time and technology, various improvements and
innovations were made to the water organ.
In 1808, the Multi Stage Axial Compressor, designed by John Dumbbell, came
into industrial application. However, this design did not achieve wide-spread popularity
because the compressor comprised of moving blades without stationary blades to transfer the
air flow into the successive compression stage.

During the 19th century, the invention of the Roots Blower was a huge step leading
to invention of modern air compressor systems. Philander and Francis Roots designed the
Roots blower, while devising a suitable replacement for the water wheel at their woolen mill.
The roots blower consisted of numerous impeller pairs rotating in opposite directions. Dr.
Franze Stolze designed the modern compressor in 1900; which comprised of a multi stage
axial flow compressor with a combustion chamber, multi-stage axial turbine along with a
regenerator to heat the discharged air utilizing exhaust waste gases.

BASIC COMPONENTS-

Fig-B illustrates basic components of air compressor system. Due to the

diverse applications of compressed air, air compressor systems merit an intricate and complex
design. Air compressor systems consist of a number of sub-systems and components, which
include the air compressor, motor and drive unit, control systems, air inlet filters, air dryers,
after-coolers and various other retrofitted components.During the operation of an air
compressor system, the ambient air is taken into the system by air inlet filters. The motor and
gear unit powers the compressor system to increase the pressure of air. The primary function
of an integrated control system is to regulate the amount of air intake and air discharge from
the system. Treatment equipment, such as an Air Dryer and Air Separator are used to remove
48

contaminants and provide moisture and oil free pressurized air. The Outlet and Distribution
systems play the pivotal role of transporting the compressed air to the various required
sources. In typical industrial applications, the pressurized air is stored in an Air Reservoir or
Storage Tank for future use.

The major components of an air compressor are detailed below:

Intake Air Filter:

Ambient air enters the compressor via inlet air filters. Filtration elements in intake
filters facilitate filtration of particulate matter present in air. This allows the entry of clean
and dry air into the compressor.

Compressor Cooling:
A substantial amount of heat is generated during compressor process. As a result,
cooling and lubrication of the system is mandatory for reducing wear and damage to the
compressor spares; thereby increasing compressor efficiency. Compressors are normally
cooled using air, water or oil (lubricant).

Inter-Stage Coolers:
Inter coolers act as heat exchangers to lower the temperature of air before it enters
into successive stages of compression. This reduction of temperature is paramount to reduce
the overall compression work and increase compressor efficiency.

After-Coolers:
After coolers are employed at the end of compression process to lower the discharge
temperature of air. During this final stage of operation, as the temperature is lowered,
moisture present in air condenses and separated from the discharge air.

Air Separators:
Separators act as an enhanced after-cooler. They are installed either after an intercooler or after-cooler to desiccate discharge air.

Air-Dryers:
Normally, after the compressed air has passed through all the above mentioned
equipment, discharge air is passed into the air-dryer before storage in the reservoir. The air
that reaches the dryer is saturated. If this saturated air enters the piping, it can lead to
corrosion and damage to the transport equipment. The Relative Humidity (moisture content)
in atmospheric air is relatively high. When this air is compressed at high pressure, it occupies
49

a small volume and high temperature. At a specific temperature, all the moisture present in air
condenses. This temperature is known as Dew Point. This process is cycled in an air-dryer to
ensure that moisture-free air reaches the storage area.

Pressure Regulators/Flow Controller:

PFC's are auxiliary equipment that minimizes pressure drops in the system by
stabilizing system pressure.

Lubrication:
Lubrication is a paramount need for effective compressed air operation. A
lubricator is employed to lubricate and cool the moving parts and prevent overheating. In
some systems, the lubricator is retrofitted with a compressed filter and pressure flow
regulator to fashion a system known as Filter Regulator Lubricant (FRL).

Air Receivers:
The high pressure compressed air from the system is discharged to a storage tank or
an air-receiver according to the demand. The capacity and type of air receiver varies
depending on the demand of compressed air within the system. For spasmodic demand of
compressed air, a large capacity reservoir is employed for a relatively small capacity
compressor. Moreover, a receiver functions depending on demand, thereby reducing
overwork and load on the compressor.

Air Transport and Distribution System:

The final stage in a compression process is the proper distribution of compressed air
to the demand points. A common distribution system includes piping, valves and hoses. To
minimize the pressure drop during distribution, it is imperative that the pipe length is kept
minimum and diameter to maximum.

50

WORKING PRINCIPLE-

HOW AIR GENERATES POWER

The normal state of air, barometric, is called atmospheric pressure. When air is compressed,
it is under pressure greater than that of the atmosphere and it characteristically attempts to
return to its normal state. Since energy is required to compress the air, that energy is released
as the air expands and returns to atmospheric pressure. Our ancestors knew that compressed
air could be used for power when they discovered that internal energy stored in compressed
air is directly convertible to work. Air compressors were designed to compress air to higher
pressures and harness that energy. Unlike other sources of power, no conversion from another
form of energy such as heat is involved at the point of application. Compressed air, or
51

pneumatic devices are therefore characterized by a high power-to-weight or power-to-volume

ratio. Not as fast as electricity, nor as slow as hydraulics, compressed air finds a broad field of
applications for which its response and speed make it ideally suited. Where there is an
overlap, the choice often depends on cost and efficiency, and air is likely to hold the
advantage. Compressed air produces smooth translation with more uniform force, unlike
equipment that involves translatory forces in a variable force field. It is a utility that is
generated in-house, so owners have more control over it than any other utility. In addition, air
does not possess the potential shock hazard of electricity or the potential fire hazard of oils.
The advantages of air power will be discussed further in the proceeding pages.

WHERE IS COMPRESSED AIR USED

Compressed air powers many different kinds of devices. It can be used to push a piston, as in
a jackhammer; it can go through a small air turbine to turn a shaft, as in a dental drill; or it
can be expanded through a nozzle to produce a high-speed jet, as in a paint sprayer.
Compressed air provides torque and rotation power for pneumatic tools, such as drills,
brushes, nut runners, riveting guns, and screwdrivers. Such tools are generally powered by
some form of rotary air motor such as the vane or lobe type, or by an air turbine. Equally
common are devices producing lateral motion and direct force, either steady or intermittent.
Common examples are clamps, presses, and automatic feeds. Or, air pressure is used to
accelerate a mass, which then exerts an impact upon an anvil, as in paving breakers and pile
drivers. Common applications in industrial plants and on construction sites are air-powered
nailers and staplers. In paint spraying and in air conveying, the dynamic pressure of the air
imparts motion.

ADVANTAGES OF AIR POWER

When there are a dozen or more forms of energy to choose from, what advantages does air
power offer? Here, compressed air stacks up against two of its competitorselectricity and
hydraulics.

Cost: Air tools have fewer moving parts and are simpler in design, providing lower
cost maintenance and operation than electric tools.

52

Flexibility: Air tools can be operated in areas where other power sources are
unavailable, since engine-driven portable compressors are their source of air power.
Electric power requires a stationary source.

Safety: Air-powered equipment eliminates the dangers of electric shock and fire
hazard. Air tools also run cooler than electric tools and have the advantage of not
being damaged from overload or stalling.

Weight: Air tools are lighter in weight than electric tools, allowing for a higher rate of
production per man-hour with less worker fatigue.

TYPES OF COMPRESSORS
Air compressors in sizes from 1/4 to 30 horsepower include both reciprocating and rotary
compressors, which compress air in different ways. Major types of reciprocating compressors
include reciprocating single acting, reciprocating double acting, reciprocating diaphragm, and
reciprocating rocking piston type. Major types of rotary air compressors include rotary
sliding vane, rotary helical screw and rotary scroll air compressors.

RECIPROCATING SINGLE ACTING COMPRESSORS

Reciprocating single acting compressors are generally of one-stage or two-stage design.
Compressors can be of a lubricated, non-lubricated or oil-less design. In the single-stage
compressor, air is drawn in from the atmosphere and compressed to final pressure in a single
stroke. The single-stage reciprocating compressor is illustrated in Figure 1. Single-stage
compressors are generally used for pressures of 70 psi (pounds per square inch) to 135 psi. In
the two-stage compressor, air is drawn in from the atmosphere and compressed to an
intermediate pressure in the first stage. Most of the heat of compression is removed as the
compressed air then passes through the intercooler to the second stage, where it is
compressed to final pressure. The two-stage reciprocating compressor is illustrated in. Single
and two-stage reciprocating compressors are frequently used in auto and truck repair shops,
body shops, service businesses, and industrial plants. Although this type of compressor is
usually oil lubricated, hospitals and laboratories can purchase oil-less versions of the
compressors as illustrated in

ROCKING PISTON TYPE

Rocking piston compressors are variations of reciprocating piston type compressors (Fig. 4).
This type of compressor develops pressure through a reciprocating action of a one-piece
53

connecting rod and piston. The piston head rocks as it reciprocates. These compressors utilize
non-metallic, low friction rings and do not require lubrication. The rocking piston type
compressors are generally of smaller size and lower pressure capability.

DIAPHRAGM TYPE
Diaphragm compressors (Figure 5) are a variation of reciprocating compressors. The
diaphragm compressor develops pressure through a reciprocating or oscillating action of a
flexible disc actuated by an eccentric. Since a sliding seal is not required between moving
parts, this design is not lubricated. Diaphragm compressors are often selected when no
contamination is allowed in the output air line or atmosphere, such as hospital and laboratory
applications. Diaphragm compressors are limited in output and pressure, and they are used
most for light-duty applications.

ROTARY SLIDING VANE TYPE

The rotary sliding vane compressor consists of a vane-type rotor mounted eccentrically in a
housing (Figure 6). As the rotor turns, the vanes slide out against the housing. Air
compression occurs when the volume of the spaces between the sliding vanes is reduced as
the rotor turns in the eccentric cylinder. Single or multi-stage versions are available. This type
of compressor may or may not be oil lubricated. Oil-free rotary sliding vane compressors are
restricted to low-pressure applications because of high operating temperatures and sealing
difficulties. Much higher pressures can be obtained with oil lubricated versions. Some of the
advantages of rotary sliding vane compressors are smooth and pulse-free air output, compact
size, low noise levels, and low vibration levels. Reciprocating Single Stage, Oilless Inlet
Valve Plates Piston Anti-Friction Coated Cylinders Crankshaft with Permanent Sealed Main
Bearings Oilless Crankcase

ROTARY HELICAL SCREW TYPE

Rotary helical screw compressors (Figure 7) utilize two intermeshing helical rotors in a twinbore case. In a single-stage design, the air inlet is usually located at the top of the cylinder
near the drive shaft end. The discharge port is located at the bottom of the opposite end of the
cylinder. As the rotors unmesh at the air inlet end of the cylinder, air is drawn into the cavity
between the main rotor lobes and the secondary rotor grooves. As rotation continues, the rotor
tips pass the edges of the inlet ports, trapping air in a cell formed by the rotor cavities and the
cylinder wall. Compression begins as further rotation causes the main rotor lobes to roll into
the secondary rotor grooves, reducing the volume and raising cell pressure. Oil is injected
after cell closing to seal clearances and remove heat of compression. Compression continues
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until the rotor tips pass the discharge porting and release of the compressed air and oil
mixture is obtained. Single or multi-stage versions are available. This type of compressor can
be oil lubricated, water lubricated or oil-free. Some advantages of the rotary helical screw
compressors are smooth and pulse-free air output, compact size, high output volume, low
vibrations, prolonged service intervals, and long life.

ROTARY SCROLL TYPE

Air compression within a scroll is accomplished by the interaction of a fixed and an orbiting
helical element that progressively compresses inlet air . This process is continuously
repeated, resulting in the delivery of pulsation-free compressed air. With fewer moving parts,
reduced maintenance becomes an operating advantage. Scroll compressors can be of a
lubricated or oil-free design.

AIR COMPRESSOR PACKAGED UNITS

Air compressor packaged units are fully assembled air compressor systems, complete with
air compressor, electric motor, V-belt drive, air receiver, and automatic controls. Optional
equipment includes aftercoolers, automatic moisture drain, low oil safety control, electric
starter, and pressure reducing valve. Air compressor units come with a variety of
configurations: gasoline or diesel engines, optional direct drive, optional separate mounted air
receivers, and more. The most common type of packaged unit compressor configuration is the
tank-mounted single acting, single- or two-stage reciprocating design. Models are offered in
the range of 1/4 through 30 horsepower. Electric motors or gas engines drive the
compressors. Typical examples are shown in Figures 9 through Figures 12. Most compressors
available in this horsepower range are air cooled. Installation is convenient because the unit
requires only a connection to electrical power and a connection to the compressed air system.

AIR COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE DELIVERY (ACFM/SCFM)

The volume of compressed air delivered by an air compressor at its discharge pressure,
normally is stated in terms of prevailing atmospheric inlet conditions (acfm). The
corresponding flow rate in Standard cubic feet per minute (scfm) will depend upon both the
Standard used and the prevailing atmospheric inlet conditions. Varying flow rates for more
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than one discharge pressure simply reflect the reduction in compressor volumetric efficiency
that occurs with increased system pressure (psig). For this reason, the maximum operating
pressure of a compressor should be chosen carefully.

DISPLACEMENT (CFM)
Displacement is the volume of the first stage cylinder(s) of a compressor multiplied by the
revolutions of the compressor in one minute. Because displacement does not take into
account inefficiencies related to heat and clearance volume, it is useful only as a general
reference value within the industry.

ACCESSORIES
Standard accessories are available to help ensure reliable and trouble-free compressor
operation. Some special purpose devices also are available to meet unusual requirements.
Below is a list of commonly used accessories.

AIR RECEIVER
A receiver tank is used as a storage reservoir for compressed air. It permits the compressor
not to operate in a continuous run cycle. In addition, the receiver allows the compressed air
an opportunity to cool.

BELT GUARD
A belt guard protects against contact with belts from both sides of the drive and is a
mandatory feature for all V-belt driven compressor units where flywheel, motor pulley, and
belts are used.

DIAGNOSTIC CONTROLS
Protective devices designed to shut down a compressor in the event of malfunction. Devices
may include high air temperature shut down, low oil level shut down and low oil pressure
shut down, preventative maintenance shut down, etc.

INTAKE FILTER

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The intake filter eliminates foreign particulate matter from the air at the intake suction of the
air compressor system. Dry (with consumable replacement element) or oil bath types are
available.

MANUAL AND MAGNETIC STARTERS

Manual and magnetic starters provide thermal overload protection for motors and are
recommended for integral horsepower and all three-phase motors. Local electrical codes
should be checked before purchasing a starter

AIR COMPRESSOR INSTALLATION LOCATION

The air compressor location should be as close as possible to the point where the compressed
air is to be used. It is also important to locate the compressor in a dry, clean, cool, and wellventilated area. Keep it away from dirt, vapor, and volatile fumes that may clog the intake
filter and valves. If a dry, clean space is unavailable, a remote air intake is recommended. The
flywheel side of the unit should be placed toward the wall and protected with a totally
enclosed belt guard, but in no case should the flywheel be closer than 12 inches to the wall.
Allow space on all sides for air circulation and for ease of maintenance. Make sure that the
unit is mounted level, on a solid foundation, so that there is no strain on the supporting feet or
base. Solid shims may be used to level the unit. In bolting or lagging down the unit, be
careful not to over-tighten and impose strain.

MOTOR OVERLOAD PROTECTION

All compressor motors should be equipped with overload protection to prevent motor
damage. Some motors are furnished with built-in thermal overload protection. Larger motors
should be used in conjunction with starters, which include thermal overload units. Such units
ensure against motor damage due to low voltage or undue load imposed on the motor. Care
should be taken to determine the proper thermal protection or heater element. The user should
consider the following variables: the load to be carried, the starting current, the running
current, and ambient temperature. Remember to recheck electric current characteristics
against nameplate characteristics before connecting wiring. CAUTION: Fuses and circuit
breakers are for circuit protection only and are not to be considered motor protection devices.
Consult your local power company regarding proper fuse or circuit breaker size.

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AIR COMPRESSOR SYSTEM

A compressed air supply within a manufacturing plant or an automotive collision and body
shop often consists of one compressor that can meet the overall air requirements. Makes
sense, right? But consider an alternative: multiple smaller horsepower compressors
positioned at strategic points throughout the plant or shop. These compressors would feed
into a common air line or into individual lines serving one or more points of use. In the
central system, the compressor is of a size to supply total compressed air requirements, at
least in the beginning.

This option has the advantage of one compressor, one point of maintenance, and one electric
power connection. The potential disadvantage is the requirement of more piping, which
causes the system to be costly to install and more costly to maintain. In the alternate system,
the plant or shop starts with a single small compressor installation.

Then, as expansion takes place, instead of replacing the single unit with a larger capacity
single unit, another unit of the same size is installed. Initial cost is less in the smaller multiple
units than in the larger central unit. Maintenance cost is less, and cost of operation is also
less, since each unit operates independently of the others. This is the optimum compressor
installationone that has the lowest installation, maintenance, and operating costs, and also
the flexibility to meet changing requirements of a shop or plant. Hence, many plants have
started to follow the trend towards smaller multiple compressor units.

Further advantages of multiple units are: one standby compressor can serve a number of
departments; units are complete and ready for electric and air piping connections; no special
foundation is required; units are usually air cooled, thus saving on water and installation cost;
and units are easily moved from place to place. In addition, smaller units can meet a plants
special, occasional, or part-time requirements, with notable savings in cost of operation.

Model Study

Aim:
To demonstrate the working of an air compressor

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Apparatus Required:
2 empty plastic bottles, 12V dc battery, Electrical Motor , cardboard, pipes, pins, balloon,
other fittings etc

Working:
An air compressor is a device which compresses the air and stores it. In this working model
demonstrated we have connected a dc motor to a bottle with a pipe and the bottle is
connected to another bottle with another pipe to increase the storing capacity of the
compressor.
The 12V battery is connected to the motor which rotates the motor and it forces the air to get
filled in the connected bottles. The working here simply demonstrates as that of an air
compressor. The pipes fill the air in the bottles with pressure compressing the air.
The air compressor then is connected to a balloon which in turn is filled by the compressed
air which concludes our experiment. The pressure of the compressed air is about 50 psi. The
air can be compressed and kept in bottles and can be used at a later stage.

Conclusion:
Hence the experiment regarding the air compressor is done the main objective was to
compress the natural air and use it somewhere required, as natural air cannot be directly used
to inflate tires or tubes whereas compressed air can be forced under pressure within them.

Specifications:
Capacity of air compressor = Capacity of the bottles = 2Ltrs (approx)
Pressure of the compressed air = 50psi
Wattage of the motor = 12V

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1.) A Textbook Of Production Engineering, P.C. Sharma.

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2.) Elements Of Workshop Technology,

3.) Hajra and Choudhury
4.) Manufacturing Processes, H.S. Bawa
5.) Wikipedia
6.) Manufacturing Science, Ghosh and Mallik.

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