Course Name : Food Science

Course Code
Title

: AHD 1132
: SAXITOXIN AND ITS EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH

Lecturers Name

: Asst. Prof. Dr. Norazlanshah Hazali

Name

: Amirah bt Mohamad

Matrix Number

: 1311160

Email

: mieyra93@yahoo.com

Phone Number

: 0148628460

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION 3

WHAT IS
SAXITOXIN?...........................................................................................34

HOW DO SAXITOXINS
FORMED?.......................................................................4

EFFECTS OF SAXITOXIN ON HUMAN HEALTH4-5

CONCLUSION5

REFERENCES..........................................................................................
.................6

Introduction

Saxitoxin has become a threat to public health due to its mammalian toxicity. The issue of
saxitoxin is not new since the red color of saxitoxin caused by microalgae has become famous
issue in the West Coast Indians of North America. In Malaysia, the issue of saxitoxin also has
become a serious issue that need to be concerned by all people. The phenomenon of red tides
due to rapid growth of microalgae which attacked several coasts in Malaysia and caused several
health problems including death should be taken seriously by the authority.(Shibamoto &
Bjeldanes, 1993)
According to the Daily Express (2012), there were many cases of red tides especially in
the area of West Coast of Sabah. The most serious thing is the result for mouse bioassay, a
method use to analyze Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) showed a very high toxicity in
shellfish and bivalves which are considered to be dangerous to human being.
What is Saxitoxin?
According to Medical Dictionary, Saxitoxin is a harmful and powerful neurotoxin which
has been synthesized and secreted by certain species of algae such as dinoflagellates, which
accumulate in the tissue of shellfish feeding on the dinoflagellates and may cause toxicity to
people who are consuming it.

The molecular structure of saxitoxin

Moskaleva(2013) describes saxitoxin as a chemical compound that bind to sodium and
potassium ion channels which can cause a disruption to the cell membrane to send electrical
signals to the brain and muscles. This will result in the disability of the brain and nerve cells to
send electrical impulses thus it will lead to death due to respiratory failure. (as cited in Cusisk &
Sayler, 2013)

Saxitoxin commonly reffered as Paralytic Shellfish Toxins (PSTs) and it is found in both
marine and freshwater environments. Prokaryotic cyanobacteria are microorganisms which lead
to PST production in freshwater while in marine environment, the one which are responsible to
cause PST production are eukaryotic dinoflagellate.( Cucisk & Sayler,2013)

How do Saxitoxin formed?

Saxitoxins are produced by many cyanobacteria but the common one which contributes
to the production of saxitoxin are dinoflagellates, microalgae in marine waters that have been a
major contributor to Paralytic Shellfish poisoning.(Hardy,2011)
Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning or PSP is a marine biotoxin caused by algae blossoms in
coastal areas. This marine biotoxin are accumulated in shellfish and bivalves which fed on
microorganisms called dinoflagellates, microorganisms that are produced naturally in ocean and
it is known as a part of ocean plankton. The increasing in number of dinoflagellates an the
increasing of the density of dinoflagellates in ocean water will eventually cause red tides. (Daily
Express, 2012).

The red tide phenomena

Dinoflagellates

Effects of Saxitoxin on Human Health

The consumption of seafood products contaminated with saxitoxins will lead to Paralytic
Shellfish Poisoning, a food borne disease which can result in severe effects on human health.
Saxitoxin will bind to voltage-gated sodium channels, therefore prevents the sodium ions from

entering the plasma membrane. The failure of sodium ions to enter the plasma membrane will
interrupt human physiological system especially nervous system. (Hardy,2012)

Nerve conduction..
According to Hardy(2012) saxitoxins also affect our respiratory system by leading to
rapid respiratory collapse and death.(as cited in Wiberg & Stephenson 1960, Watts et al.1966).
Usually the effects of saxitoxin will react in human body system within minutes after
consuming toxic shellfish. A person who consumed toxic shellfish will develop tingling of the
lips and tongue followed by tingling of fingers and toes. Tingling may take up one to two hours
to be developed in human body depending on the amount of toxic consumed and individuals
immune system. The effect then continues to the numbness and weakness and also loss of control
of arms and legs, progressing into difficulty on breathing. Some people might feel a feeling of
nausea and floating once they have been exposed to saxitoxin. And if a person consumed too
much of saxitoxin it will paralyze his muscles and abdomen including muscles used for
breathing. ( Hardy, 2012)

shellfish contamination

Conclusion

Saxitoxin might be a threat to human in the future if there are no actions by authorities.
The issue of saxitoxin should be taken seriously in order to avoid damage to shellfish industries.
References

Takayuki Shibamoto & Bjeldens,L.F.(1993). Introduction to Food Toxicology. San diego:

Academic Press Inc.
Medical Dictionary. The Meaning of Saxitoxin. Retrieved December,18, 2013 from
http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/saxitoxin
Moskaleva,A.(2013). The Cruel Irony of Saxitoxin. Retrieved December,18,2013 from
http://neuroblog.stanford.edu/?p=3787
Edward,N(n.d). SaxitoxinFrom Food Poisoning to Chemical Warfare. Retrieved December,18,
2013 from http://www.bristol.ac.uk/Depts/Chemistry/MOTM/stx/saxi1.htm
Cucisk, K.D., Sayler, G.S.(2013). An Overview on The Marine Neurotoxin, Saxitoxin: Genetics
Molecular Targets,Methods of Detection and Ecological Functions. Retrieved
December,21,2013 from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3705384/
Etheridge S.M(2010). Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning: Seafood Safety and Human Health
Perspectives.

Retrieved

December,

21,

2013

from

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20035780
Hardy, J(2012). Washington State Provisional Recreational Guidance for Cylindrospermopsin
and

Saxitoxin.

Retrieved

December,21,2013

from

http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/wq/plants/algae/publichealth/cylindrosaxrecguide.pdf
The Daily Express(2012). Dept: Redtide Detected in Sabah Waters. Retrieved December,21,2013
from http://www.dailyexpress.com.my/news.cfm?NewsID=83611