Landmarks in Mechanical Engineering

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LandmarksinMechanicalEngineering
ASMEInternationalHistoryandHeritage
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CopyrightbyPurdueResearchFoundation.Allrightsreserved.
010099989754321
Thepaperusedinthisbookmeetstheminimumrequirements
ofAmericanNationalStandardforInformationSciences
PermanenceofPaperforPrintedLibraryMaterials,ANSIZ39.481992.
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
Designbyinari
Coverphotocredits
Front:IcingResearchTunnel,NASALewisResearchCenter
topinset,SaturnVrocketbottominset,WymanGordon
50,000tonhydraulicforgingpress(CourtesyJetLowe,
LibraryofCongressCollections
Back:top,Kaplanturbinemiddle,ThomasEdisonandhis
phonographbottom,"BigBrutus"mineshovel
Unlessotherwiseindicated,allphotographsandillustrationswereprovided
fromtheASMElandmarksarchive.
LibraryofCongressCataloginginpublicationData
Landmarksinmechanicalengineering/ASMEInternationalhistoryandHeritage.
p.cm
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBNI557530939(cloth:alk.paper).
ISBNI557530947(pbk.:alk.paper)
1.MechanicalengineeringUnitedStatesHistory
2.MechanicalengineeringHistory.
1.AmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers.HistoryandHeritageCommittee.
TJ23.L351996
621'.0973dc209631573
CIP
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CONTENTS
Preface
xiii
Acknowledgments
xvii
Pumping
Introduction
NewcomenMemorialEngine
FairmountWaterworks
Chesapeake&DelawareCanalScoopWheelandSteamEngines
HollySystemofFireProtectionandWaterSupply
10
ArchimedeanScrewPump
11
ChapinMinePumpingEngine
12
LeavittRiedlerPumpingEngine
14
Sidebar:ErasmusD.Leavitt,Jr.
16
ChestnutStreetPumpingEngine
17
Specification:ChestnutStreetPumpingEngine
18
A.BWoodLowliftScrewPump
18
ReynoldsCorlissPumpingEngine
21
WorthingtonHorizontalCrosscompoundPumpingEngine
22
Specifications:PumpingEngineNo.2,YorkWaterCompany
23
MechanicalPowerProduction
Water
Introduction
24
GreatFallsRacewayandPowerSystem
27
LowellPowerCanalSystemandPawtucketGatehouseTurbine
29
Sidebar:JamesB.Francis,theMakerofLowell
32
HolyokeWaterPowerSystem
33
MorrisCanalScotch(Reaction)Turbine
35
Sidebar:JamesLeeandPlaneNo.9West
36
BoydenHydraulicTurbines,HarmonyMillNo.3
37
Sidebar:UriahAthertonBoyden
38
Pagevi
Steam
Introduction
40
Boulton&WattRotativeSteamEngine
43
Sidebar:Horsepower
44
HaciendaLaEsperanzaSugarMillSteamEngine
46
HarrisCorlissSteamEngine
48
Sidebar:GeorgeH.CorlissandtheCorlissEngine
50
Specifications:HarrisCorlissEngine,RandallBrothers
51
InternalCombustion
Introduction
52
RoosaMasterDieselFuelinjectionPump
55
ElectricalPowerProduction
Water
Introduction
57
VulcanStreetPowerPlant
60
FolsomPowerhouseNo.1
62
IdolsStation,FriesManufacturing&PowerCompany
63
MichiganLakeSuperiorPowerCompanyHydroelectricPlant
65
ChildsIrvingHydroelectricProject
68
RockyRiverPumpedstorageHydroelectricPlant
69
KaplanTurbine
72
HiwasseeDamUnit2ReversiblePumpTurbine
74
Specifications:HiwasseeDamUnit2ReversiblePumpTurbine
75
Steam
Introduction
76
Edison"Jumbo"EnginedrivenDynamo
78
Marinetype,Tripleexpansion,EnginedrivenDynamo
80
PrattInstitutePowerPlant
82
5,000kilowattCurtisSteamTurbineGenerator
84
Specifications:5,000kilowattCurtisSteamTurbineGenerator
85
GeorgetownSteamPlant
86
EastWells(Oneida)StreetPowerPlant
88
EdgarStation,EdisonElectricIlluminatingCompany
90
StateLineGeneratingUnitNo.1
92
PortWashingtonPowerPlant
93
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Pagevii
InternalCombustion
Introduction
95
NeuchtelGasTurbine
97
BelleIsleGasTurbine
98
Specifications:BelleIsleGasTurbine
100
Nuclear
Introduction
101
ShippingportAtomicPowerStation
103
Geothermal
Introduction
106
TheGeysersUnit1,PacificGas&ElectricCompany
108
PowerTransmission
Introduction
111
KingsburyThrustBearing
113
MineralsExtractionandRefining
Introduction
115
SaugusIronworks
119
CornwallIronFurnace
121
RingwoodManorIronComplex
123
DrakeOilWell
125
Sidebar:HowOilWellsWereDrilled
126
PioneerOilRefinery(CaliforniaStarOilWorksCompany)
129
ReedGoldMineTenstampMill
130
FairbanksExplorationCompanyGoldDredgeNo.8
132
HanfordBReactor
134
FirstBasicOxygenSteelmakingVessel
136
"BigBrutus"MineShovel
138
ManufacturingFacilitiesandProcesses
Introduction
140
PortsmouthKitteryNavalShipbuildingActivity
144
SpringfieldArmory
146
JacksonFerryShotTower
148
WilkinsonMill
150
Pageviii
AmericanPrecisionMuseum/Robbins&Lawrence
ArmoryandMachineShop
153
WestmorelandMalleableIronWorks
155
WatkinsWoolenMill
157
CreusotSteamHammer
159
JoshuaHendyIronWorks
161
OwensARBottleMachine
162
A.O.SmithAutomaticFramePlant
165
CorningRibbonMachine
167
FusionweldedTestBoilerDrum
169
Alcoa50,000tonHydraulicForgingPress
171
WymanGordon50,000tonHydraulicForgingPress
173
FirstHotIsostaticProcessingVessels
174
FoodProcessing
Introduction
177
GraueMill
179
AndersonBarngroverContinuousRotaryPressureSterilizer
180
FMCCitrusJuiceExtractor
182
Sidebar:WholeCitrusFruitJuiceExtraction:HowItWorks
184
MaterialsHandlingandExcavation
Introduction
185
SamsonMineReversibleWaterwheelandManEngine
187
BuckeyeSteamTractionDitcher
189
"Pitcast"JibCrane
191
Sidebar:TheManufactureofPitcastPipe
192
QuincyMiningCompanyNo.2MineHoist
193
PACECOContainerCrane
195
EnvironmentalControl
Introduction
198
HollySystemofDistrictHeating
201
StirlingWatertubeBoilers
202
DetroitEdisonDistrictHeatingSystem,BeaconStreetPlant
203
HollandTunnelVentilationSystem
206
MagmaCopperMineAirConditioningSystem
208
EquitableBuildingHeatPump
209
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WaterTransportation
Introduction
213
SSGreatBritain
216
TVEmeryRiceEngine
218
Turbinia
219
Sidebar:TheCompoundSteamTurbine
221
VerticalReciprocatingSteamEngines,USSOlympia
222
EvinrudeOutboardMotor
224
ReciprocatingSteamEngines,USSTexas
226
Specifications:ReciprocatingSteamEngines,USSTexas
SSJeremiahO'Brien
228
229
Sidebar:EC2CargoVessels(LibertyShips)Deliveredin1943,by
Shipyard
231
Sidebar:U.S.LibertyShipEngineBuilders,NumberBuilt
231
NSSavannah
233
RailTransportation
Introduction
235
Baltimore&OhioRailroadOldMainLine
238
St.CharlesAvenueStreetcarLine
240
Chicago,Burlington&QuincyRailroadRoundhouseandShops
242
MountWashingtonCogRailway
244
MonongahelaandDuquesneInclines
246
Sidebar:Pittsburgh'sInclines
248
Ferries&CliffHouseRailway
249
Sidebar:Ferries&CliffHouseRailway:HowItWorks
251
Manitou&PikesPeakCogRailway
252
GearedLocomotivesoftheRoaringCamp&BigTreesNarrowGauge
Railroad:ShayDixiana,ClimaxBloomsburg,andHeislerTuolumne
255
Sidebar:TheGearedLocomotivesofRoaringCamp&BigTrees
256
InterboroughRapidTransitSystem(OriginalLine)
258
AlternatingcurrentElectrificationoftheNewYork,NewHaven&Hartford
Railroad
260
PullmanSleepingCarGlengyle
262
Texas&PacificNo.610,Lima"SuperPower"SteamLocomotive
265
Specifications:Texas&PacificNo.610
PioneerZephyr
266
268
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PennsylvaniaRailroadGG1ElectricLocomotiveNo.4800
271
ElectroMotiveFTFreightserviceDieselElectricLocomotive
273
Norfolk&WesternNo.611,ClassJSteamLocomotive
275
Specifications:Norfolk&WesternNo.611,ClassJSteamLocomotive
SouthernPacificNo.4294"CabinFront"ArticulatedSteamLocomotive
Specifications:SouthernPacificNo.4294,ClassAC12"CabinFront"
Locomotive
DisneylandMonorailSystem
276
277
278
280
RoadandOffRoadTransportation
Introduction
282
LombardSteamLogHauler
284
HoltCaterpillarTractor
286
JacobsEngineBrakeRetarder
288
Sidebar:TheEnginewithouttheJakeBrake/TheEnginewiththeJake
Brake
CrawlerTransportersofLaunchComplex39
289
291
AirandSpaceTransportation
Introduction
294
SikorskyVS300Helicopter
296
Specifications:SikorskyVS300(FinalVariant)
297
AtlasLaunchVehicle
298
RL10RocketEngine
301
SaturnVRocket
303
ResearchandDevelopment
Introduction
306
AldenResearchLaboratoryRotatingBoom
309
100inchHookerTelescope,MountWilsonObservatory
310
CooperativeFuelResearchEngine
313
AerodynamicsRange,AberdeenProvingGround
315
IcingResearchTunnel,NASALewisResearchCenter
317
RotatingarmModeltestFacility
320
McKinleyClimaticLaboratory
322
ExperimentalBreederReactorI
324
Pagexi
AssociationofAmericanRailroads'RailroadwheelDynamometer
326
VallecitosBoilingWaterReactor
329
StanfordLinearAcceleratorCenter
331
CommunicationsandDataProcessing
Introduction
334
EdisonPhonograph
336
PaigeCompositor
338
PitneyBowesModel"M"PostageMeter
339
Xerography
341
Sidebar:TheXerographicProcess
IBM350RAMACDiskFile
343
345
BiomedicalEngineering
Introduction
347
BloodHeatExchanger
349
FurtherReading
351
Pagexiii
PREFACE
Historicmechanicalengineeringlandmarksaremachines,systems,ordevicesthathelpshapeourcivilization,eitherinindustryorthepersonalliveswelive.Thevariety
ofthosepresentedonthesepagesisremarkable,rangingfrommarinesteamenginestofoodprocessingequipmenttomanufacturingplantstopostagemetersto
medicaldevicestonuclearpowerplantstothecollectionofaspecializedtechnicalmuseum.TheyarefoundineveryregionoftheUnitedStatesaswellasinother
countries.Thespectrumofsignificanceisequallybroad,stretchingfromthesteamengineofThomasNewcomen(1712),whichwasamajorelementintheadventof
theIndustrialRevolution,uptotheSaturnVrocket(1967).Whilebynomeansacomprehensivelist,theselandmarksrepresentwhatthemechanicalengineering
professionconsiderstobebothunusualandsignificantachievementsthroughtheeyesofASMEInternational(theAmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers).
Asaworldwideengineeringsocietyfocusedontechnical,educational,andresearchissues,ASMEInternationalconductsoneoftheworld'slargesttechnical
publishingoperations,holdssomethirtytechnicalconferencesandtwohundredprofessionaldevelopmentcourseseachyear,andsetsmanyindustrialand
manufacturingstandards.SinceASME'sfoundingin1880,engineersengagedinthemechanicalartsandscienceshavefoundaprofessionalhomeintheAmerican
SocietyofMechanicalEngineers.Heretheycouldmeetandshareideas,plans,discoveries,andtheresultsoftheirresearch.TheHistoryandHeritageprogramof
ASME,initspresentdayactivities,beganwhenacommitteewasformedin1971toadministeritsrecognitionprogramthroughagrassrootsnominationprocess.
Thisbookdescribesthe135historicmechanicalengineeringlandmarksdesignatedbyASMEInternationalbetween1973and1989.Thispublicationisactuallya
successortoanearliervolumeentitledNationalHistoricMechanicalEngineeringLandmarks,whichwaspreparedbyRichardS.Hartenberg,P.E.,adistinguished
foundingmemberofASME'sHistoryandHeritageCommittee.ProfessorHartenberg'sworkdescribedthefirsttwentyeightlandmarks,designatedbetween1973
and1977.
In1987thecommitteedecidedthatitwasappropriatetoproduceanewpublicationthatwouldbringthestoryuptodate.Asearchwasconductedforanauthorwho
couldpreparethemanuscriptunderthegeneralsupervisionofthecommittee.CarolPohMiller,ahistoricalconsultantbasedinClevelandwhohaswrittenwidelyinthe
areasofindustrialandtechnologicalhistory,wasselected.
Pagexiv
Ms.Millerpreparedtheindividuallandmarkentriesandsidebars,organizedthetext,andselectedthemajorityoftheillustrations.Shealsoconceivedtheideaof
providinginformationonthelocationandaccessibilityofthelandmarks,togetherwithsuggestionsforfurtherreading,forthosewhomaywishtovisitorlearnmore
aboutthem.
Thecommitteehasbeencloselyinvolvedwiththepreparationofthebook.Inadditiontolendingoccasionaltechnicalexpertise,themembersofthecommitteehave
preparedtheintroductoryessaysthatopeneachchapter.Theseareintendedtosetthematerialofthechapterinthebroadercontextofthehistoryofmechanical
engineering.Inreadingtheseintroductoryessays,aswellasthemainbodyofthechapter,thecommitteehopesthattheuserwillobtainanunderstandingofthetopicin
bothawidersenseand,asfarasparticularlandmarksareconcerned,ingreaterdepth.Illustratingtheselandmarksinwaysthatareusefultoportrayingtheir
mechanicalaspectshasbeenchallenging.Thereisamixofthosethatreflectthetimeperiodinwhichthemachinesorbusinessesfunctionedalongsidethosethatgive
thereaderanideaofwhattoexpectwhenvisitingonetoday.
Thelandmarksarechosenbyacarefulprocedureintendedtoensurethattheyaretrulyoutstandingexamplesoftheartandscienceofmechanicalengineering.They
arenominatedbythelocalsectionsofthesocietyinwhosegeographicalareatheartifactsresideorbyitstechnicaldivisionsunderwhichthetechnologycanbe
categorized.AcarefullydocumentedstatementofthecredentialsofthepotentiallandmarkissubmittedtotheHistoryandHeritageCommitteeforreview.The
committee'smembershipconsistsofmechanicalengineerswithagoodunderstandingofengineeringhistoryandhistorianswithasoundbackgroundinthehistoryof
technology.Ifthecommitteemembersagreewiththenominator'sassessmentofthesignificanceofthenominatedartifact,thenitisdesignatedasaHistoricMechanical
EngineeringLandmark.Sometimesthecommittee'sdeliberationsinvolvearequestforfurtherinformationandresearchbeforethecommitteecanbesatisfiedthatthe
nomineeistrulyworthyofthelandmarkdesignation.Onceanitemhasbeensoapproved,thenominatingsectionisresponsibleforarrangingaceremonyatwhicha
seniorofficerofthesociety,usuallythepresident,presentstotheownersofthelandmarkabronzeplaque,attestingtothestatusofthelandmarkandthereasonsfor
itsbeingsodistinguished.Theplaquecanthenbedisplayedonornearthelandmark.Thelandmarksprogramisacontinuingactivityofthesocietyand,atthetimeof
publication,nearlytwohundredlandmarkshavebeenidentified.
Theartifactsdescribedherewerechosenforavarietyofreasons.Insomecases,alandmarkrepresentsthebeginningofaparticularnewtechnology.Anothermight
bechosenbecauseitwasanoutstandingrepresentativeofthemechanicalengineer'sart.Somewereselectedbecausetheyoperatedinthemost
Pagexv
efficientmannerandweretherebyexamplestotheprofessionofwhatcouldbeachieved.Oftentheprofessionrespondedtothechallengeand,subsequently,the
performanceofalandmarkwassurpassed.Occasionallysizehasplayedapartinthechoiceofalandmarkinrecognitionoftheachievementindesigning,constructing,
andoperatingamachineofunusuallylargedimensions.Verysmalldimensionscouldalsobeaqualifyingfactor,asexemplifiedbyalandmarkthatwasdesignatedafter
completionofthemanuscriptofthisbook.ThisistheTexasInstrumentsABACUSII,whichisusedtomanipulateandsolderconnectionstoelectronicmicrochips.
Survivalhasalwaysbeenanimportantcriterionintheselectionoflandmarks,onthepremisethatthiswouldbeindicativeofasoundoriginaldesignandbecauseit
wouldgivecurrentandfuturegenerationsanopportunitytostudytheworkofearlierengineers.
Theattentionofthereadershouldbedrawntosomepracticalpointsregardingvisitstothelandmarks.Directionsforreachingeachofthelandmarksareprovided
whereverpossible,butreadersshouldnotethatinsomecasespriorarrangementswillhavetobemadewiththeownersoftheartifacts.Also,thedirectionsmustbe
treatedwithcaution.Inspiteofthecommittee'sbesteffortstokeeptrackofthelandmarks,somemayhavebeenmovedfromthelocationsgiveninthisbook.
Furthermore,inothercasestheplaquehasbeenseparatedfromtheartifact.
Anadditionalpointinvisitinglandmarksconcernstheidentificationoflandmarksbyname.Incertaincases,thedesignationusedtoidentifyalandmarkdoesnot
correspondtothetitleontheplaque.ThissituationhasarisenbecauseoftheevolutionovertimeoftheownershiporduetorefinementsbytheHistoryandHeritage
Committee.Wehopethiswillnotconfusevisitorstothevariouslandmarks.
Unfortunately,historicallyimportantmachineshavenottypicallybeeneasytopreserve.Afteryearsofservice,obsoletemachinesarereplacedandoftenscrappedor
abandoned.Museumsandcorporatearchivesoccasionallyareabletostoreanartifactuntilsuitabledisplaycanbearranged.Forexample,theCorningribbon
machinewasrescuedfromwarehousestorageforitsdisplayintheHenryFordMuseuminDearborn,Michigan.Someindustrialsystemsaresimplytoobigforstorage
andthereforetoocostlytodisplay.ASMEwillnotremovealandmarkfromitsrosterifitisalteredordestroyedinhopesthatanyremainingdocumentationwillnotbe
lostorforgottenaswell.
Therangeoftechnologiesrepresentedandthechronologicaldepthoftheperiodcoveredbythelandmarksgivestheinterestedobserveranoutstandingopportunityto
view,appreciate,andunderstandtheworkofthemechanicalengineer.Inasense,thecollectionoflandmarksrepresentsagiantmuseum,andthisbookisaguideto
thatmuseum.Itisamuseumassembledbytheenergyandinterestofmechanicalengineers,withtheintentionofshowingtheirfellowprofessionalsandthepublicat
largewhatmechanicalengineershavewrought.ASME
Pagexvi
InternationalanditsHistoryandHeritageCommitteehopeverymuchthatreaderswillobtainagreaterunderstandingofmechanicalengineering,particularlyinits
historicalaspects,andinconsequencebeledtoanenhancedappreciationoftheworldinwhichwecurrentlylive.
HISTORYANDHERITAGECOMMITTEE
AMERICANSOCIETYOFMECHANICALENGINEERS
Pagexvii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
TheHistoryandHeritageCommitteewouldliketoexpressitsspecialappreciationtoCarronGarvinDonohue,formerlyassistantdirectorofthePublicInformation
DepartmentoftheAmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers.Shewaspresentatthecommittee'screationin1971andservedwithoutstandingdedicationasitsstaff
supportmemberuntil1993.AlltheactivitiesoftheHistoryandHeritageCommitteeandofthelandmarksprograminparticularbenefitedgreatlyfromher
administrativeandpoliticalskills.
ThecommitteewouldalsoliketoacknowledgethestrongsupportofPatriciaSmith,formerdirectorofthePublicInformationDepartmentofASME,aswellasJune
Scangarello,hersuccessor.DianeKaylor,managerofspecialprojectsinthatdepartment,hasalsobeenofgreathelpinthefinalstagesofbookpreparation,including
withindexing.SpecialthanksgoestoCarolynA.McGrew,theeditoratPurdueUniversityPresswholedusthroughproduction.
OscarFisher,P.E.,deservesspecialmentionforhisreviewofthemanuscripttoensurethattheunitsemployedinthespecificationsofthevariouslandmarks
conformedtothebestusageoftheSystmeInternationald'Units(SI).
Thecommitteewouldalsoliketotakethisopportunitytoacknowledgethesupportthroughoutthetimeofthisbook'spreparationoftheASMEBoardonPublic
Information,theASMECouncilonPublicAffairs,andthesociety'sBoardofGovernors.Theirinterest,andthatoftheirrespectivechairsandofpastandcurrent
presidentsofthesociety,didmuchtoensurethattheideabehindthisbookbecameareality.
Duringtheperiod1987to1994whenthemanuscriptwasbeingproduced,themembersoftheHistoryandHeritageCommitteeoftheAmericanSocietyof
MechanicalEngineerswereRobertB.GaitherRichardS.Hartenberg,P.E.J.PaulHartman,P.E.J.LawrenceLee,P.E.JohnH.LienhardEuanF.C.
SomerscalesJosephP.vanOverveen,P.E.RobertM.VogelandWilliamJ.Warren,P.E.Eachoftheseindividualsvolunteeredsubstantialefforttoreviewingthe
manuscript,preparingessays,andprovidinggeneraladviceandassistance.
ToonumeroustomentionbutperhapsthemostsignificantindividualsintheHistoryandHeritagelandmarkprocessarethenominatorsandorganizersforthe
landmarksthemselves.TheseASMEmemberschampionedtheirprojectsthroughoutthedocumentationandceremonialprocesses,providinguswiththeopportunity
torecognizetheseexamplesofengineeringexcellence.Theirpublicservicetothesocietyandtheprofessionfindsitsrewardinthelegacytheyleaveforthefuture.
Page1
PUMPING
Introduction
byWilliamJ.Warren
Water.Thelifestreamofourplanet.Sincetimebegan,peoplehavetriedtomovewater.Firstbyhand,thenbyanimalpower,andfinallybyusingmechanicaldevices,
wehavetriedtosupplywaterasanecessityforlifeitself.Atthesametime,wehavestruggledtocontroltheflowofwaterwhenitwasconvenientforourneeds.
Someofourearliestmechanicaldevicesweredesignedtoraisewaterfromastreamfortheirrigationofcrops.screw,firstdevelopedinHellenisticGreece,wasone
suchdevice.ThissameprinciplewasadaptednearlytwothousandyearslatertotransferbrineforsaltproductioninsouthernSanFranciscoBay.
OneofourmostfamousmechanicaldeviceswastheNewcomensteamenginedesignedtodewaterBritishcoalminesintheearlyeighteenthcentury.TheIndustrial
Revolutioncanbetracedtoourabilitytoharnesssteamtoouruse,andthispioneerpumpingsystemallowedgreatlyexpandedcoalproduction,fuelingtheboilersof
infantindustries.
Thedistributionofwaterallowedthedevelopmentofcitiesasweknowthem.Philadelphia'sFairmountWaterworksharnessedtheenergyofarivertofillreservoirsin
theearlynineteenthcentury.Latersystems,suchastheLeavittRiedlerPumpingEngineinBoston,enabledtheoccupationofelevatedsectionsofgrowingcitiesby
supplyingpressurizedwatersystems.Stilllargersystems,suchastheChestnutStreetPumpingEngineinErie,Pennsylvania,andtheReynoldsCorlissPumpingEngine
inJacksonville,Florida,illustratethedevelopmentofsteamdrivenpumpingsystemstomeettheeverexpandingneedofgrowingcities.Oneofthelastoftheseisthe
WorthingtonHorizontalCrosscompoundPumpingEngineinYork,Pennsylvania,acomplexdesignoftheearlytwentiethcenturythatsoonwastobeeclipsedbythe
centrifugalpump.
Butdrinkingwaterwasnottheonlymunicipalconcern.Inthe1860s,BirdsillHolly'suniquewatersystemwasinstalledinLockport,NewYork.Thiswasthe
forerunneroftoday'spressurizedfireprotectionsystem,whichisfoundinevery
Page2
cityinthecountry.Similarly,theChesapeake&DelawareCanalScoopWheelandSteamEnginesalloweduninterruptedcommerceonanineteenthcenturycanal
linkingPhiladelphiaandBaltimore.Withoutthem,thecanalcouldnotfunctionintimesoflowwater.
ThegreatminesofnorthernMichigansufferedfromtoomuchwater.TheChapinMinePumpingEngine,installedinthe1890s,provedtobethelargestpumping
engineeverbuiltintheUnitedStates.Itfunctionedwellbutwouldalsobereplacedbycentrifugalpumpswithinashorttime.Itremainsacrowningmonumenttothe
principleofNewcomen'sfirstpumpingengine.
Andtoomuchwatercanbeavexingproblemforcitiesbuiltatsealevelor,inthecaseofNewOrleans,belowthelevelofsurroundingriversandlakes.TheWood
LowliftScrewPump,andearlyaxialflowpumpdesign,hasallowedNewOrleanstosurvivesincetheinstallationofthefirstunitsin1915.Thesesamepumpsarestill
inservicetoday.
Withoutmechanicalengineerstocontrolandchanneltheflowofwater,wemightstillbelimitedtolivingandworkingwithinwalkingdistanceoftheneareststream,and
ourliveswouldcertainlybevastlydifferentfromthoseweenjoytoday.
Page3
TheNewcomenMemorialEngine.DrawingbyDr.C.T.G.Boucher.
NewcomenMemorialEngine
Dartmouth,Devon,England
Theatmosphericsteamenginedevelopedin1712byThomasNewcomen(16631729)ofDartmouth,England,markedthebeginningofcommerciallypractical
thermalprimemovers.Withitscombinationofboiler,cylinder,piston,andselfactingvalvegear,itwastheforerunnerofallthesteamenginesthatweretofollow.
Indeed,Newcomen'senginewouldprovetobeoneofthemostmomentousinventionsinworldhistory.
BeforetheNewcomenengine,therewereonlythreewaystoproducemechanicalpower:throughthemusculareffortofpeopleoranimals,bywaterwheels,orby
windmills.Thesteamenginewassomethingentirelynewsomethingthat
Page4
couldworktirelesslydayandnight,notlimitedbytheflowoftheriverorthevagariesofweather,aslongasfuelandwaterwerefedtotheboiler.
Towardtheendoftheseventeenthcentury,therewasapressingneedforbetterandcheapermethodsofremovingwaterfromthedeepeningcoalminesofGreat
Britain.Manymineshadbeendrownedoutandabandonedexistingpumpssimplycouldnotcopewiththewater.Althoughtherehadbeensomeattemptstouse
steamtoproduceusefulpower,nopracticalpumpingenginewasdeviseduntilThomasSaveryachievedpartialsuccesswith''TheMiner'sFriend,"whichhepatented
in1698.Savery'spumpingenginehadnoheavymovingpartsitusedavacuumproducedbycondensingsteamtosuckwaterintoachamber,steamunderpressureto
forcethewatertoaheight,andsimplevalvestocontroltheaction.Butthepumpingenginewassuitableonlyformodestliftsandvolumes.
Intheearlyeighteenthcentury,NewcomenandhisassistantJohnCalleydevelopedanenginequitedifferentinform.AdoptingaprincipledemonstratedbyDenis
Papininhislaboratoryabout1690,theyusedavacuumcreatedbycondensingsteamfromapressureonlyjustaboveatmosphericandavertical,opentopped
cylinderinwhichapistonmoved.Chainsconnectedthepistontooneendofamassiverockingbeamtotheotherendofthebeamwerechainedthepumprodsthat
descendedintothemine.
Steamfromaboilerwasadmittedintothecylindertheweightofthepumprodsactivatedthebeam,sothatthepistonmovedtowardthetopofthecylinderanddrew
insteam.Atthismoment,coldwater,whichwassprayedinsidethecylinder,condensedthesteam,creatingavacuumintowhichthepistonwasforcedbyatmospheric
pressure,rockingthebeam,raisingthepumprods,andthuscreatingastrokeoftheengine.Newcomensoonmadetheengineselfactingwiththeadditionofaplug
rodhungfromtherockingbeam,whosepegs,duringthestroke,activatedleversconnectedtothevalves.
NewcomenerectedthefirstreliablesteamengineatDudleyCastleinStaffordshirein1712.Theatmosphericbeamengine,asL.T.C.RoltandJ.S.Allenquote,
"vibrates12timesinaMinute&eachstrokeliftsup10Gall[381]ofwater51yards[47m]p'pender[perpendicular]"theequivalentofapoweroutputofabout
5horsepower(4kW).ThisfirstenginegraduallywasfollowedbyothersinthecoaldistrictsofEnglandandWales.Inadditiontomininguse,theenginewas
adoptedasawatersupplypump.
NewcomenoperatedwithintheSaverypatent,whichhadbeengrantedinverybroadtermsandfurtherextendedto1733.ButSaverydiedin1715,andthe
"ProprietorsoftheInventionforraisingWaterbyFire"wasorganizedtoexploithisinvention.Although,bythetimehediedin1729,hundredsofNewcomenengines
wereatworkacrossBritainandinHungary,Belgium,France,Germany,Sweden,Austria,andpossiblySpain,Newcomen'sachievementwentlargelyunrecognized
duringhislifetime.
In1963,onthetercentenaryofNewcomen'sbirth,theNewcomenSociety
Page5
fortheStudyoftheHistoryofEngineeringandTechnologysoughttocreateasuitablememorial.AtHawkesbury,Warwickshire,wasadirectdescendantof
Newcomen'sfirstmachine,whichtheCoventryCanalCompanyhadpurchasedsecondhandfromacollieryatMeashamin1821.Thesmallenginewassimilartothe
firstatDudleyCastle,althoughthesmall22inch(559mm)cylinderwasmadeofiron,notbrass.Theenginehadasimple,untrussedwoodenbeamwitharchheads
andchainconnections,andwoodenspringbeams.Suchdetails,togetherwithitssmallsize,pointedtoanearlyorigin.TheNewcomenSocietymovedtheengine,
whichhadlainidleforhalfacentury,toDartmouthandreerecteditasapermanentmemorialtothemanwhofirstshowedtheworldhowusefulpowercouldbe
harnessedbyacylinderandapiston.
Location/Access
TheNewcomenEngineHouse,MayorsAvenue,isoperatedbyFriendsofDartmouthMuseumAssociation,Dartmouth,DevonTQ69PZ,England.Admissionfee.
FurtherReading
RichardL.Hills,PowerfromSteam:AHistoryoftheStationarySteamEngine(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1989).
L.T.C.Rolt,ThomasNewcomen:ThePrehistoryoftheSteamEngine(Dawlish,Devon:DavidandCharles,1963).
L.T.C.RoltandJ.S.Allen,TheSteamEngineofThomasNewcomen(NewYork:ScienceHistoryPublications/USA,NealeWatsonAcademicPublications,
Inc.,1977).
FairmountWaterworks
Philadelphia,Pennsylvania
"Philadelphiaismostbountifullyprovidedwithfreshwater,"CharlesDickensobservedinAmericanNotes(1842),"whichisshoweredandjerkedabout,andturned
on,andpouredoff,everywhere.TheWaterworks,whichareonaheightnearthecity,arenolessornamentalthanuseful,beingtastefullylaidoutasapublicgarden,
andkeptinthebestandneatestorder."HousedinasuccessionofneoclassicaltemplesalongtheSchuykillRiverandsetonasmallplotoflandscapedgroundthat
eventuallygrewtothe8,700acre(3,520ha)FairmountPark,FairmountWaterworksincludedthefirstlargescale,steampumpingstationintheUnitedStates.
Thecity'sfirstwaterworks,consistingofacombinedsteampumpingstationandwatertoweratCentreSquare(nowthesiteofCityHall)andconduitsofhollowed
logs,wasputintoservicein1799,butowingtotherapidgrowthofthe
Page6
ForcepumpandexpansiontanksatFairmountWaterworksin1876.
city,alargerworkswassoonneeded.In1811thePhiladelphiaWateringCommitteedirectedFrederickGraff(17741847)toexaminethebestmethodsofprocuring
waterforthecity.Graff,whohadassistedBenjaminHenryLatrobeindesigningthewaterworksatCentreSquareandafterwardservedthereasengineer,proposed
thatasteampumpingworksbeerectednearMorrisHill(FaireMount)topumpwaterfromtheSchuykillRiverintoreservoirsconstructedonthehill.
In1812theWateringCommitteepurchased5acres(2ha)foranewwaterworksandawardedcontractsfortwosteamengines.OnewasforaBoulton&Watttype
lowpressurecondensingbeamengineof44inch(1,118mm)boreand6foot(1,829mm)stroke.Thesecondcontract,awardedtothedistinguishedPhiladelphia
enginebuilderOliverEvans,wasforahighpressurenoncondensingengineof20inch(508mm)boreand5foot(1,524mm)strokeEvanscalledit,patriotically,a
"Columbian"steamengine.Theenginesdidperiodicdutyuntil1822,withdisappointingresults:operatingexpenses,especiallyforfuel,werehigh,andthereweretwo
boilerexplosions,in1818and1821,killingthree.
In1819WateringCommitteechairmanJosephS.LewisproposedconstructingadamatFairmountandsubstitutingriverdrivenwaterwheelsforsteampower.The
damwasfinishedin1821.Aracethatwas419feet(128m)long,90feet(27m)wide,and16to60feet(5mto18m)deepchanneledwatertothreebreast
Page7
wheelsdrivingpumpsinsideamonumentalneoclassicalmillhouse,anotherGraffdesign.Thefirstwheel,madeofwood,wentintooperationonJuly1,1822.
Rimmedbypublicgardensembellishedwithromanticsculptures,theFairmountWaterworksbecameapopularrecreationalattractionandasymbolofthecity.By
1843,theplanthadbeenexpandedtoeightwheelsandfourhilltopreservoirs,withacombinedcapacityof22milliongallons(83.27millionliters).Fromspeciallybuilt
galleriesinthemillhouse,visitorswatchedthewheelsturn,almostnoiselessly,at11to14rpm.Thewheels,15feet(4,572mm)wideand15to18feet(4,572to
5,486mm)indiameter,drove16inch(406mm)doubleactingpumpswithstrokesof4.5to6feet(1,370to1,830mm).Eachpumpwascapable,inatwentyfour
hourperiod,ofraising1.5milliongallons(5.68millionliters)ofwateraperpendicularheightof92feet(28m)intothereservoirs,fromwhichwaterwasdistributedby
gravitythroughasystemofcastironmainsandpipes.
Thewaterwheelsremainedinserviceuntil1866,althoughbeginningin1851theyweregraduallyreplacedbysevenJonvalturbines.Theselargeverticalshaft,axial
flowmachines,suitedtolowheads,wereeachgearedtothecrankshaftsoftwopumps16inches(406mm)indiameter,similartothosedrivenbythebreastwheels.
TheturbinescontinuedtosupplyportionsofthecityuntilMarch1911,whenriverpollutioncausedthehistoricwaterworkstobeclosed.Thewaterworkshousedthe
cityaquariumuntil1962,afterwhichthecomplexwasabandonedandlefttodecay.
Todaythewaterworksisundergoingrestoration,thankstothecombinedeffortsoftheFairmountParkCommission,thePhiladelphiaWaterDepartment,andthe
JuniorLeagueofPhiladelphia.Thecomplexconsistsoftheenginehouse,oldandnewmillhouses,thecaretaker'shouse,theWateringCommitteebuilding,anda
neoclassicalpavilion(addedinthe1870s).Asingle(incomplete)Jonvalturbineandpumpof1851aretheonlyextantmachinery.
Location/Access
TheFairmountWaterworksislocatedinFairmountParkbehindthePhiladelphiaMuseumofArt(whichoccupiesthesiteoftheformerFairmountreservoirs),26th
StreetandBenjaminFranklinParkway.Toursareavailable.Contact:Director,FairmountWaterworksInterpretiveCenter,PhiladelphiaWaterDepartment,1101
MarketStreet,3dFloor,Philadelphia,PA19107phone(215)5924908.
FurtherReading
JaneMorkGibson,"TheFairmountWaterworks,"PhiladelphiaMuseumofArtBulletin84(Summer1988):140.
C.S.Keyser,FairmountPark(Philadelphia:Claxton,Remsen,andHaffelfinger,1872).
Page8
Chesapeake&DelawareCanalScoopWheelandSteamEngines
ChesapeakeCity,Maryland
TheChesapeake&DelawareCanalformsashortcutacrossthenarrowneckofthe180mile(290km)longDelmarvaPeninsula,connectingChesapeakeBayon
thewestwithDelawareBayandtheAtlanticOceanontheeastandshorteningtheroutebetweenBaltimoreandPhiladelphiaby316miles(508km).Openedfor
navigationin1829,theC&Dwasshortjust13.6miles(22km)longandrequiredamaximumtotalliftofjust16feet(4,876mm),employingatidelockateach
endandoneotherliftlock.Difficultterrain,includingmorethanamileoftidalmarshanda3mile(4.8km)cutthroughalowridgerunningdownthemiddleofthe
peninsula,madeitthemostexpensivecanalofitstime.Thefinalcost,bornebyprivatestocksubscriptionandthestatesofPennsylvania,Maryland,andDelaware
was$2.2million.
Initially,thecanalusednaturalwatercoursesalongtherouteforitswatersupply.Butthesupplyofwateratthesummitwasdeficientduringdrymonthsanddeepdraft
vesselsoftenhadtobeturnedaway.In1837asteampump(aboutwhichlittleisknown)wasinstalledatChesapeakeCitybutsoonprovedinadequate.In1848the
Chesapeake&DelawareCanalCompanyannouncedacontestforthebestdesignofasteampumpcapableoflifting200,000cubicfeet(5,660m3)ofwaterper
hourtoaheightof16feet(4,876mm).TwoPhiladelphiaengineers,SamuelV.MerrickandJohnH.TowneofMerrick&Son,submittedplansforasteamoperated
liftingorscoopwheel.In1851Merrick&Sonwasengagedtoinstallthescoopwheelanda175horsepower(130kW)condensingbeamengine.
Oneoftwopumpingenginesthatsuppliedwatertothe
Chesapeake&DelawareCanal.
Page9
TheMerrickscoopwheelwasdescribedintheJournaloftheFranklinInstitutein1853.Madeofwoodandiron,thewheelwas39feet(11.9m)indiameterand10
feet(3m)wide,withtwelvebuckets.WaterwaschanneledfromBackCreekintoadeepwellunderthescoopwheel.Asthewheelrevolved,waterthatwas
scoopedintothebucketsflowedoutoflateraldischargeopeningslocatednearthecenterofthewheelintoanupperrace,whichcarrieditintothecanalatapoint
about960feet(293m)eastoftheChesapeakeCitylock.Thescoopwheelwasgearedtothecrankshaftofacondensingbeamenginewithacylinderof36inches
(914mm)diameterand7foot(2,133mm)stroke.At24rpm(theusualspeed),thewheelmade2.46revolutionsperminute,deliveringthecontentsof29buckets.
Merrick&Sonaddedasecondsteamenginein1854.
Thescoopwheelwasputtothetestduring1855,when,becauseofdryweather,itrancontinuouslyfromFebruaryuntilDecember."Itisbelievedthatthemachinery
forproducingthenecessarysupplyofwaterisaseconomical,efficient,andsimple,bothasregardsitsprincipleandconstruction,ascanbedevised,"PresidentA.C.
GraystatedinthethirtyseventhannualreportoftheChesapeake&DelawareCanalCompanyin1856.Thehugewaterwheelandsteamenginesremainedin
continuoususeforthedurationoftheC&D'slifeasalockcanal,untiltheplantshutdownin1927.
Duringitslonglife,theChesapeake&DelawareCanalstimulatedwaterbornecommerce.TheyearendingJune1872was
thepeakyearfortonnage,with1.3milliontons(1.18milliont)ofcargohauledduringtheninemonthshippingseason.Inaddition,theC&Dprovedavitallifelinein
wartime.In1861troopsandsuppliesfromPhiladelphiawerebroughtthroughthecanaltoprotectWashingtonfromthreatenedinvasion.In1919theUnitedStates
governmentpurchasedthecanalandturnedoveritsoperationtotheArmyCorpsofEngineers,whichdeepenedandwidenedit,andremovedthelocksin1927.
Today,aspartoftheIntracoastalWaterwaysystem,theChesapeake&DelawareCanalismorethan400feet(122m)wideand27feet(8.2m)deep,theresultof
subsequentenlargements.Itcanaccommodateallbutthelargestoceanlinersandbattleships.
Location/Access
Thescoopwheelandsteamengines,aswellasexhibitsaboutthecanal,maybeseenattheOldLockPumpHouse,StateRoute286,ChesapeakeCity,MD21915
phone(410)8855621forhoursandinformation.
FurtherReading
"ChesapeakeandDelawareCanalWheelforRaisingWater,"JournaloftheFranklinInstitute55(February1853):9395.
GrevilleBathe,AnEngineer'sMiscellany(Philadelphia:Patterson&WhiteCompany,1938).
Page10
HollySystemofFireProtectionandWaterSupply
Lockport,NewYork
BirdsillHolly(182294),inventorandmanufacturer,installedthenation'sfirstpressurizedfirehydrantsysteminLockport,NewYork,in1863.In1866thesystem
wasexpandedtoprovidewatertobusinessesandresidences.Whilemunicipalwaterandfireprotectionsystemswerenothingnew,Holly'sachievementwasto
developasinglesystemthatwouldbothfurnishwaterandextinguishfires.
Holly'swatersupplysystemmaintainedpressureinthemainssolelybythepumpthatwascontrolledbyapressuregovernor,ratherthanbythegravityheadofan
elevatedreservoirorstandpipe.Becauseofitssimplicity,thesystemrapidlycameintowideuse.BythetimeofHolly'sdeath,theHollyManufacturingCompanyhad
placedhissysteminmorethantwothousandcitiesandtownsintheUnitedStatesandCanada.
PatentdrawingoftypicalhandpumpandfirehydrantintheHollysystem.
In1987theAmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineersdesignatedtheHollySystemofFireProtectionandWaterSupplyandtheHollySystemofDistrictHeating
(seep.10andp.201)asMechanicalEngineeringHeritageSites.Thedesignations,thefirstoftheirkind,recognizeimportantdevelopmentsinthehistoryof
mechanicalengineering,eventhoughastructureorobjectinnolongerextant.
Location/Access
TheAmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineersplaqueislocatedattheErieCanalMuseum,NewYorkStateCanalCorporation,80RichmondAvenue,Lockport,
NY14094phone(716)4343140.
FurtherReading
MorrisA.Pierce,"TheIntroductionofDirectPressureWaterSupply,Cogeneration,andDistrictHeatinginUrbanandInstitutionalCommunities,18631882"(Ph.D.
diss.,UniversityofRochester,1993).
Page11
ArchimedeanScrewPump
Newark,California
Thegoldrushof1849sharplyincreasedthedemandforsaltinCalifornia.By1868,eighteencompanieshadsetupplantsontheeasternshoreofSanFranciscoBay,
wheretheyproducedsaltfromseawaterbyusingheatfromthesuntoevaporatebrineinopenponds.Windpoweredpumpstransferredthebrinefromone
concentrationpondtoanother
OneoftheearliestofCalifornia'ssolarproducers,theOliverSaltCompany(foundedin1872),usedscrewpumpstomovetheconcentratedbrine.Thescrewpump
hasbeenattributedtoArchimedes,aGreekwholivedinSicilyfrom287to212b.c.Itconsistsofadeepscrewthreadencasedinaninclined,watertightwood
cylinder,withitslowerendimmersedinthewater.Asthescrewisturned,itcarrieswaterupthethreadanddischargesitatthetop.Itwasoriginallyfootpowered,
butthepowerofthewindwasappliedinseventeenthcenturyHolland,wheresuchpumpswerewidelyemployedtoreclaimlandfromthesea.
In1978DonHolmquist,pondsuperintendentforLeslieSaltCompany,decidedtorestoreanArchimedeanscrewpumptoworkingorder.UsingO.E.Oliver's
drawingsof1891,Holmquistandhiscolleaguesrebuiltthepumpand
WindpoweredArchimedeanscrewpumpsonceservedSanFranciscoBaysalt
producersbymovingbrinefromoneconcentrationpondtoanother.
Page12
placeditinapondonLeslie'sproperty.Thefaithfulreplicaconsistsofacontinuousspiralformedaroundaninclinedredwoodshaft22feet(6.7m)long.Thefour
bladesofthe20foot(6m)diameterfaninessence,awindmillrotatethescrew,raisingthewater.Withfullsailandawindof25milesperhour(40km/hr),the
pump,turningat60rpm,canraise1,500to2,000gallons(5,700to7,6001)ofbrineperminute.Assuminga4foot(1.2m)lift,thisrepresentsapoweroutputof
some1.5to2horsepower(1.1to1.5kW).
Althoughthewindpoweredpumpswereefficient,windwasnotalwaysavailable.Intheearlytwentiethcentury,theSanFranciscoBaysaltindustryturnedtoelectric
pumps,whichcouldbeturnedonandoffatwillandwereabletopumpagainsthigherheads.
Location/Access
TherestoredArchimedeanpumpisdisplayedoutsideattheCargillSaltCompanywithintheSanFranciscoBayNationalWildlifeRefuge.ContacttheCargillSalt
Company,7220CentralAvenue,Newark,CA94560phone(510)7978157.
FurtherReading
GarnettLaidlawEskew,Salt,theFifthElement:TheStoryofaBasicAmericanIndustry(Chicago:)J.G.FergusonandAssociates,1948).
RobertP.Multhauf,Neptune'sGift:AHistoryofCommonSalt,JohnsHopkinsStudiesintheHistoryofTechnology(Baltimore:TheJohnsHopkinsUniversity
Press,1978).
ChapinMinePumpingEngine
IronMountain,Michigan
Foundedin1879,theChapinMine,intheheartofMichigan'sMenomineeRange,wasoneofthegreatestironminesintheLakeSuperiordistrict.Itwasalsooneof
thewettest.Theslopingorebody,ahalfmile(0.8km)longandalmost1,500feet(457m)deep,waslocatedalmostentirelybeneathaswampthatdefiedevery
efforttoremoveitstreasureofore.In1891theChapinMiningCompanycontractedwithMilwaukee'sEdwardP.AllisCompanytobuildapumpingenginecapable
ofremovingallwaterfromthemineforyearstocome.ItwouldprovetobethelargeststeamdrivenpumpingengineeverbuiltintheUnitedStates.
DesignedbyEdwinReynolds(18311909),Allischiefengineer,theChapinMinepumpingenginewasaverticalsteeplecompoundenginewithahighpressure
cylinder50inches(1,270mm)indiameter,alowpressurecylinder100inches(2,540mm)indiameter,andapistonstrokeof10feet(3,050mm).Standing54feet
(16.4m)tall,withaflywheel40feet(12m)indiameter,itweighed600tons(544t).
Page13
TheChapinMinepumpingengine,thelargeststeamdriven
pumpingengineeverbuiltintheUnitedStates,wasthe
workhorseoftheChapinMinefrom1892until1914.
Throughamassivebellcrankwalkingbeamandconnectingrod,theenginedroveaseriesofsingleactingplunger("Cornish")pumps,whichwerearrayeddownthe
shaft.Eachpumpstoodinawroughtirontank,or"sump,"thatdischargedminewaterthrougha28inch(711mm)risingmainintothetankofthepumpabove.The
enginewasdesignedtorunoncompressedair,suppliedbythecompany'swaterpoweredplantatnearbyQuinnesecFalls,aswellassteam.
ThepumpingengineworkedwellattheChapinMine,pumpingfromadepthof600feet(183m)untiltheshaftshiftedoutofalignmentandwasclosed.Theengine
wasdismantledin1899,putintostorage,andlatermovedtoitspresentlocationattheLudingtonMine"C"shaft,whichChapinacquiredin1894),whereitcontinued
tooperateuntilitwasreplacedbyelectricpumpsin1914.
Certainlytheenginewasanimpressiveone.In1915Powernotedthatduringaoneyearperiod,thepumpoperated99.5percentofthetimeatarateof6.63rpm,
pumping1,922gallons(7,275l)perminuteagainstaheadof1,513feet(46Im),withanaveragehorsepowerof736(549kW),givingtheengineamechanical
efficiencyof88.6percent.
Celebratedasitwas,howeverChapinpumpingenginehadbeenplannedduringaperiodofrapidtechnologicaladvancementthatsawtheclassicreciprocatingengine
fallfromfavorasaprimemover.Infact,inreportingtheengine'sinstallationin1893,EngineeringNewseditorializedagainstit,pronouncing,"Theworkcouldbe
donefarmorecheaplyandperfectly...byelectricity."
Page14
Location/Access
TheChapinMinepumpingengineisthefocalpointoftheCornishPumpandMiningMuseum,operatedbytheMenomineeRangeHistoricalFoundation,300Kent
StreetatCarpenterAvenue,P.O.Box237,IronMountain,MI49801phone(906)7741086.
FurtherReading
''TheChapinMinePumpingEngine,"EngineeringNews30(19October1893):31011.(Seealsopp.31516forEngineeringNews'seditorialagainsttheChapin
pumpingengineandinfavorofelectricpumps.)
LouisC.Hunter,AHistoryofIndustrialPowerintheUnitedStates,vol.2,SteamPower(Charlottesville,Va.:UniversityPressofVirginia,1985).
C.Ziemke,"OldPumpingEnginePreservedforPosterity,"CompressedAirMagazine,November1947,27677.
LeavittRiedlerPumpingEngine
Boston,Massachusetts
In1894anewhighservicepumpingenginewasinstalledinBoston'sChestnutHillPumpingStation(1887)toaugmentwatersupplytoelevatedsectionsofagrowing
city.DesignedbyErasmusD.Leavitt,Jr.(18361916),ofCambridge,Massachusetts,andbuiltbytheQuintardIronWorksofNewYork,PumpingEngineNo.3
attractednationalattentionas"themostefficientpumpingengineintheworld"(accordingtoPower),andbecauseitsnoveldesignrepresented"anadvanceonprevious
practice"(accordingtoScientificAmerican).
TheLeavittengineisatripleexpansion,threecrank"rocker"enginewithpistons13.70,24.38,and39inches(348,619and991mm)indiameterand6foot(1,829
mm)stroke.Thecylindersareverticalandinverted,andarecarried,togetherwiththevalvegear,onanentablaturesupportedbysixverticalandsixdiagonalcolumns.
Fromeachrockerruntwoconnectingrods:onetothecrankshaftcarryinga15foot(4,570mm)flywheel,theothertooneofthethreepumpplungerrods.
Eachpumpcontainstwosuctionandtwodeliveryvalves,eachabout3feet(914mm)indiameter.Thepumpingengineoweditsgreatefficiencytotheuseofthese
largevalvesandtothenoveldesignofthepumpvaluemechanism,whichLeavittbasedontheinventionofProfessorAloisRiedleroftheRoyalPolytechnicUniversity
inBerlin.ThisinventionconsistedofclosingeachvaluepositivelyatjustthemomentofreversalofstrokebymeansofleversandrodsnotunlikethoseofaCorliss
engine.Afterclosingthevalves,themechanismreleased,leavingthevalvesfreetoopenbythesuctionpressure.
Pumpingagainstaheadof128feet(39m),orabout55psig(379kPa),the
Page15
TheLeavittRiedlerpumpingenginewasillustratedinScientificAmerican
onSeptember14,1895.
Bostonenginewasdesignedtoruneasilyat60rpm,aspeedmadepossiblebytheRiedlervalvegear.Atthenormalspeedof50rpm,thepumpingenginehada
capacityof20milliongallons(75.7millionliters)intwentyfourhours.SteamwassuppliedbyasingleBelpairefireboxboilerofLeavitt'sdesign(nolongerextant)
withtwoseparatefurnacesandacommoncombustionchamber.PumpingEngineNo.3servedforthirtyfouryearsbeforeitwasrelegatedtostandbydutyin1928.
Location/Access
OpenuponapplicationtoChestnutHillPumpingStation,2436BeaconStreet,ChestnutHill,Boston,MA02167phone(617)7349194.
FurtherReading
F.W.Dean,"AnAccountoftheEngineeringWorkofE.D.Leavitt,"TransactionsoftheAmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers39(December1915):993
1036.
EdwardFMiller,"DescriptionandComputationofatwentyFourHourDutyTestontheTwentyMillionGallonLeavittPumpingEngineatChestnutHill,"
TechnologyQuarterly9(JuneSeptember1896):72115.
"NewHighServicePump,BostonWaterWorks,"ScientificAmerican73(14September1895):166.
"RecordMakingPumpingEngine,ChestnutHillPumpingStation,Boston,Mass.,"Power16(April1896):16.
Page16
ErasmusD.Leavitt,Jr.
ErasmusD.Leavitt,Jr.(18361916).
Withoutformaltechnicaltraining,ErasmusDarwinLeavitt,Jr.,achievedthehighestdistinctionintheranksofmechanicalengineering.According
toASMETransactionin1916,asamachinerydesigner"hedidmorethananyotherengineerinthiscountrytoestablishsoundprinciplesand
proprietyofdesign"andwas"amongtheveryfirstengineertoappreciatetheimportanceofweightinmachinery."HewasborninLowell,
Massachusetts,onOctober27,1836,thesonofErasmusDarwinandAlmira(Fay)Leavitt,andwaseducatedinthelocalschools.Atsixteenhe
beganathreeyearapprenticeshipinthemachineshopoftheLowellManufacturingCompany.HewasemployedforayearwithCorliss&
Nightingale,Providence,RhodeIsland,beforereturningtoBostonasassistantforemanoftheCityPointWorksofHarrisonLoringthere,hehad
chargeofbuildingtheenginefortheUSSHartford.
From1859to1861,LeavittwaschiefdraftsmanforThurston,Gardner&Company,steamenginebuildersofprovidence.HelefttojointheU.S.
NavyatthestartoftheCivilWar.HewasassignedtothegunboatSagamore,thentoconstructiondutyatBaltimore,Boston,andBrooklyn.In1865
hewasdetailedtotheU.S.NavalAcademyatAnnapolis,wherehewasaninstructorinsteamengineering.Heresignedthatpositionin1867to
enterprivatepracticeasaconsultingengineer.
AbeamcompoundpumpingenginethathedesignedforLynn,Massachusetts,in1873"markedaneraintheeconomyofpumpingengines
throughouttheworld"(ASMETransactions,1916)andbroughtLeavitttotheattentionoftheengineeringprofession.Hebecomeacquaintedwith
theleadingengineersofEurope,includingAloisRiedler,fromwhomheacquiredtherighttousetheRiedlerpumpandvalvegearintheUnited
States.TheLeavittRiedlerPumpingEngine,installedinBoston'sChestnutHillStationin1894,wasamonghisbestknownandmostsuccessful
designs.
From1874to1994,LeavittservedasconsultingmechanicalengineerfortheCalumet&HeclaMiningCompany,designingmorethanfortyengines
forpumping,aircompression,hoisting,stamping,andpoweringforthecompany'sextensiveminesinMichigan.Asaconsultingengineer,Leavitt
workedonanarrayofimportantprojects.HedesignedanengineforforhydraulicforgingattheBethlehemSteelCompanyengines,
Page17
boilers,andothermachineryfortheElCallaoMiningCompany,VenezuelaandpumpingenginesforthewaterworksofLouisville,Kentucky,as
wellasBoston,Cambridge,Lawrence,andNewBedford,Massachusetts.AnadmirerofKruppforgings,Leavittforatimekeptaninspectoratthe
KruppworksasEssen,Germany.
LeavittreceivedthefirsthonoraryDoctorofEngineeringdegreefromtheStevensInstituteofTechnologyin1884.Hewasafoundingmemberofthe
AmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineersandservedasavicepresidentfrom1881to1882andaspresidentin1883.Hewasalsoafellowofthe
AmericanAcademyofArtsandSciences.HediedonMarch11,1916,inCambridge,Massachusetts,hislongtimehome.
Sources:Obituary,ASMETransaction38(1916):134751F.W.Dean,"AnAccountoftheEngineeringWorkofE.D.Leavitt,"ASMETransactions39
(1918):9931036.
Erie,Pennsylvania
TheconceptofusingsteamfirstathighpressureinasmallcylinderandthenatlowpressureinalargercylinderwaspatentedbyJonathanHornblowerinEnglandin
1781.AnotherEnglishengineer,ArthurWoolf,addedahighpressurecylindertoanexistingengineatLondon'sMeuxbreweryin1803.Bythemidnineteenthcentury,
"compounding,"asitwascalled,waswelldevelopedasameansofobtaininggreaterefficiencies(i.e.,greaterenergyextractionfromeachunitoffuel)fromsteam
engines.
Bytheearlytwentiethcentury,theconceptoftriplecompounding,or"tripleexpansion,"waswellestablishedforcertainapplications,especiallywaterpumpingand
marineengines.Thefirsttripleexpansionpumpingengine,builtin1886,wasdesignedbyEdwinReynoldsoftheEdwardP.AllisCompanyfortheCityofMilwaukee.
Inbothsizeandefficiency,massivetripleandsometimesevenquadrupleexpansionsteamenginesrepresentedthezenithofreciprocatingsteamenginedesign.
TheChestnutStreetPumpingStationcontainsoneofthelastandlargestexamplesofareciprocatingsteamenginebuilttodrivewaterpumps.BuiltbyBethlehemSteel
Companyin1913,thistripleexpansionsteamenginehasthreecylindershigh,intermediate,andlowpressuredirectlycoupledtolargeplungertypepumps.The
massiveunit,withtwoflywheels20feet(6,096mm)indiametereach,fillsabuildingalmost60feet(18m)high.
TheChestnutStreetpumpingenginehadacapacityof20milliongallons(75.7millionliters)perday.Itoperateduntil1951,whenitwasreplacedbyfourvertical
turbineandthreehorizontalcentrifugalpumps,allelectricallypowered.
Page18
SPECIFICATIONS
Cylinders:three33inches(838mm),66inches
(1,676mm),98inches(2,489mm)indiameter
Stroke:51/2feet(1,676mm)
Speed:25rpm
Flywheels:twoeach20feet(6,096mm)indiameter
Horsepower:600(447kW)
Location/Access
ContacttheErieCityWaterAuthority,AdministrationBuilding,340WestBayFrontParkway,Erie,PA16507phone(814)8708000.
FurtherReading
LouisC.Hunter,AHistoryofIndustrialPowerintheUnitedStates,vol.2,SteamPower(Charlottesville,va.:UniversityPressofVirginia,1985).
A.B.WoodLowliftScrewPump
NewOrleans,Louisiana
BecauseofthelowelevationofNewOrleansandthefactthatitisentirelysurroundedbyleveesanddikes,itsdrainagesystemdiffersradicallyfromthatofother
Americancities.Rainwatermustbedisposedofmechanically.Inthelatenineteenthcentury,drainagewashandledbyawhollyinadequatesystemofdeepgutters
interceptedbyopencanals,fromwhichwastewaterwaspumpedbysteampoweredliftwheelsintocanalsleadingtoLakePontchartrain.Atmostthesystemcould
pump11/2inches(38mm)ofrainaday.Thecitysufferedfromcholera,yellowfever,malaria,andotherdiseases,andwasreputedtobeoneoftheunhealthiest
placesinAmerica.
In1893theNewOrleansAdvisoryBoardonDrainagewasestablishedtooverseeatopographicalandhydrographicalsurveyandrecommendadrainagesystemfor
thecity.TheadvisoryboardproposedagravitysystemofcanalsandpumpingstationsthatwoulddischargerainwaterintoLakeBorgneviaBayouBienvenu,butthey
facedanapatheticpublicandlimitedfundinguntilanoutbreakofyellowfeverarousedsupportandledtopassageofabondissueandcreationoftheNewOrleans
SewerageandWaterBoardin1899.
Thecityinstalledasystemofverticalshaftscrewpumps,8feet(2,438mm)indiameterwithsubmergedscrews,thebestthenavailable.Thepumpswere
Page19
Fourteenfoot(4,267mm)A.B.Woodscrewpump
duringconstruction,ca.1930.
inefficient,difficulttoservice,andoftenoverloadedtheirmotors.(Ascrewpumpisarotarymachinehavinganimpellerwitharowoftwistedbladesthatare,in
essence,shortsectionsofathinhelixorscrewthread.)Withtheneedforbetterdrainagepumpspressing,AlbertBaldwinWood(18791956),ayoungmechanical
engineerwiththeSewerageandWaterBoard,designedthefirstofaseriesofhorizontalshaftscrewpumps,forwhichhewouldwininternationalfame.In1913
Woodpresentedplansfora12foot(3,657mm)screwpumpandgavetheboardperpetualrightstohisinvention.Knownas"Woodscrewpumps,"thepumpswere
designedtodischargegreatquantitiesofwateragainstwidelyvaryinglifts.Thefirstfourwereinstalledin1915.
Rainwaterflowsbygravityfrombuildingsandstreetsintoundergroundcanalsslopedinthedirectionofthenearestpumpingstation.Thescrewpumpliftsthewaterto
ahigherlevelandsendsitflowingtothenextliftstationandeventualdisposal.ManufacturedandinstalledbytheNordbergManufacturingCompanyofMilwaukee,
thefirstWoodscrewpumpconsistedofacylindricalcasing12feet(3,657mm)indiameterand13feet,9inches(4,190mm)long,lyingwithitsaxishorizontaland
containingtheimpeller(ormoving)bladesandthestationary(ordiffusion)blades.Thediffusionbladesweremountedinawatertight,coneshapedhousingthatwas8
feet(2,438mm)diameteratthewidestpoint,withinwhichwerelocatedaselfaligningmainbearingandamarinetypethrustbearing.Thesecouldbereachedthrough
awatertightmanholeatthetopofthepumpthus,theinnerconewasreadilyenteredforinspectionoradjustmentofthebearings,evenwhilethepumpwasoperating.
Theplacementofthe12foot(3,657mm)screwatthetopofasiphon,insteadofsubmergingit,
Page20
wasanotableadvantageofthenewpump,whichwasdrivenbya600horsepower(447kW),threephase,6,000voltsynchronousmotorbuiltbyAllisChalmers.
TestsconductedbyProfessorW.H.P.Creighton,deanoftheDepartmentofTechnologyofTulaneUniversity,provedthehighefficiencyoftheWoodscrewpump
thatis,therelativelyhighdischargeperhorsepoweratlowworkingheads,asessentialrequirementintimesofflood."Whilethepumpsurpassesinefficiency,under
normalconditions,thoseofpreviousinstallations,"Creightonconcluded,"thesuperiorityismuchgreaterjustwhenthegreatestserviceisrequired.Emergencyserviceis
probablytheweakpointoftheoldpumps.Itistheforteofthenew.Resultsshowthatthepumparethelargestandmostefficientlowliftpumpsintheworld."
By1925,elevenunitshadbeeninstalledinsixdifferentdrainagestationsthroughoutthecity.By1932,withtheinstallationoflarger,14foot(4,267mm)screw
pumps,thecity'sdrainagesystemcouldremove14inches(355mm)ofrainperday.Itwasputtothetestin1978,whensome11inches(279mm)ofrainfellin
sevenhours.thepumpingsystemdrained11billiongallons(41.6billionliters)intwentyfourhoursfromsome55,000acres(22,257ha)roughlyequivalenttoalake
10squaremiles(26km2)inareaand51/2feet(1,676mm)deep.FollowingtheirsuccessfulperformanceinNewOrleans,Woodscrewpumpswereinstalledin
Holland,Egypt,China,andIndia.
Wood,anativeofNewOrleansandagraduateofTulaneUniversity,wasalifelongemployeeoftheNewOrleansSewerageandWaterBoard.Herefusedmore
lucrativeoffersofemploymentthatwouldhavetakenhimtoothercitiesandcountries,althoughheservedasaconsultingengineertoChicago,Memphis,Baltimore,
andothercities.Thirtyeightpatentsattesttohisinventivemind.In1939TulaneUniversityawardedWoodanHonoraryDoctorofEngineeringdegree,citinghimas
an"engineer,designer,andinventorwhosegeniushascontributedmuchtothecomfort,safety,andlivelihoodofmultitudesofhumanbeings."
Location/Access
WoodscrewpumpsarelocatedatMelpomenePumpingStationNo.1,2501SouthBroadAvenue,NewOrleans,Louisiana.Permissiontoviewthepumpsmustbe
obtainfromtheNewOrleansSewerageandWater.BoardCommunityandIntergovernmentalRelations,625St.Joseph,NewOrleans,LA70165phone(504)
5852169.
FurtherReading
O.J.Abell,"MakingUnusualPumpsforNewOrleans,"IronAge94(5November1914):106063.
"TheDrainageofNewOrleans,"EngineeringRecord31(25May1895):45456.
"MammothScrewPumpsofNewDesignDevelopHighEfficienciesforLowLifts,"EngineeringRecord73(8January1916):5456.
Page21
ReynoldsCorlissPumpingEngine
Jacksonville,Florida
Jacksonville'swatersupplyimprovementprogramof191417sawtheinstallationoftwo5milliongallonperday(22millionliterperday)pumpsdrivenby
reciprocatingsteamenginesinthecity'snewMainStreetPumpingStation.Theseprovidedthecity'ssolewatersupplyuntil1930,whenthepresentelectricallydriven
peripheralpumpingstationscameonline.Steamoperationceasedin1956,andthefirstpump,of1915,builtbytheEppingCarpenterCompany,wasscrapped.The
second,builtbytheAllisChalmersCompanyofMilwaukeeandinstalledin1917,remainsonstandby,coupledtoaReynoldsCorlissengine.Theengineisof
particularinterestasasurvivingexampleoftheCorlisstypepatentedin1849andimprovedbylaterenginebuilders,inthiscasethechiefengineerofAllisChalmers,
EdwinReynolds(18311999).
Corlissenginesaredistinguishedbyhavingfoursemirotaryvalvespercylinder,twoforsteamandtwoforexhaust,setatrightanglestothecenterlineofthecylinder.
Thevalveportareshort,andenteringsteamdoesnotpassthroughportspreviouslycooledbytheexhaust.Anoscillatingwristplateenablesthefinetuningofthe
steaminletvalveforprecisecutoffandoftheexhaustvalvefortheidealpointofrelease.TheCorlissenginewassome35percentmoreefficientthantheolderslide
valveengines.ThedesignbecamepopularintheUnitedStatesandwaswidelycopiedbyEuropeanengineers.WhenCorliss'spatentexpiredin1873,anyonewas
freetousetheideaandmanydid.
ValvegearonReynoldsCorlisspumpingengine.
Page22
AftertenyearsassuperintendentoftheCorlissworksinProvidence,RhodeIsland,ReynoldsjoinedtheEdwardP.AllisCompanyofMilwaukeeassuperintendentin
1877.By1878,theReynoldsCorlissengine,withanimprovedreleasingvalvemechanismitwasquieterandcouldrunatmuchhigherspeedswentinto
production.By1885,Allishadsoldmorethenfivehundredsuchenginesfordrivingpumps,minehoists,aircompressors,blowingengines,andelectricalgenerators.
WiththeformationoftheAllisChalmersCompanyin1991,Reynoldsbecamechiefengineerofthatfirm.Inall,heheldmorethanfortypatents,includingthatforthe
firstcrosscompoundminehoistingengine.
Location/Access
MainStreetPumpingStation,182NorthMainStreetatHoganCreek,Jacksonville,FL32206.OpenuponapplicationtoCityofJacksonvilleWaterDivision,Public
Education,phone(904)6300730.
FurtherReading
WalterF.Peterson,AnIndustrialHeritage:AllisChalmersCorporation(Milwaukee:MilwaukeeCountryHistoricalSociety,1978).
WorthingtonHorizontalCrosscompoundPumpingEngine
York,Pennsylvania
ManufacturedbytheWorthingtonPump&MachineryCorporation'sSnowHollyWorksinBuffalo,NewYork,thissmallbutefficientCorlissPumpingengineserved
attheBrillhartStationoftheYorkWaterCompanyfrom1925until1956,whenitwasrelegatedtostandbydutyinfavorofelectricallypoweredpumps.Betweenthe
1890sandWorldWarI,manywatercompaniesnationwideinstalledsimilarpumpingengines,whichcouldsupplybetween5millionand12milliongallons(18.9
millionand45.4millionliters)perdayandwereconsiderablysmallerandcheaperthanthetripleexpansionverticalpumpingenginestypicallychosenforlarger
stations.Mostoftheseweresubsequentlyscrapped,makingtheYorkenginetheonlyknownoperableengineofitstypeinPennsylvania,Maryland,NewJersey,
andDelawareararesurvivor.
TheYorkengine'sratedcapacityis5milliongallons(18.9millionliters)perday.Acoalfired,277horsepower(206kW)Stirlingboilersuppliedsteamtotheengine's
highandlowpressurecylinders,eachofwhichwasconnectedtoawaterpump(hencethedescription"crosscompound").
TheYorkenginewasputbacktoworkduringhurricanesAgnes(1972)and
Page23
SmallunitssuchasthisWorthingtonbuiltCorlisscrosscompound
pumpingenginewerethepopularchoiceofsmallwaterstationsinthe
UnitedStatesduringtheearlytwentiethcentury.
courtesyStephenHeaver,Jr.
Eloise(1975),whenthosestormsknockedthestation'selectricpumpsoutofservice.Thepumpingenginewasremovedfromservicein1982butremainsinplace.
Location/Access
BrillhartPumpingStationisonCodorusCreek,3miles(4.8km)southofYorkPennsylvania.OpenuponapplicationtotheYorkWaterCompany,130EastMarket,
York,PA17401phone(717)8453601.
FurtherReading
ArthurM.Greene,Jr.,PumpingMachinery:ATreatiseontheHistory,Design,Construction,andOperationofVariousFormsofPumps,2ded.,rev.(New
York:JohnWileySons,1919).
SPECIFICATIONS
PumpingEngineNo.2,YorkWaterCompany
Highpressurecylinder:181/4inches(463mm)indiameter
Lowpressurecylinder:44inches(1,117mm)indiameter
Watercylinders:two13&onehalfinches(342mm)indiameter
Stroke:36inches(914mm)
SteamPressure:165psig(1,138kPa)
Speed:40rpm
Page24
MECHANICALPOWERPRODUCTION
Water
Introduction
byRobertM.Vogel
UntiltheintroductionofNewcomen'ssteamengineearlyintheeighteenthcentury,theprincipalmeansforsupplementingthepowerofmuscleswasharnessingthe
energyofmovingwater.Centuriesbefore,theRomanEmpiremillstoneswereturnedbyaprimitiveformofturbineor''Norsemill."Thisconsistedofaverticalshaft
intowhichweresetwoodenbladesthatwerestruckbyasmallstreamofwatercausingthem,theshaft,andthemovablestonetorevolve.Romanengineersemployed
aformofovershotwaterwheeltogrindgrain,andthroughouttheEast,currentwheels"norias"wereusedtoraisewaterforirrigation.Thelowerpartofthenoria
wassetintheflowingstreamtobeturnedbythecurrent.Waterwheelsofvarioustypes,toafargreaterextentthanwindmills,wereavitalelementofcivilization's
spreadandgrowthforgrainmilling,waterraising,sawing,oilpressing,clothfulling,theworkingofmetals,andotherlaborintensivetasksthatcouldbeperformedon
onespot(asopposedthetillingofland,forexample).
WiththeadventoftheIndustrialRevolutionandaburgeoningneedforpower,therearoseaproportionateneedfortheeffectiveexploitationoftheavailablewater
powersites.Thisledtoanincreaseinthescaleofwaterpowermachineryandanimprovementintheefficiencyofboththewheelsandthetransmissionsystems
conveyingthewheels'powertothedrivenmachinery.Whilethisneedformechanicalpowerhadinspiredtheinventionandapplicationofthesteamengine,intermsof
theworld'soverallproductionofpoweritplayedarelativelyminorrole.Itwasnotuntilthemidnineteenthcenturythatmorehorsepowerwasproducedbysteamthan
bywater.
Page25
WhiletheRomanswere,ofcourse,accomplishedhydraulicengineers,waterpowermachineryneverwasamajorelementoftheirundertakings.Notuntiltheendof
thesixteenthcenturydidthetrueprofessionofhydraulicengineermillwrightemerge,withtheproductionofsuchepochalworksassupplyingLondonwithwater,
raisedfromtheThamesbyaseriesofpumpsdrivenbylargecurrentwheelssetwithinsomeofthearchesofLondonBridge.Otherworksonthisscalefollowed,
invariablyforwatersupply,withanotableexamplebeingthegreatpumpingworkserectedin1682andpoweredbytheRiverSeinetosupplythegardensat
Versailles.
Bytheendoftheeighteenthcentury,theappearanceoflargefactories,chieflytextilemillsinBritainandtheUnitedStates,providedapowerfulimpetustoadvancethe
fieldofwaterpowerengineering.Ironreplacedwoodinwheelconstructionandtransmissionsystemstheovershotandbreastwheelreplacedtheinefficientundershot
orcurrentwheelandgoverningdeviceswereintroducedtoprovidetheclosespeedregulationrequiredbyincreasinglyrefinedmanufacturingmachinery.Butmost
importantly,thedesignofthewaterwheelitselfanditsmanyadjunctsbothwaterwaysandmechanicaldevicesweretransformedfromalargelyempiricalcraftin
thehandsofthemillwrighttoanearlyexactscienceinthehandsofthemechanicalengineer.Again,theresultwasaleapinbothplantcapacityandtheefficient
utilizationoftheavailableenergyinthemovingwater.
IntheUnitedStates,therealbirthofwaterpowerengineering,however,sprangfromauniquelyAmericanconcept:anewlybuiltindustrialcomplexbasedonamajor
waterpowersite,withasinglecorporationpurchasingthesurroundinglandandwaterpowerprivileges,constructingadamandsystemofpowercanals,sellingmill
sitesalongthecanals,thenmakingthewaterpoweravailabletothesesitesonanannuallease.Theschemewasfirstattemptedonalargescalewiththelandmark
GreatFallsRacewayandPowerCanalSystem,organizedin1791totaptheenormouspowerpotentialinthefallsofthePassaicRiveratwhatbecamePaterson,
NewJersey.ThesuccessofthePatersonprojectdulyencouragedlargeblocksofNewEnglandcapitalinsimilarundertakings.Thefirstofthesewasin1813at
Waltham,Massachusetts,organizedlargelyasatrialbyagroupofBostoninvestors.ThecottonmillstheyerectedontheCharlesRiverdidwellandemboldenedthe
backerstoembracewhatmustbeseenasoneofthemostambitiousindustrialschemesofthattime.ThevasttextilecomplexofLowell,establishedattheFallsofthe
Merrimackstartingin1822,becametheprototypenotonlyforsimilarventuresintheUnitedStatesthemajorityofthemalsopoweredbyNewEngland'smighty
riversastheycrossedthefalllinebuttheworld.ThegreatindustrialcitiesofLewistonandSacoBiddefordinMaineManchesterandNashuainNewHampshire
Lawrence,FallRiver,andHolyokeinMassachusettsPawtucket,RhodeIslandandCohoes,NewYork,allfollowedmoreorlesscloselytheLowellmodel.
Page26
Thedemandsofscaleandefficiencyatthesemassiveconcentrationsofwaterpowerprovidedapowerfulincentivetoimprovetheperformanceofthehydraulicprime
mover.Althoughtheponderousironbreastwheelsasmuchas20feetindiameterandwidththatdrovethefirstmillsatLowellanditsearlysuccessorswereatthe
cuttingedgeofthetechnologyoftheireras,theirshortcomingswererecognized.Theywereinherentlyslow,typicallyturningat1or2rpm,requiringtrainsofspeed
increasegearingtoaccommodatethespeedofthefastrunningtextilemachinery,whichintroducedadditionalfrictionintothetransmissionsystemwithresultantlossof
power.Beinglarge,thesewheelswerecostlyandconsumedagooddealofthemills'realestate.Eventhoughinvariablytheywerehousedinbasements,theywere
subjecttobeingslowed,stopped,anddamagedbytheiceofnorthernwinters.Andalthoughawelldesignedwheeldesignedwheelmightoperateat65percent
efficiency,thatcouldbeachievedonlywhenthewheelwasjustfreeofthetailwater.Ifthelevelfell,thewheelcouldnottakeadvantageoftheincreasedhead.Worse,
ifthelevelrose,thedragofthewaterwouldimpedethewheelwithaconsiderablelossofpower.
Althoughengineersandmillwrightswerewellawareofthemanyadvantagestobefoundinahydraulicprimemoverthatwassmallerandfasterthanthevarioustypes
ofwaterwheels,itwascleareitherthroughtentativeexperimentationorperhapsintuitionthatthedesignofaturbinecapableofimprovingontheperformanceof
contemporarywheelsrequiredadegreeofsophisticationnotreadilyavailableuntilthenineteenthcentury.Bythe1840s,practical,fairlyefficientturbineshadbeen
developedtoacommerciallevelbyseveralFrenchengineerinventorsandintroducedtothiscountryonasmallscale.Theturbine'sadvantageswererecognizedby,
amongothers,UriahBoyden(180479),aconsultanttotheLowellwaterpowercorporation.In1844BoydenundertooktoimprovetheFrenchFourneyronturbine,
buildingalargemachinetoreplacethebreastwheelinoneoftheLowellmills.Thisturbine,operatingatnearly80percentefficiency,doomedthebreastwheel
throughouttheindustry.Thefactthat,inadditiontoitsotheradvantages,theturbinecouldoperateeffectivelyatheadsbothhigherandlowerthanthewaterwheeland
couldbebuiltforvastlygreatercapacitiessignaledarevolutionintheexploitationofwaterpower,immediatelyforthedirectdriveofmachineryandlaterforthelarge
scaleproductionofhydroelectricity.
Page27
GreatFallsRacewayandPowerSystem
Paterson,NewJersey
WiththeincorporationoftheSocietyforEstablishingUsefulManufactures,familiarlyknownas"theS.U.M.,"in1791,SecretaryoftheTreasuryAlexanderHamilton
laidthefoundationforAmerica'sfirstplannedindustrialcity.TheNewJerseylegislaturegrantedtheS.U.M.perpetualexemptionfromcountyandtownshiptaxesand
therightstoholdproperty,improverivers,buildcanals,andraise$100,000bylottery.Fromanumberofsitesoffered,theS.U.M.selectedtheGreatFallsofthe
PassaicRiver.There,thecityofPaterson,namedafterNewJerseyGovernorWilliamPaterson,grewoutofthesociety's700acres(283ha)aboveandbelowthe
falls.Itbecameanincubatorforcountlessengineeringandindustrialinnovations,includingtheColtrevolver,theRogerssteamlocomotive,theHollandsubmarine,the
CurtissWrightaircraftengine,andtextilemanufacturingthatmadePatersonfamousasthe"SilkCity.'
HamiltonhadvisitedtheGreatFallsofthePassaicRiverduringtheAmericanRevolution.Theceaselessflowandpowerofthewaterfall77feet(23.5m)highand
280feet(85.3m)wideinspiredHamilton'sdreamofAmericanindustrialstrengthandeconomicindependencefromforeignmarketstoassurethehardwongainsof
therevolution.TheS.U.M.hiredMajorPierreCharlesL'Enfant,architectandplannerofWashington,D.C.,todesignasystemofraceways.L'Enfant'splanwas
modifiedbyPeterColt,treasurerofthestateofConnecticutandanassociateoftheHartfordwoolenmill(thefirstwoolenmillinthecountry),whomovedtoPaterson
in1793totakechargeofthecottonmilloftheS.U.M.Bothmenenvisionedamultitieredracewaysystemthatwouldchannelwatertoprovidepowertomills.The
originalracewaysystem,builtandoperated
TheUpperRacewayoftheGreatFallsPowerSystem,ca.1850.
TheRogersLocomotiveShopsareontheRight.
Page28
bytheS.U.M.from1794to1797,drewwaterfromthePassaicbyuseofawoodendiversiondamabovethefalls.Thewaterthenenteredareservoir,passing
throughtheracewaytoaflumeandwaterwheel.AfterprovidingpowerforthefirstS.U.M.factory,acottonmill,thewaterwaschanneledbacktothePassaicbelow
thefalls.
After1800,followingfinancialdifficultyoperatingasamanufacturingcorporation,theS.U.M.becameapowerandrealestatedeveloper.Itwasevidentthatthe
racewaywouldhavetobeextendedtoprovidepowerformoremills.Between1800and1827,theS.U.M.builttwoadditionalracewaysandsoldnewlotsand
waterrightstomanufacturers.Millactivityexpandedrapidly,andinthelate1820s,theS.U.M.undertookamajorrealignmentoftheracewayandpowersystemin
ordertoprovidewaterforanewuppertierofmillsites.Thelastmodificationtothesystemoccuredin1838,whenanewchannelanddamwerebuilttodivertthe
riverintothreeracewaysthedivertedwaterservedthreetiersoffactoriesbeforeitwasreturnedtotheriver.By1840,theGreatFallsprovidedpowerforfourfulling
mills,nineteencottonfactories,awoolenfactory,twodyeingandprintingestablishments,twopaperfactories,atannery,andasawmill.
Throughoutthenineteenthcentury,theGreatFallsracewayandpowersystemwastheprimarypowersourceformanufacturinginPaterson.Theabundant,
inexpensiveenergyattractedcountlesscreativeenterprises,including,in1840,silkmanufacturing,whichsurpassedcottonadecadelater.Atitspeak,morethanforty
thousandworkerswereemployedinPaterson'sindustries,manufacturingtextilesandtextilemachinery,clothing,revolvers,steamlocomotives,andaircraftengines.As
otherpowersourcesgainedfavor,theS.U.M.adaptedandsuppliedthemtoitscustomers.From1912to1914thecompanybuiltahydroelectricgeneratingstationat
thefootoftheGreatFallsthatremainedinserviceuntil1969.In1915itaddedasteamgeneratingplanttosupplypowerduringperiodswhentheriverwaslow.The
S.U.M.continuedtooperateuntil1945,whenitsassetsweresoldtothecityofPaterson.
Inthemid1960s,mostoftheracewayandpowersystem,aswellasmanyofthemorethanfortyoldmillsadjacenttoit,werethreatenedwithdemolitionfor
constructionofahighway.Acitizens'groupsuccessfullyfoughttopreservethearea,whichisnowdesignatedtheGreatFallsHistoricDistrict.TheGreatFalls
DevelopmentCorporationwasorganizedin1971tooverseepreservationofthedistrict,whichtodayisamixedusedevelopmentthatincludesoffices,housing,a
museumculturalartscenter,andsomemanufacturingplants.OnJune6,1976,PresidentGeraldR.FordcametoPatersontodesignatethedistrictaNationalHistoric
Landmark.
Location/Access
The119acre(48ha)GreatFallsHistoricDistrict,onthePassaicRiverbetweenGrandStreetandRyleAvenue,preservessectionsofracewaysandanumberof
Page29
earlyfactories,includingPeterColt'sGunMill(1836)atMillandVanHoutenstreets.Forgrouptoursandmapsforselfguidedtours,contacttheGreatFallsVisitor
Center,65McBrideAvenue,Paterson,NJ07505phone(201)2799587.ThePatersonMuseum,2MarketStreet,Paterson,NJ07505,occupiesthefirstfloorof
theThomasRogerslocomotiveerectingshop(1871).ItcontainsthehullofasubmarinebuiltbyPatersonschoolteacherJohnPhilipHollandin1878.Hours:Tuesday
Friday,10A.M.to4P.M.SaturdayandSunday,12:304:30P.M.Phone(201)8813874.
FurtherReading
RusselI.Fries,"Europeanvs.AmericanEngineering:PierreCharlesL'EnfantandtheWaterPowerSystemofPaterson,N.J.,"NortheastHistoricalArchaeology4,
nos.1&2(Spring1975):6996.
AlexanderHamilton,IndustrialandCommercialCorrespondenceofAlexanderHamilton,editedbyArthurHarrisonCole,2vols.(Chicago:BusinessHistorical
Society,Inc./A.W.ShawCompany,1928)
ChristopherNorwood,AboutPaterson:TheMakingandUnmakingofanAmericanCity(NewYork:SaturdayReviewPress/E.P.Dutton&Co.,Inc.,1974)
LowellPowerCanalSystemandPawtucketGatehouseTurbine
Lowell,Massachusetts
In1821BostoncapitalistswhowerepreviouslysuccessfulwithmanufacturingcottonclothontheCharlesRiveratWalthamdecidedtobuildacomplexoftextilemills
totakeadvantageofthevastwaterpoweroftheMerrimackRiveratPawtucketFallsnearChelmsford.TheypurchasedthecontrollingstockoftheProprietorsofthe
LocksandCanalsonMerrimackRiver(charteredin1792forthepurposeofimprovingnavigationoftheMerrimackRiver),and,tappingthepowerofthebroadand
fastflowingriver,builtandadministeredanextensivesystemofpowercanalsbetweenthePawtucket(navigationalbypass)Canalandtheconfluenceofthe
MerrimackandConcordrivers.ItwasoneoftheearliestandmostsuccessfuleffortstotapthewaterpowerofNorthAmerica.
Lowellboomed.By1840,thecityhadapopulationoftwentythousandandwashometoeightmajortextilefirmsemployingalmosteightthousandworkers.Thebulk
ofLowell'sunskilledworkforcewereyoung,unmarriedwomenrecruitedthroughoutNewEngland.Livingincompanyboardinghouses,theyworkedtwelvehoursa
day,sixdaysaweek,winningfamefortheLowellfactorysystem.
TheLowellmillsusedwaterpoweronascaleunprecedentedinAmerica.AschiefengineeroftheProprietorsofLocksandCanalsfrom1837to1884,JamesB.
Francis(seesidebar)wasresponsibleformeetingmanufacturers'demandsforeverincreasingamountsofpower.Since1826,engineershadbeenabletoincrease
Page30
LowellCanalSystem,1848.Drawingby
MarkM.Howland,1975,LibraryofCongressCollections.
theflowintotheLowellpowercanalsystembyconstructinganenlargeddamatPawtucketFalls.Thedamdidnotsatisfywaterneedsforlong,however,andby1840
shortageswerecommonplace.Toalleviatetheproblem,FrancispurchasedcontrolofanumberoftheMerrimackRiver'swatersourcesincentralNewHampshire
andfrom1846to1847supervisedconstructionofanewfeedercanal.TheNorthernCanalsetanewstandardincivilandhydraulicengineeringandintroducedthe
famousFrancisturbinetotheworld.
Builtatacostofjustover$500,000,theNorthernCanalwasLowell'slargestandmostcomplexwaterway.Morethan4,000feet(1,200m)long,100feet(30m)
wide,and16to21feet(4,876to6,400mm)deep,itranfromtheheadofPawtucketFallstotheupperleveloftheWesternCanal.Francishadtocutthrough
difficult,rockyterrainandplaceamajorsectionofthecanalinthebedoftheMerrimackRiver.
ToholdthecanalabovetheMerrimackrapids,Francisbuiltagreatriverwall,2,300feet(700m)long,ofrandomcoursedgraniterubbleandconcrete.Topondthe
river,herebuiltthe1,093foot(333m)PawtucketDam.Tocontroltheflowofwaterintothenewcanal,heequippedthePawtucketGatehousewithsluicegates
raisedbyasmallFrancisturbinei.e.,amodern,mixedflowreactionturbinebasedonadesignpatentedin1838bySamuelB.Howd.
Francis'sstudiesofturbineoperation,meanwhile,whichheissaidtohaveconductedinspecialtestingchambersofthePawtucketGatehouse,persuaded
manufacturerstoswitchfromthelargebreastwheelsthengenerallyinusetomoreefficientturbines.AschiefengineerfortheProprietorsofLocksandCanals,Francis
designedandsupervisedthewidespreadinstallationofturbinesatLowellafter1849.
Page31
PawtucketDamandGatehouse,LookingEastfromtheNorthSide
oftheMerrimackRiver,1976.PhotographbyJackBoucher,
LibraryofCongressCollections.
By1880waterandstream,almostequally,poweredthetextilemachineryofLowell'stenlargecottonandwoolenmanufacturers,whichfurnishedemploymentto
morethansixteenthousandmen,women,andchildren.Lowellwasnowpolyglot,itsworkforcecomprisedoflargenumbersofGreeks,EasternEuropeans,and
FrenchCanadians.Lowelllostitsutopianimage.
Beginninginthe1880s,thetextileindustrybegantomovetotheSouth,seekinglowerlaborcosts.Thetrendgatheredmomentuminthetwentiethcentury.Firstcotton,
thenthewoolenworstedindustrydeparted.Inrecentyears,Lowell'shandsomebrickmillbuildingshaveprovidedhomesfornewserviceindustriesandtheimpetus
forcreationoftheLowellNationalHistoricalParktointerpretthehistoryofthenation'sfirstmajorindustrialcenterandthecontributionsofJamesFrancis.
Location/Access
Lowellis33miles(53km)northwestofBostonviaU.S.Route3.TheDuttonStreetparkinglotprovidesvisitorparkingfortheLowellNationalHistoricalParkand
StateHeritagePark.TheNorthernCanalbeginsabovePawtucketDamandendsattheWesternCanal,FrancisandSuffolkstreetsasectionofFrancis'sgreatriver
wallhasbeenreplacedwithconcrete.ThePawtucketGatehouseislocatedatthePawtucketDam,MerrimackRiveratSchoolStreetelectricmotorsreplacedthe
Francisturbineearlyinthetwentiethcentury,butmostoftheoriginalequipment,includingtheturbine,isstillintact.Obtaininformation,includingamapforaself
guidedtourofLowellanditspowercanalsystem,from:LowellNationalHistoricalPark,P.O.Box1098,Lowell,MA01853phone(508)9705000.
Page32
FurtherReading
NathanAppleton,IntroductionofthePowerLoomandOriginofLowell(Lowell,Mass.:B.H.Penhallow,1858).
RobertF.Dalzell,Jr.,EnterprisingElite:TheBostonAssociatesandtheWorldTheyMade,HarvardStudiesinBusinessHistory(Cambridge:HarvardUniversity
Press,1987).
JamesB.Francis,LowellHydraulicExperiments,BeingaSelectionfromExperimentsonHydraulicMotors,ontheFlowofWateroverWeirs,inOpen
CanalsofUniformRectangularSection,andthroughSubmergedOrificesandDivergingTubes,MadeatLowell,Massachussetts,3ded.(NewYork:D.Van
Nostrand,1871).
"MemoirsofDeceasedMembers:JamesBichenoFrancis,'AmericanSocietyofCivilEngineersProceedings19(April1893):7488.
LouisC.Hunter,AHistoryofIndustrialPowerintheUnitedStates,17801930,vol.I,WaterpowerintheCenturyoftheSteamEngine(Charlottesville,Va.:
UniversityofVirginiaPress,1979).
LarryD.LanktonandPatrickM.Malone,ThePowerCanalsofLowell,Massachusetts(Lowell,Mass.:HumanServicesCorporation,1973).
PatrickM.Malone,CanalsandIndustry:EngineeringinLowell,18251880(Lowell,Mass.:LowellMuseum,1983).
,TheLowellCanalSystem(Lowell,Mass.:LowellMuseum,1976).
JamesB.Francis,theMakerofLowell
JamesBichenoFranciswasbornatSouthleigh,Oxfordshire,England,onMay18,1815,thesonofJohnandElizaFrith(Bicheno)Francis.JohnFrancis
wassuperintendentofoneoftheearlyshortlinerailroadsinWales,andJameswastrainedtofollowinhisfootsteps.
Followingabriefformaleducation,hebecameanassistanttohisfatherontheconstructionofacanalandharborworksconnectedwiththe
railroad.AfterperformingconstructionworkfortheGreatWesternCanalCompanyfortwoyearswithhisfatherandtwoothers,Francisemigrated
totheUnitedStates,arrivinginNewYorkCityin1833.HefoundemploymentwithMajorGeorgeW.WhistlerontheconstructionoftheStonington
RailroadinConnecticut.WhenWhistlerbecamechiefengineeroftheProprietorsofLocksandCanalsinLowell,herecruitedFrancisasa
draftsman.Francis,thenonlyeighteen,joinedtheProprietorsin1834.Oneofhisfirstjobswastodisassemble,measure,andmakedetailedworking
drawingsofanewlocomotivebuiltbyEnglishengineerRobertStephenson,purchasedtoserveasamodelfortheenginesoftheBoston&Lowell
Railroad.
WhenWhistlerresignedtooverseerailroadconstructioninRussia,Francis,atagetwentytwo,replacedhimaschiefengineer.Foralmostforty
years,FrancisnotonlylookedafterLowell'swaterpowerbutalsoservedasconsultanttotheconsortiumofLowellmanufacturersthatownedand
usedit,contributingmateriallytothecity'sindustrialpreeminence."HewasthemakerofLowell,"statedonebiographerin1907inTheNational
CyclopaediaofAmericanBiography.
About1849,FrancisdesignedthefirstscientificallydesignedturbinetobemanufacturedintheUnitedStatesinanyquantity.TheFrancisturbine
wasa
Page33
mixedflowtypewaterflowedradiallyintotheguidevanesandonintotherunner,fromwhichitemergedaxially.Itisstillthemostcommonturbine
typebecauseofthewiderangeofheadswithwhichitcanbeused.Francis'sstudiesoftheflowofwaterthroughturbines,overweirs,andincanals
weredisseminatedinhisacclaimedLowellHydraulicExperiments(1855,revised1868and1871).
Followinghisretirementin1884,FranciswasemployedasaconsultingengineerontheconstructionoftheQuakerBridgeDamontheCroton
River,NewYork,andtheretainingdamatSt.AnthonyFallsontheMississippiRiveratMinneapolis.HejoinedtheAmericanSocietyofCivil
Engineersatitsfirstmeetingin1852andin1880servedasitspresident.HediedatLowellonSeptember18,1892.
Sources:TheDictionaryofAmericanBiography(NewYork:CharlesScribner'sSons,1964)TheNationalCyclopaediaofAmericanBiography,vol.9
(Clifton,N.J.:J.T.WhiteandCo.,1907).
HolyokeWaterPowerSystem
Holyoke,Massachusetts
BySeptember1847,foratotalcostof$300,000forrealestateandwaterrights,Bostoncapitalistswereinpossessionofthegreatestpotentialmilldevelopmentin
NewEngland.TheHadleyFallsCompanyproceededtodevelopthecompanytownofHolyokejustaboveHadleyFallsontheConnecticutRiver.There,JamesK.
MillsandGeorgeW.Lyman,engineersinchargeofconstruction,plannedawaterpowersystemsoperfectthat,almostninetyyearslater,nofundamentalchanges
hadbeenmade(althoughthefirstdam,completedin1848,failedandwasreplacedayearlater).
McCormick'sHolyoketurbine
ThesystemwasdesignedtousetheConnecticutRivertwicethatis,bysetsofmillsontwodifferentlevels.WaterwasfirstreceivedfromthedammedConnecticut
intoamaincanalthemaincanalthenbranchedtoformanuppercanalandalowercanal.Aracewayparallelwiththeuppercanalreceivedthewaterasitcame
throughthewheelsofthefactoriesandcarrieditbacktotheheadofthelowercanaltobeusedoveragain.Theplanwasmodifiedin1854byconvertingtheraceway
intoamiddlecanaltocreateadditionalmillsites.
Page34
ButHolyokegrewslowly,andthetextilemanufacturingcityenvisionedbytheHadleyFallsCompanynevertookhold.Holyokeinsteadbecamehometodiverse
industries:cotton,woolen,thread,andwiredrawingmillsfoundriesandmachineshopsand,aftertheCivilWar,avastpapermakingindustry.Inthemeantime,poor
managementandthePanicof1857ledtothedissolutionoftheHadleyFallsCompanyin1860andsubsequentcontrolbytheHolyokeWaterPowerCompany.The
lattercompanycontinueddevelopingHolyokeasamanufacturingcenter,completingthecity's4mile(7.2km)canalsystemin1892.
By1880,havingreachedthelimitofavailablepower,theHolyokeWaterPowerCompanywasurginglesseestoinstallthemostefficientwaterturbinesavailableand
hadbuiltaflumewhereaccuratehydraulicpowertestscouldbeperformed.DesignedbyhydraulicengineerClemensHerschel(18421930),theflumewasequipped
fortestingturbinesofupto300horsepower(224kW).TheflumetestsgavewellearnedpublicitytotheefficientturbinesdevelopedbyJohnB.McCormick(1834
1924)andtheHolyokeMachineCompany.TheachievementsofHerschelandMcCormickreachedfarbeyondHolyoke.McCormick'sturbinesgainedinternational
fame,whileHerschel'sventuriflowmeter,*firsttestedattheflumein1886,notonlyallowedtheHolyokeWaterPowerCompanytomaintainclosercontrolovereach
mill'swaterusebutbecameastandardmeansofmeasuringtheflowrateofliquids.
After1900,themillmachineryofHolyokegraduallywasadaptedtoelectricalpowerpowercouldnow,withcomparativeease,bebroughttothemanufacturer
insteadofbringingthemanufacturertothepower.Whilethecity'sindustrialbasedeclinedafter1920,itswaterpowersystemremainssubstantiallyintact,andthe
HolyokeWaterPowerCompanycontinuestosellwaterpowertoanumberofmillswhosewheels,nowdrivinggenerators,produceelectricity.
Location/Access
TheHolyokeHeritageStatePark,221AppletonStreet,Holyoke,MA01040,includesavisitors'centerwithexhibitsofthecity'sengineeringachievementsand
industrialhistory,andwalkingtoursofthemillsandworkers'housingphone(413)5341723.Nearby,aMcCormickturbinemanufacturedbyHolyoke'sJ.&W.
Jolly,Inc.,maybeseenoutsideHolyokeCityHall.
FurtherReading
ConstanceMcLaughlinGreen,Holyoke,Massachusetts:ACaseHistoryoftheIndustrialRevolutioninAmerica(NewHaven,Conn.:YaleUniversityPress,
1939).
RobertThurston,''TheSystematicTestingofTurbineWaterWheelsintheUnitedStates,"TransactionsoftheAmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers8
(188687):36674.
*NamedafterG.B.Venturi(17461822),theItalianphysicistwhofirststudiedtheeffectsofconstrictedchannelsonflow.
Page35
MorrisCanalScotch(Reaction)Turbine
GreenwichTownship(WarrenCounty),NewJersey
In1972JamesLeeuncoveredwhatisbelievedtobetheonlyScotch(reaction)turbineintheUnitedStatessurvivinginsitu.(Onlythreesuchturbinesareknownto
exist.)Leefoundtheturbine,whichoncepoweredthewindinggearofinclinedplaneNo.9WestofthelongabandonedMorrisCanal,atthebottomofits30foot
(9,144mm)supplyshaft.
Builtbetween1825and1832toconnectthecoalrichLehighValleyofPennsylvaniawiththemanufacturingcentersofNewJerseyandNewYork,theMorrisCanal
wasthehighestclimberofallthenation'stowpathcanals.BoatstravelingwestwardfromtidewateratNewarkBaytothesummitatthetipofLakeHopatcong,a
distanceof51miles(82km),climbed914feet(279m),thendropped760feet(232m)totheDelawareRiveratPhillipsburg(oppositeEaston,Pennsylvania),fora
totalriseandfallof1,674feet(510m)injustover90miles(145km).Hadlockswiththeirlimitedliftbeenused,betweentwohundredandthreehundredofthem
wouldhavebeenrequired,ataprohibitivecostofbothmoneyandtraveltime.Instead,consultingengineerJamesRenwick(17901863)overcamethesteepgrades
bydesigningasystemoftwentythreeinclinedplanestosupplementthecanal'stwentythreeliftlocks.
Theinclinedplanewas,inessence,aboatrailway.Aboatwasfloatedontoawheeledframerunningonrails,calledaplanecar.Theplanecarwasthenattachedto
thewireropesofapoweredwindingdrum,whichhauleditalongtheinclinetoahigher(orlower)levelofthecanal.Theplanerequiredtwooperators:oneonthe
planecar,theotherintheplanehouseshelteringthewindingmachinery.Thetripupordowntheinclinetookapproximatelyeightminutes.PlaneNo.9West,oneof
threewithadoublesetoftracks,wasthehighestandlongest
MorrisCanalPlaneNo.9West,ca.1900with
Scotchturbinelocatedinthebuildingatthetopofthehill.
LibraryofCongressCollections
Page36
JamesLeeandPlaneNo.9West
JamesLeecametoPlaneNo.9Westin1947.Heboughttheoldplanetender'shouseandsetaboutrestoringitandcollectingandpreserving
memorabiliaoftheMorrisCanal.Thecastironpenstockwasstilltherealbeitfilledinandhereasonedthat,ifthepenstockhadn'tgoneforscrap
duringthewar,theturbinemuststillbethere,too.
Foryears,Leewasunabletotesthistheory,forheavyequipmentandmanystrongbackswouldberequiredtounearththeturbine.ButinJuly1972,
withthehelpofneighborScottHamlenandothervolunteers,Leebeganhaulingrockanddirtoutoftherectangularstonechamber.Onthenightof
August6,theworkcrewreachedtheturbine.Itwassomewhatdamagedbutstillintact.Furtherdiggingrevealedthattherectangularstonesupply
shaftledtoavaultedchamberandthedischargetunnel.
Lee'sfascinationwiththeMorrisCanalbeganinchildhood,whenhebuiltaraftanduseditinthecanalbasinatPortDelaware."Myraft"Leelater
recalledinTheMorrisCanal:APhotographicHistory,"couldholdtwosmallboysquitewellandafriendandIpoleditbackandforthoverahalf
milesectionofthecanal.Irememberlisteningtomen,manyolderthanmyfather,tellmystoriesaboutlifeontheMorrisCanal....
"TherehavebeensomewhosaidthattheMorrisCanalwasabluescaracrossthenorthernwaistofNewJersey.Ithink,however,thattheMorris
Canalwasabeautymark,aplacewhereaSundaywalkonthetowpathwassheercontentmentaplacewherethereweremorefishthan
fishermenandanengineeringwonderthatbroughtvisitorsfromallovertheworld....
"TheMorrisCanalisgoneforever.Neveragainwillthesoundoftheboatmen'sconchshellhornechoandreechointhevalleysandthroughoutthe
mountainsofNewJersey."
Source:JamesLee,TheMorrisCanal:APhotographicHistory(Easton,Pa.:DelawarePress,1979).
inclineontheMorrisCanalrising100feet(30m),theplanewas1,510feet(460m)longtoitssummitand1,788feet(545m)longoverall.
TheinclinedplanesoftheMorrisCanaloriginallywerepoweredbyovershotwheels.Duringthewinterof185152,PlaneNo.9WestwasrepoweredwithaScotch
(reaction)turbineaspartofamodernizationprogram.TheScotchturbineinprincipleresemblesthecommonlawnsprinkler.Itconsistsofahorizontalpipewith
tangentialoutletsattheends,inwhichthereactionoftheescapingwatercausesthepipetorotateaboutitscentralaxis.TheMorrisCanalwheelitself,locatedatthe
bottomofthesupplyshaft,isahorizontal,circularironcasting,about7feet(2130mm)indiameter,fittedwithfour"nozzlewings"eachmeasuring2feet,9incheslong
(838mm),givinganoveralldiameterof12feet,6inches(317mm).
Page37
Theironpenstockmadea90degreeturndownintothesupplyshaft,thenaUturnuptofeedthewheelfrombelowthrougha5foot(1,520mm)openinginthe
wheel'sannularthrustbearing.Afterescapingfromthenozzles,thewaterranoffthrougha160foot(49m)tailrace,ordischargetunnel.
The1860swastheonlyprosperousperiodforthecanal.Tonnagemostlycoal,butalsograin,wood,cider,vinegar,beer,whiskey,bricks,hay,hides,ironore,
sugar,lumber,andmanyothercommoditiesreachedahighofalmost900,000tons(816,462t)in1866.Trafficthendeclinedrapidlyowingtocompetitionfromthe
railroads,andthecanalwasabandonedinthe1920s.Thecanalbedwasfilledin,andtheplanehouses,fromwhichthetenderscontrolledtheoperationoftheplanes
fromtheirthreestoryhighperches,wererazed.Asasafetymeasure,theturbinesupplyshaftswerefilledintonsofrockandsoilwereheapedontheScotch
turbines,sealingthemintheirgraves.ThestoryofthediscoveryandrestorationofthePlaneNo.9Westturbineafterhalfacenturyofentombment(seesidebar)isa
testamenttothedifferenceonepersoncanmakeinthepreservationofhistory.
Location/Access
OffHighway519,betweenStateRoute57andU.S.Route22(followtheredandwhitesignfor477JamesLee).Exceptduringthewintermonths,theturbinecan
beviewedthroughagrateacrossthetopofthestoneturbinechamberorbywalkingthroughtheundergroundtailrace.
FurtherReading
JamesLee,TheMorrisCanal:APhotographicHistory(Easton,Pa.:DelawarePress,1979).
.TalestheBoatmenTold(Easton,Pa.:CanalPress,Inc.,1977).
BoydenHydraulicTurbines,HarmonyMillNo.3
Cohoes,NewYork
ThetwoBoydenhydraulicturbinesatthehistoricHarmonyMillNo.3inCohoes,NewYork,areamongthelargestandmostpowerfuleverbuilttosupply
mechanicalpowertoamanufacturingplant.BuiltbytheHolyokeMachineCompanyandinstalledbytheHarmonyManufacturingCompanyabout1873,theyarealso
amongtheoldestsurvivingmillturbines.
TheBoydenturbinesrepresentatypicalnineteenthcenturyapplicationofwaterpower,which,bythelate1820s,hadbeguntoadvancefromthebulky,slowmoving
waterwheeltothemuchmoreefficientwaterturbine.By1827,FrenchengineerBenotFourneyron(180267)haddevelopedanoutwardflow
Page38
UriahAthertonBoyden
UriahAthertonBoyden(180479).
CourtesyNationalMuseumofAmericanHistory.
UriahAthertonBoyden,borninFoxborough,Massachusetts,onFebruary17,1804,wasaninventorandengineerwhoseprofessionalfocusshifted
fromrailroadshehelpedsurveytheBoston&ProvidenceandNashua&Lowellearlyinhiscareertohydraulics.Workingfromanofficehe
establishedinBostonin1833,BoydenservedasengineerfortheAmoskeagManufacturingCompanyofManchester,NewHampshire,designingthe
powercanalsystemforthatfirm'sextensivetextilemills.
In1844,attheageofforty,BoydendesignedtheimprovedFourneyrontypewaterturbinethatwouldcarryhisname.Theprototypeunit,a75
horsepower(56kW)machineinstalledattheAppletonCompanymillatLowell,Massachusetts,delivered78percentofthepoweravailable.
Boyden'sprincipalimprovementtotheearlierFourneyronturbinewasthespiralguideblades,whichadmittedwatertotheturbine'srunnerata
uniformvelocity.TheBoydenturbinewassoonadoptedinmillsandpowerplantsnationwide.
Inhislateryears,Boyden,whohadlittleformaleducation,devotedhimselftopurescience,conductingexperimentsinlight,electricity,magnetism,
chemistry,andmetallurgy.In1874hedeposited$1,000withtheFranklinInstitute,tobeawardedtoanyresidentofNorthAmericawhocould
determinewhetherlightandotherphysicalraysweretransmittedwiththesamevelocity.Theprizewasneverawarded.Boyden,whonevermarried,
livedfrugallyataBostonhotel.UponhisdeathonOctober17,1879,mostofhisfortunewasearmarkedfortheestablishmentofanobservatoryin
theAndesatArequipa,Peru,operatedasadepartmentofHarvardUniversity.
Sources:TheDictionaryofAmericanBiography(NewYork:CharlesScribner'sSons,1964)TheNationalCyclopaediaofAmericanBiography
(Clifton,N.J.:J.T.WhiteandCo.,n.d.).
turbinedesignedtodirectthewater,byfixedguidevanes,ontotheinnercircumferenceoftherotatingwheel.In1844UriahBoyden(seesidebar),anAmerican,
improvedtheFourneyronturbinebyaddingaconicalapproachpassage,inclinedvanes,andasubmergeddiffuserthatdischargedtheexitingwatermoreefficiently
andensuredthatasmuchofthewater'skineticenergyaspossiblewasconvertedintopowerattheturbineshaft.(Later,theoutwardflowBoydenturbinewouldbe
supersededbytheevenmoreefficientinwardflowFrancisturbine.)
Page39
BoydenHydraulicTurbines,HarmonyMillNo.3.
Uponcompletionofthe5story,510footlong(155m)southsectionin1872,HarmonyMillNo.3alsoknownasthe"MastodonMill"foraskeletonunearthed
duringexcavationwasoneofthelargesttextilemillsintheUnitedStates.ItwastheprideoftheHarmonyManufacturingCompany,whichhaderecteditsfirstplant
forspinningcottonin1837.ThesprawlingHarmonyMillscomplexdrewitspowerfromtheCohoesCompany'scanals,asophisticatednetworkofhydrauliccanals
builtbetween1834and1880toexploitthewaterpowerpotentialoftheCohoesFallsoftheMohawkRiver.
With102inch(2,600mm)runnersandahorsepowerof800(600kW),theturbineswerethelargestofthirtytwoBoydenturbinesbuiltbyHolyokeinthemid
1870s.LocatedinthebasementatthesouthendofHarmonyMillNo.3,thetwoverticalshaftturbineswereconnectedtoacommonoverheadhorizontalshaftby
levelgearing.Onthisshaftwerepulleysthat,throughleatherbelts,transmittedthepowertoeachofthemill'sfivefloors,drivingthe130,000spindlesand2,700looms
thatproduced700,000yards(640,000m)ofmuslineachweek.
TheHarmonyMillswereliquidatedinthe1930s.ThetwoBoydenturbinesareintactbutnolongerinuse.HarmonyMillNo.3todayishometoavarietyofsmall
industries.
Location/Access
TheBoydenturbinesarelocatedinthesouthsectionofHarmonyMillNo.3.PermissiontoviewthemmustbeobtainedfromCohoesIndustrialTerminalInc.,100
NorthMohawkStreet,Cohoes,NY12047phone(518)2375000.
FurtherReading
JamesB.Francis,LowellHydraulicExperiments(NewYork:Little,Brown,1855).
NormanSmith,"TheOriginsoftheWaterTurbine,"ScientificAmerican,January1980,13848.
RobertM.Vogel,ed.,AReportoftheMohawkHudsonAreaSurvey,SmithsonianStudiesinHistoryandTechnology,no.26(Washington,D.C.:Smithsonian
InstitutionPress,1973).
Page40
Steam
Introduction
byRobertM.Vogel
Ithaslongbeenasubjectofdebate,whethertheIndustrialRevolutionmadepossiblethesteamengineorviceversa.Surelythepracticalsteamenginecouldnohave
beendevelopedwithouttheefficientminingofcoalandthesmeltingandworkingofmetals,mainlytheferrous,andthedevelopmentofeffectiveprimemovers,
principallyintheformofwaterpoweredmachinery.Conversely,itcanbeequallywellarguedthatnoneofthesedevelopmentswouldhavebeenpossiblewithoutthe
steamengine.Whiletheearlyhistoryofthesteamengineisinextricablyboundupwiththeraisingofwateralmostsolelythedewateringofminesandinitselfavital
chapteroftheIndustrialRevolutionitwasnotuntilthesteamenginebecamecapableofproducingcontinuousrotarypower,andthuswasabletodrivethe
machineryoffactoriesandmills,thatmanufacturingdevelopedonatrulyindustrialscale.
Thisabilityofaprimemovertoturnashaftindependentofthevagariesofflowingwaterorblowingwindand,mostsignificantly,freeofthegeographicalrestraintofa
sourceoffallingwaterhadimplicationsthatultimatelyreachedfarbeyondthepropulsionoffactorymachinery.Asmetalworkingtechniquewererefinedand,
consequently,itbecamepossibletoincreasetherotationalspedofthesteamengine,itssizecouldbeproportionallyreducedresultinginportability.Thisisduecourse,
ledlogicallytothesteamboat,thesteamlocomotive,andultimatelyavastarrayofothermobilesteampoweredmachineryandvehicles.
Butuntilabout1910,thepreponderanceofsteampowerwasdirectedtothedrivingofstationarymachineryinmines,mills,factories,andprocessingplantsinawide
varietyofindustries.ThebasicconfigurationofWatt'srotativebeamengineexemplifiedbythelandmarkengineinSydneyremainedessentiallyunchangedand
commerciallyviableforwelloveracentury.Evenwithimprovementsinmetallurgy,thermalefficiency,lubrication,andmachinedesign,andevenasthedirect
connectedhorizontalsteamenginegainedinpopularityforthemechanicaldrivingofmachineryandlatergenerators.thebeamengineasconceivedbyWattcontinued
tobebuiltbymanufacturersprincipallyinEuropethroughoutthenineteenthcentury.
TheWestPointengineatLaEsperantosugarplantation,oneofasmall
Page41
handfulofAmericanbeamenginestosurvive,isinallrespectstypicalofthebreed,differingfromadrivingenginethatmighthavelefttheBurton&Wattshopsthree
quartersofacenturyearlieronlyinmechanicaldetailandtheuseofhighersteampressure.Itwasineverysenseamachineofstandarddesignthatwouldhavebeenas
muchathomedrivingthelineshaftofatextilemill,alargeflourmill,oramachineworks.
Bythemiddleofthenineteenthcentury,thehorizontalenginehadlargelydisplacedtheverticalbeamtype,atleastintheUnitedStates,assimpler,lighter,andcheaper
forthesamepower.Thebeamconfigurationheldonaslongasitdidbecause,untilthewidespreaduseofthemetalplaner,itwasfairlydifficulttoproducetheflat
crossheadguidesnormaltothehorizontalengine,whereasthebeamengineusingtheWattparallelmotiontoguidethepistonrodrequiredonlysimplepinjoints,which
wereeasilyproducedbyturningandboring.Additionally,itwaslongheldbybothenginedesignersandusersthattheweightofalargehorizontalpistonwouldcaused
undueweartothebottomoftheenginecylinder.Whilethiswastruetocertaindegree,eventuallyitwasshownthatthiseffectwastooslighttooffsetthemany
advantagesofthehorizontalengine.eveninthosecaseswhererestrictedfloorspacedictatedaverticalengine,towardtheendofthenineteenthcenturythebeam
enginehadgivenwayentirelytothecrossheadtypewithcylinder(s)placeddirectlyabovethecrankshaft&ndassometimesreferredtoasthe"marine"or"steam
hammer"type.ThelastAmericanbeamengineofanyconsequencewastherenownedCentennialEngine,builtin1876byGeorgeCorlisstopoweralltheexhibitsin
MachineryHallatPhiladelphia'sCentennialExposition.Althoughatthetimethestylewasregardedascompletelyobsolete,itisclearthatCorlissemployedittherefor
itsmonumentalvisualeffect.
Untiltheturnofthetwentiethcentury,therelativelyslowspeedofthesteamenginewasareasonablematchwiththespeedofmostofthedrivenmachinery,sothat
simplemechanicaltransmissionsystemsshafting,gearing,leatherflatbelts,andropesprovidedasatisfactoryandrelativelyefficientmeansforconveyingthepower
fromenginetoload.
ThelandmarkHarrisCorlissengineisrepresentativeofthestationarysteamengineintheserviceofdirectlydrivingmachinery,duringthetransitionalperiodwhen
mechanicalpowertransmissiongraduallywasgivingwaytoelectrical,andelectricitywasbecomingmorecommonlyusedingeneralandforlightingandurban
transportationinparticular.Inthedrivingofgeneratorseitherthroughbeltorropetransmissionorbydirectconnectionthesteamenginewascalledontooperateat
increasinglyhigherspeeds,ultimatelygivingwayentirelytothecentralstationsteamturbineasturbinecapacityandefficiencyincreased.
Withallprimemovers,whatevertheoperatingmedium,thestoryoftheirdevelopmentisalmostsolelyoneofseekingbetterefficiencythanthatcurrentlyachievable,a
continuingevolutionofdetailandusuallycapacityinaneffort
Page42
towringmoreandmoreofthepotentialenergyoutofthefuel,orfallingwater.Althoughthesteamengine'ssinglemostdramaticleapforwardwasnothinglessthan
JamesWatt'simprovementoftheNewcomenengine,whichwasthesolitarycommercialformofsteampowerinthemiddleoftheeighteenthcentury,themechanical
engineer'senhancementofefficiencyneverceaseduntiltheactualdemiseofthereciprocatingengineinthe1940s.
OneofthemostfertileareasforimprovingefficiencyafterWatt'sinventionoftheseparatecondenserandtheexpansiveuseofthesteamwasthemeansforcontrolling
theadmissionoflivesteamtotheenginecylinder.Bythe1840sitwasrecognizedthattheslidevalve,directlymovedbyaneccentricorcamonthecrankshaft,
combinedwithspeedregulationbyagovernorcontrollingasimplethrottleinthesteamline,ledtoconsiderablethermallossand,thus,inefficiency.Thegeneral
awarenessofthisfactledtoconsiderablethermallossand,thus,inefficiency.Thegeneralawarenessofthisfactledmanyinventorstoexperimentwith"releasing"valve
gears,whichpermittedthesteamadmissionvalvestobedetachedfromtheeccentricatsomepointaftertheyopened,allowingthemtoclosesharply,andwiththis
pointdeterminedeithermanuallybytheoperatorortosomedegreeautomaticallyundercontrolofthegovernor.Theresultwasanappreciableadvanceinefficiency
and,thus,reductioninfuelconsumption.Byfurtherrefinementprincipallytheuseofseparatesemirotarystemandexhaustvalves&GeorgeCorlissproducedan
enginethatstoodwellaboveitscontemporariesineconomyofoperation.TheCorlisstypeengineasbuiltbyCorliss'sownworksandlicensees(andwiththe
expirationofhispatentsinabout1870bymanyoftheworld'smajorbuilders)becametheprototypestationarysteamengineforefficiencyandgeneralexcellenceof
design,reigningsupremeuntilabout1920,atwhichtimepracticallyallenginesweredesignedforelectricgeneratingservice.
Page43
Boulton&WattRotativeSteamEngine
Sydney,Australia
TheNewcomenengine(see"NewcomenMemorialEngine,"p.3),withachainconnectingthewalkingbeamandthepistonrod,wascapableofperforming
mechanicalworkonlyduringthedownstrokeofthepiston.Itsconstructionprecludedthepossibilityofanyupwardthrustbeingexertedonthebeam.Thus,its
usefulnesswaslimitedtominedrainageandwatersupplyeventhen,itsmiserablylowthermalefficiency(1percentorless)gaveitavoraciousappetiteforcoal.
TheBulton&Wattrotativesteamengineintroducedthesecondgenerationofsteampower,wherebythechainconnectionbetweenthepistonandbeamofthe
Newcomenpumpwasreplacedbyasetoflinksformingaldquoparallelmotion."Thepistonthencouldpushupwardonthebeamaswellaspulldown,enablingthe
beamwitharigidconnectingrodatitsoppositeendtodriveacrank,resultinginanalmostcontinuousflowofpower.Itwasthisrotative,ordoubleacting,engine
thateventuallywouldturntheshaftsofindustry.
PowerHouseMuseumstaffinspectthe14footflywheel
oftheBoulton&Wattrotativesteamengine.CourtesyMuseum
ofAppliedArtsandSciences.

teachers
Page44
Horsepower
Apartfromhisimprovementsofthesteamengine,Watt'smostenduringachievementwastoestablishacommonunitofpowermeasurement.Withthe
introductionofrotativesteamenginescametheneedtodescribetheratingofanengine'spowertoprospectivecustomers.Wattcoinedtheterm
''Horsepower,"i.e.,thenumberofhorses,workingatthesametime,thatwoulddothesamework.Inexplicably,Wattmadeonehorsepowerequalto
33,000pounds(14,966kg)raisedIfoot(304mm)highperminutethereisnothing,accordingtoDickinsonandJenkinsinJamesWattandtheSteam
Engine,tosuggestthathedeterminedthisvaluebyexperiment.
InWatt's"BlottingandCalculationBook1782&1783"isthenotation:"Blackfryarscornmillengine.Itisrequiredtowork18pairsofstonesand
eachpairtogrind6bushelsp.hourandreckoningeachbushelp.hour=toonehorseandeachhors=33,000lbIfoothighp.minute."Whilethe
notationisundated,itisknownthatWattfinishedthedrawingsoftheenginefortheAlbioncornmill(onthebanksoftheThamesnearBlackfriars
Bridge,London)inOctober1783.
Withinafewyears,itwascommonpracticeatBoultonWatt'sSohoengineworkstorefertoenginesby"horses"a14horseengine,"a"20horse
engine,"andsoon.In1814Watthimselfexplainedhisoriginoftheterm"horsepower":"Horsesbeingthepowerthengenerallyemployedtomove
themachineryinthegreatbreweriesanddistilleriesofthemetropolis,where(rotative)enginesfirstcameintodemand,thepowerofamillhorse
wasconsideredbythemtoaffordanobviousandconcisestandardofcomparison,andonesufficientlydefiniteforthepurposeinview."
Thesteamengine'stransitionfrompumpingdutytoitsmoreversatileformcameslowly.In1763JamesWatt(17361819),aninstrumentmaker,wasaskedtorepair
amodelofanatmosphericengineusedinanaturalphilosophyclassatGlasgowUniversity.Themodel,Wattobserved,consumedsuchanexcessiveamountofsteam
thatitcouldnotbekeptrunningformorethanafewminutesatatime.Wattrecognizedthatmuchstemwaswastedbyheatingandcoolingthecylinderateverystroke
andthatthecylindershouldbekeptashotaspossiblethewholetime.Watt'sdiscoveryledtohispatent,in1769,foraseparatecondenser.Hisideawastocondense
thesteamnotinthecylinderbelowthepistonbutinaseparatevesselconnectedtoitbyapipewithavalveinbetween.
In1775WattenteredintoapartnershipwithbusinessmanMatthewBoulton(17281809)ofBirmingham,England,whoseSohoManufactoryhadwonwidefamefor
thequalityofitsmetalwork.Bulton&WattmanufacturedpumpingenginesasWattcontinuedhisexperiments.Demandwasgrowingforenginesthatwouldprovidea
continuousrotarymotionwhilethereciprocating
Page45
motionofexistingengineswasusefulonlyforpumping,arotativeenginecouldbeusedtodrivemillmachinery."ThepeopleinLondon,ManchesterandBirmingham
aresteammillmad,"BoultonwrotetoWattinJune1781."Idon'tmeantohurryyoubutIthink&hellipweshoulddeterminetotakeoutapatentforcertainmethods
ofproducingrotativemotionfromthefireengine."
Thebasicproblem,ofcourse,wastoconvertthebeamengine'soscillationintorotation.Thiscouldbereadilyaccomplishedwithaconnectingrodworkingacrankor,
asWattinitiallychoseinordertoavoidapatentdispute,asunandplanet(orepicyclic)gear.Aseriousproblem,however,wastosmoothouttheunevenpower
cycleofthesingleactingenginesothatitcouldbeusedtodrivespeedsensitivemachinery,suchasthatintextilemills.Inhis1782patentformechanicalcontrivances
toequalizethepowerstroke,Wattsuggestedusingthepowerofsteamtopushthepistonbothupanddown,i.e.,adoubleactingengine.Inconjunctionwiththefly
ballgovernortoregulatetheengine'sspeed,thiswouldresultinasmootheroutputofpower,butitrequiredarigidconnectionbetweenthebeamandthepistonrodso
thatpowercouldbetransmittedfromthepistononitsupwardstroke.
In1784Wattobtainedapatentforhissimplebutelegant"parallelmotion."Hisinvention,whichconnectedpistonrodtotheendofthebeambyanarrangementof
linksroughlyintheformofaparallelogram,allowedthepistontopushaswellaspulltheendofthebeam,makingtheenginedoubleactingand,therefore,twiceas
powerful.WithjusticeWattcouldlatersay,&ldqueIammoreproudoftheparallelmotionthanofanyothermechanicalinventionIhaveevermade."
TheBoulton&WattrotativeenginehelpedlaunchtheIndustrialRevolution.By1800,Boulton&Watthadbuilt496engines,308ofwhichwereoftherotativetype
foruseindrivingmachinery,principallythatoftextilemills.In1784LondonbrewerSamuelWhitbreadorderedfromBoulton&Wattarotativeenginewitha24inch
(609mm)cylinderand6foot(1,829mm)stroke.Thesingleactingengine,30feet(9,144mm)tallandaboutthesameinlength,wasthefirsttoincorporateparallel
motion.Itwasmadedoubleactingin1795,doublingitsindicatedhorsepowerfromabout17(13kW)toabout35(26kW).
TheWhitbreadengine,hightechnologyforitsday,remainedinserviceuntil1887,whenitwasdismantled.WhitbreaddonatedittotheSydneyTechnologicalMuseum
inAustraliatwoyearslater.Tocelebratetheengine'sbicentennial,themuseumrestoredittosteamingconditionin1985.
Location/Access
TheBoulton&WattengineisondisplayatthePowerHouseMuseum,CastleHill,Sydney,Australia.(Thenextoldestsurvivor,of1788,isattheScienceMuseumin
London.)Theatmosphericenginemodel,onwhichWattfirstexperimented,ispreservedintheHunterianofGlasgowUniversityinScotland.
Page46
FurtherReading
H.W.DickinsonandRhysJenkins,JamesWattandtheSteamEngine(Oxford:TheClarendonPress,1927).
RichardS.Hartenburg,"ParallelMotions:CertainCombinationsofLeversMovinguponCenters"ASMEpaperno.83WA/HH 2(NewYork:ASME
International,1983).
RichardL.Hills,PowerFromSteam:AHistoryoftheStationarySteamEngine(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1989).
SamuelSmiles,LivesofBoultonandWatt(Philadelphia:J.B.LippincottandCompany,1865).
RobertH.Thurston,AHistoryoftheGrowthoftheSteamEngine,CentennialEdition,withasupplementarychapterbyWilliamN.Barnard(PortWashington,
N.Y.:KennikatPress,1972).
HaciendaLaEsperanzaSugarMillSteamEngine
Manati,PuertoRico
Inthenineteenthcentury,sugarproductionbecamePuertoRico'seconomicmainstay.Untiltheriseofthemodernsugarplant,orcentral,inthe1890s,sugarcane
wasprocessedonindividualestates.Oneoftheisland'slargestproducerswasHaciendaLaEsperanza,a2,265acre(917ha)estatelocatedinthefertilevalleyofthe
RioGrandedeManati,westofSanJuan.There,abeamengineonceusedtopowertheplantation'scrushingmillhasbeenpreserved.Countlesssuchengines
poweredsmallmillsandwaterworksinthenineteenthcentury,butonlyafewhavesurvived.
HaciendaLaEsperanzawasestablishedbyFernandoFernandez,aSpaniardwhoarrivedinPuertoRicointhelateeighteenthcentury.Archaeologicalevidence(there
arenowrittenrecords)suggeststhepresenceofananimalpoweredmillearlyon,supersededbyasmallsteampowerdmillsometimeinthe1850s.JoseRamon
FernandezyMartinez,Fernando'seldestson,inheritedtheestateandexpandedproductionwiththeadditionofasteampoweredsugarmillintheearly1860s.By
1862,theHaciendawasproducing135,000pound(61,224kg)ofmoscavado(unrefined)sugarand500hogsheads(63gallons,or2381)ofmolassesannually.
Sugarproductionbeginswiththeextractionofjuicefromsugarcane.Next,thejuiceisclarified(allmatter,exceptsugarandwater,isremoved)reduced(thewateris
removedfromthesugar)andfinallypurged(cleansedbywashingordraining).HaciendaLaEspernazawassemimechanized,i.e.,ithadasteampoweredcrushing
mill,butevaporation,purging,andpackingoperationswereperformedmanually(byslavesuntilemancipationin1873).
AtLaEspernza,anendlesschainconveyedsugarcaneintothecrushingmill,consistingofthreecastironrollerssethorizontallyinacastironframe,the
Page47
StationarybeamengineontheHaciendaLaEsperanzasugarplantation.
PhotographybyFredGjessing,LibraryofCongressCollections.
rolleraxesformingtheverticesofanisoscelestriangle.Duringcrushing,thejuicedrainedintolargesquarepans,orcollectors.Castintothebaseofthecrushingmillis
thelegend"WestPointFoundry1861,"theonlymaker'smarkonanyofthemachinery.Thesixcolumnbeamenginethatpoweredthemillcarriesnoidentifyingmarks
butispresumedtohavecome,likethecrushingmill,fromtheWestPointFoundryinColdSpring,NewYork.ItistheonlyWestPointbeamengine,andoneofonly
eightstationarybeamenginesproducedbyanyAmericanmanufacturer,knowntosurvive.
Theengine,distinguishedbyelaborateGothicstyling,isanoncondensing,dropvalve,sidecrankenginewith16inch(406mm)boreand40inch(1,016mm)
stroke.Whenturning20rpmonsteamof60psig(413kPa),theenginedevelopedapproximately25horsepower(19kW).Thecastironbeam,13feet,4inches
(4,063mm)overall,servedasarockingleverconnectingthepistonrodandcrank.Twoeccentricsonthecrankshaftcontrolledtheengine'sdropvalves.TheWatt
type"parallelmotion"guidingthepistonrodwaseasiertomaintaininadamp,hostileenvironmentthanasimplercrossheadandguides,needinglubricationonlyat
readilyprotectedplainbearings.
Todelivermaximumpower,theenginehadtorunatapproximately20rpm,buttoextractcanjuiceeffectively,themillhadtoturnmuchmoreslowly.Double
reductiongearsaccomplishedthischangeinspeed,permittingthemillrollerstoturnatjustunder2rpm.A"Lancashire"boilerfiredwithwoodorbagasse(residue
cane,followingcrushing)providedthesteam.
Page48
TheWestPointFoundry,establishedin1817,turnedoutsteamengines,hydraulicpresses,andblowingenginesinquantityduringthenineteenthcenturyandbuiltthe
firsttwolocomotivesmanufacturedinAmericaforactualserviceonarailroad:theBestFriendofCharleston(1830)andtheWestPoint(1831).Itsrealfame,
however,wasasamanufacturerofmilitarysuppliesfortheUnitedStatesArmyandNavy.Norecordsofthefoundry,whichwasclosedin1911,surviveasadefense
contractor,WestPointregularlydisposedofsensitivematerialbylightinghugebonfires,andvirtuallytheonlyevidenceofthefirm'sworkisinmanufactures'catalogs
andtechnicalbooksoftheperiod.
Beginninginthelatenineteenthcentury,plantationfactoriesmakingmoscavadosugaronindividualestatesgavewaytomodernsugarcentral,After1891,sugarcane
harvestedatHaciendaLaEsperanzawassenttothecentral,andtheWestPointmillandenginewereneverusedagain.
Location/Access
HaciendaLaEsperanzaislocatedinManati,35miles(56km)westofSanJuan.ItisoperatedasalivinghistoricalfamebytheConservationTrustofPuertoRico
andmaybevisitedwiththeirpermission:P.O.Box4747,SanJuan,PuertoRico009024747phone(809)7225834.(Note:Atpresstime,theengineandmillhad
beendismantledandwereawaitingrestoration)
FurtherReading
NoelDeerr,TheHistoryofSugar,2vols.(London:ChapmanandHall,Ltd.,194950).
HarrisCorlissSteamEngine
Atlanta,Georgia
In1977the350horsepower(260kW)steamenginethathadpoweredthewoodworkingshopofRandallBrother,Inc.,forsomeeightyyearscametoastandstill.It
wasretirednotbecauseofageorinfirmitybutbecauseofU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgencyconcernaboutsmokeissuingfromtheboilersmokestacks.
TheCorlisstypeenginewasbuiltaround1894bytheWilliamA.HarrisCompanyofProvidence,RhodeIsland.ItwasexhibitedattheCottonStatesand
InternationalExpositionof1895inAtlantabeforebeingsoldtoExpositionCottonMillsofAtlantain1898.RandallBrotherspurchasedtheenginefromExpo
Page49
HarrisCorlissSteamEngine.
sitionMillssometimebeteen1898and1910,usingittodriveanelectricgeneratorandtopowerthefirm'swoodworkingmachinery,includinglumbersaws.
WilliamA.Harris(183579)joinedtheCorlissSteamEngineCompanyin1856asadraftsman.HelaterbecamechiefassistanttoGeorgeH.Corliss(seesidebar),
makingthedrawingsfortheinventor'snumerouspatentapplicationsbeforeleavingtoestablishhisownfirmin1864.UnderalicensingagreementwiththeCorliss
Company,HarrismanufacturedHarrisCorlissenginesfrom25to2,000horsepower(19to1,491kW),insimpleandcompound,andcondensingandnoncondensing
styles.
Althoughnolongerinuse,theRandallBrothersengineremainsinitsoriginallocation.ThecompanyperiodicallyfiresuptheboilerstoshowstudentsattheGeorgia
InstituteofTechnologyaclassicstationarysteamengineatwork.
Page50
GeorgeH.CorlissandtheCorlissEngine
GeorgeH.CorlissrankswithJamesWatt(see"Boulton&WattRotativeSteamEngine,"p.43)inhiscontributionstotheimprovementand
refinementofthesteamengine.BorninEaston,NewYork,onJune2,1817,GeorgeHenryCorlisswastheonlysonofHiramandSusan(Sheldon)
Corliss.HebeganhisworkinglifeasastoreclerkandinspectorforWilliamMowray&Son,textilemanufacturers.HeattendedtheCastleton
(Vermont)AcademybeforeopeningageneralstoreinGreenwichin1838.Customercomplaintsaboutinferiorstitchinginthebootshesold
reputedlyledhimtodesignandpatentasewingmachineforstitchingleather,inturnleadinghimtoexperimentwithbuildingvarioustypesof
machinery.
GeorgeH.Corliss(181788).
CourtesyNationalMuseum
ofAmericanHistory.
In1844CorlissmovedtoProvidence,RhodeIsland,wherehejoinedFairbanks,Bancroft&Companyasadraftsman.Heleftthatfirmfouryears
latertoorganize,withJohnBarstowandE.J.NightingaleofProvidence,anewcompanyunderthenameCorliss,Nightingale&Company.There,
in1848,Corlissinventedanimprovedmeansforcontrollingtheamountofsteamadmittedintothecylinderofasteamengineundervaryingload
(PatentNo.6,162).TheCorlissengine,withitsimprovedvalvegearregulatedbythecentrifugalgovernor,revolutionizedsteamenginedesignby
providingforuniformmotionregardlessofloadandbyreducingthewasteofsteam,whichdramaticallyreducedfuelcosts.
Corlissenginesarecharacterizedbyfourcylindricalvalvesthatalternatelyopenandcoverports(openings)atoppositeendsofthecylinder:two
portsadmitsteamfromtheboilerintothecylinder,whiletwoexhaustthespentsteamfromthecylinderintothecondenser(ortheatmosphere).This
arrangementwasmoreefficientthantheconventionalpistonorslidevalvethesteamvalveswerenotcooledbytheexhaust,andeachvalvecould
beregulatedseparately.
In1856CorlissincorporatedtheCorlissSteamEngineCompanyinProvidence.Thecompanybecamethelargestandfinestmakerofstationary
steamenginesintheworld,employingonethousandworkersby1880.Withtheexpirationofhisbasicpatentsin1870,dozensofenginebuilders
worldwideprofitedfromhisideas.TheCorlissengine,inmyriadforms,becamethestandardfactoryprimemoverofthelatenineteenthcentury.In
1875Corlissproposedandbuilta700ton(635t),1,400horsepower(1,044kW)doubleengine,thelargestintheworld,tofurnishallpowerfor
theU.S.CentennialExhibition'sMachineryHallinPhiladelphia.TheenginewasacclaimedastheultimatemanifestationofAmerican
technologicalprowess.
Page51
Duringthelastthreeyearsofhislife,Corlissinventedspecialmachinerytomakeinterchangeableparts.Amonghisotherinventionswerea
machineforcuttingtheteethofbevelgears,animprovedboilerwithcondensingapparatus,andapumpingengineforwaterworks.Inall,he
receivedsixtysevenpatents.
CorlissdiedinProvidenceonFebruary21,1888.
Sources:TheDictionaryofAmericanBiography(NewYork:CharlesScribner'sSons,1964)LouisC.Hunter,AHistoryofIndustrialPowerinthe
UnitedStates,vol.2,SteamPower(Charlottesville,Va.:UniversityPressofVirginia,1985)ScientificAmerican,June2,1888.
Location/Access
Openuponapplicationtotheowner:RandallBrothers,Inc.,665MariettaStreetN.W.,P.O.Box1678,Atlanta,GA30371phone(404)8926666.
FurtherReading
"TheManufactureoftheHarrisCorlissEngine,"ScientificAmerican,September20,1879,12.
SPECIFICATIONS
HarrisCorlissEngine,RandallBrothers
Cylinder:16inches(406mm)indiameter,
42inch(1,067mm)stroke
Steampressure:125psig(862kPa)
Speed:90rpm
Flywheel:13feet(3,960mm)indiameter
Page52
InternalCombustion
Introduction
byRobertM.Vogel
Theideaofaprimemoverbasedonthepowerproducedbytheexplosionoffuelinsideaclosedcylinderactuallyisolderthanthesteamengine.Intheseventeenth
century,theDutchscientistChristiaanHuygensexperimentedwithacylinderinwhichheignitedasmallchargeofgunpowder,theexplosivegasesofwhichblewfreely
outofthecylinderthroughacheckvalve.Astheresidualgasescooled,avacuumwasformedinthecylinder,causingapistontobeforcedintoitbyatmospheric
pressure,raisingaweight,andsoperformingwork.Theapparatuswasmerelyalaboratorycuriosityitwasnotapracticaldevice,letalonean"engine,"butthe
conceptattractedotherexperimenters.Notuntilthemiddleofthenineteenthcenturywasacommerciallypracticalinternalcombustionenginedevelopedbythe
FrenchmanJ.J.E.Lenoir.Limemanyothersworkingatthetime,heemployedcoalgasasthefuel,anditwas,infact,gasthateventuallylaunchedtheinternal
combustionengineintotherealmofviablecompetitionwiththesteamengineaspracticalprimemover.
Lenin'senginewasbuiltincommercialquantitieseventhoughitsefficiencywaslowanditsfuelcostswerehighcomparedtoasteamengineoflikepower.Thiswas
duetothefactthatthecombustiblemixtureoffuelandgaswasnotcompressedbeforeignition.However,theengine'smoderatesuccessasapowerplantfreeofthe
needforboiler,watersupply,coalandashhandling,andtheotheraccoutrementsofasteamplantinspiredinventorstocontinuethequestforanefficientinternal
combustionengine.
TheGermanNicholasA.Ottolaunchedthefirstseriousattackonthesteamengine'ssupremacywiththeinventionandmarketingin1867ofhis"freepiston
atmospheric"gasengine.Ironically,thisfirstinternalcombustionenginewithseriouscommercialpotentialharkedbackstronglytoHuygens'sgunpowderdeviceinthat
theexplodinggasairmixturedroveapistontothetopofalongcylinderbutperformedonworkinitsflight.Thepiston'sinertialplusthecoolingofthecylinder.Into
thistheatmosphericpressuredrovethepiston,whichonitsdownstrokeengagedtheengine'sshaftthroughaclutch,thusproducingpower.
TheOtto&Langenengine(EugenLangenwasOtto'sbusinesspartner)was
Page53
builtinconsiderablenumbersandinsizesuptoabout10horsepower(7.5kW).ManufacturedinGermanyandunderlicenseinEngland,itwasusedtopowersmall
factoriesandshops.Thecommercialsuccessofthemachinewentfarinspreadingthegospelofinternalcombustion:aprimemoverthatcouldbestartedinstantlyin
themorning(nofiretolightnoboilerfullofcoldwatertoheattoheatup)runalldaywithnoattentionotherthanoccasionaloiling(nofiretoconstantlystokeand
tendnoboilerwaterleveltomaintain)andbeshutdownatday'sendwithnofurtherattention(nofiretobanknoachestohaulawaynocoalpiletoreplenish).If
theefficiencywassomewhatlessthanthatofanequivalentsteamengine,apotentialgasenginebuyerusuallycouldbepersuadedthattheextrafuelcostwouldbe
morethanoffsetbythefloorspacenolongerdevotedtoaboiler,itsmanifoldauxiliaries,andcoalandashstorage,tosaynothingofthecleaneratmosphereresulting
fromtheabsenceofcoalandashdust.
ThepositionoftheinternalcombustionengineintheworldofcommerceandindustrywassealedwithOtto'sinventionin1876ofhisfourstrokecyclegasengine.
Herewasinternalcombustionthatcouldcompeteonanearlyequalbasiswithsteamintermsoffuelefficiencyandmechanicalsimplicity.Bydividingtheengine's
workingcycleintofourseparate"events,"orstrokes,thegasairchargecouldbecompressedwithcertaintyandperfectcontrol,greatlyincreasingtheengine's
thermal,andthusoperating,efficiency.Atthesametime,withthepistondirectlyconnectedtoacrankshaftandtheintakeandexhaustvaluesalsodrivendirectlybya
camshaft,mostofthemechanicalexcessesofthefreepistonenginewereeliminated,withasimpler,cheaper,andquieterenginetheresult.
Otto'sfourstroke"Silent"enginebecamethemodelfortheworld.Dozensofinventorsandmanufacturerstookupthecause,indirectcompetitionwiththesteam
engine,obtaininginternalcombustionpatentsbythehundredsandproducinglinesofenginesbythescore,whichburnedbothliquidandgaseousfuels.Bytheturnof
thecentury,unitsofupto1,000horsepower(750kW)wereinproduction.Burningliquidfuel,theinternalcombustionenginebecamecompletelyportable,asimple
andlogicalpowerplantforsmallselfpropelledvehicles.
Despitethetechnicalandcommercialsuccessofthisnewprimemover,inventorsremainedawareoftwomajorshortcomings:primarily,thattheseenginesremained
inherentlysomewhathigherinfuelconsumptionthansteamenginesandthatthefuelrequiredsomeformofexternalignitiontoburnandthusexpand.Theignition
systemofallearlyinternalcombustionenginesinvariablywasaweaklink,whetherbyelectricspark,openflame,incandescenttube,orbysomeothermeans.
Inattemptingtosolvetheoneproblem,theGermanRudolfDieselinadvertentlysolvedtheother.Hisaimwastoincreasethetemperaturerangebetweenthatinthe
cylinderatcombustionandthatoftheexhaustattheendofthepowerstroke,ineffectextractingmoreoftheenergyinthefuel.Thedieselengine,whichisbetter
calledthecompressionignitionengine,operator(asfinally
Page54
evolved)onacycleinwhichthecombustionoccursinitiallyatconstantvolumeandthenatconstantpressure,sometimescalledadualorlimitedpressurecycle.
AlthoughDiesel'sengineoperatedonthefourstrokecycle,modernenginesalsooperateonthetwostrokecycle.
Duringthecompressionstroke,onlyachargeofairiscompressedbuttosuchahighpressureand,therefore,temperaturethat,whenameteredquantityoffuelis
injectedintothecylinderattheendofthestroke,itignitesspontaneously,producingthepowerstroke.Thisinherentselfignitionmeansthatthedieselisentirelyfeeof
anignitionsystem.
Diesel'senginewasfoundtobeapproximatelyIIpercentmoreefficientthananyothercontemporaryformofinternalcombustionengine,whichhadtheeffectof
propellingitrapidlyintoapowerfullycompetitivepositionwithrespecttothesteamplantbytheturnofthetwentiethcentury.Hadthesteamturbineandlaterthe
uniflowsteamenginenotappearedonthescene,itislikelythatsteampowerwouldhavepassedentirelyoutofthepictureatthattime.
Certainapplicationsultimatelyemergedforwhichthedieselenginewasideallysuited:smallandmediumsizedgeneratingplants,marineandrailroadpropulsion,and
thepoweringofmostcommercialvehicles.AlthoughthebasicprincipleoftheenginehasremainedunchangedsincetheworkofRudolfDiese,therehasbeen
continuousimprovementintheengine'sdetailsandauxiliaryorgans,mainlyinthemeansforinjectingthefuelintothecylinders.Theinjectionsystemmustconvertthe
fuelfromaliquidintoafinemist,itmust''meter"thefuelinapreciselymeasuredquantityproportionaltotheloadontheengine,anditmustinjectitatpreciselythe
righttimeintheengine'scycle.Thesetasksareaccomplishedbyagreatvarietyofpumps,injectors,distributors,andcombinationsofthese,withtheirusedetermined
byenginesize,typeofservice,andmanufacturer'sdesignphilosophy.ThelandmarkRoosaMasterisaleadingexampleofthetypethatcombinesthemeteringand
timingfunctionsinasingleunit.Itseffectivenessandsimplicitywereinstrumentalinpopularizingthedieselengineinlightandmediumservice.
Page55
RoosaMasterDieselFuelinjectionPump
Windsor,Connecticut
In1947highspeeddieselpowerintheUnitedStateswasstillverylimited.Lessthan5percentofallenginesbeingbuilt,evenfornonautomotiveapplications,were
diesels.Althoughdieselpowerhadproventohaverealadvantages,itpricewasprohibitiveformanyapplications.Asimpler,morecompact,andlesscostlyfuel
injectionpumpwasneededbeforedieselscouldcompeteeffectivelyinthesmallenginefield.
VernonD.Roosa(1991),aversatileandprolificinventor,solvedtheproblemin1939bydesigningasimpleunithavingveryfewmovingparts.Withonlythree
criticalfits,itwasdesignedforinexpensiveproduction."Itssimplicityisdeceptive,"DieselPowerandDieselTransportationreportedshortlyafterthepump
SectionalviewoftheRoosaMasterDieselFuelinjectionPump.
Page56
wasintroducedcommerciallyin1952."Alotofhardworkandgoodengineeringwentintoitsdevelopment."
RoosabroughthisinventiontotheHartfordDivisionofStanadyne,Inc.Throwingasidethattraditionalinlineinjectionpumpwithpumpingelementforeachengine
cylinder,Roosainsteadusedasinglepumpingunit,whichdistributedthepressurizedfueltoeachcylinderinturn,combinedwithinletmetering.Theresultwasa
simple,lightweight,andflexiblefuelinjectionpumpthatopenednewdesignpossibilitiesinthehighspeed,smallenginedieselfield.
Roosa'sideawasborneoutinextensivefieldtesting.TheninMarch1952camethefirstproductionorder:fivehundred"RoosaMaster"ModelAPumpsforHercules
MotorCorporation'sOliverCletractractors.By1956,ContinentalMotors,BuddEngine,andWaukeshaMotorwereusingtherotarydistributorpump.Stanadyne
engineers,meanwhile,continuedworkingtomakethepumpevensimpler,moreversatile,andlessexpensive,eventuallyintroducingModelBwithitssandcast
housing,thediecastModelD,andin1958,ModelDB,whichincorporatedallofthebasicfeaturesofitsforerunnersintoonestandardhousingtogetherwith
automaticadvanceandelectricshutoff.Asingledeliveryvalveinthecenteroftherotorprovidedimprovedpartloadregularity.
TheadvancedfeaturesoftheModelDBpumpextendedthediesel'soperatingrangeandmadeitcompetitivewithsparkignitionengines.Mostimportant,theModel
DBpumpcouldbemountedeitherhorizontallyorvertically,allowingenginebuilderstousethesamebasicengineblockforbothdieselenginesandthefarm
equipmentmanufacturers,alreadymakingtheirownsparkignitionengines,toturntodieselengineproductionwithaminimumoftoolingcosts.
By1961,virtuallyeverydieseltractorbuiltintheUnitedStateswasequippedwithRoosaMasterpump.AllisChalmers,Ford,InternationalHarvester,JohnDeere,J.
I.Case,andMinneapolisMolinewereallpumpusers.Todaymorethan90percentoffarmandindustrialtractorsproducedintheUnitedStatesaredieselpowered
theoppositewastrueinthemid1950s,beforetheRoosapumpwasintroduce.Since1952,Stanadyneanditslicenseeshasmanufacturedmorethan23million
RoosaMasterpumpsworldwide.
Location/Access
TheRoosapumpisdisplayedinthelobbyofStanadyneAutoCorp.,DieselSystemsDivision,92DeerfieldRoad,Windsor,CT06095(203)5250821.
FurtherReading
"RoosaMaster:AFuelInjectionPumpwithIdeas,"DieselPowerandDieselTransportation30(November1932):3639.
Page57
ELECTRICALPOWERPRODUCTION
Water
Introduction
byR.MichaelHunt
Waterhasbeenusedasapowersourcefromtheearliesttimes,andthesimplewaterwheeldippingintotheriverflowtoextractpowertodrivethegrindingstonesina
millisafamiliarexample.Intheearlynineteenthcentury,waterwastheonlysourceofpoweravailableonalargescale,andthefirstfactoriesoftenformanufacturing
textilesflourishedinareassuchasthenortheasternUnitedStates,wherewaterpowerwasabundant.BythetimeEdisonproducedhisfirstdynamosinthe1870s
and1880s,efficienthydraulicmachinerywasavailabletogeneratethenewpower:electricity.
OneofthefirstapplicationsusingwaterpowertogenerateelectricitywasinAppleton,Wisconsin,in1882,whichtookadvantageofa33foot(10m)dropinthe
FoxRiver.Althoughrelativelycrudeatfirst,by1888thesystemwasservingmanyareabusinessesandresidentialcustomerswithmetered,twentyfourhourservice.
Atfirst,onlycustomersintheimmediatevicinityofelectricitygeneratingplantscouldbeconnectedbecauseelectricitywassentoutofthegeneratingstationatthe
samevoltagethatitwastobeusedbythecustomer.Thismeantthatcurrentswerelargeandthatlossesbecamelargeastransmissiondistancesincreased.The
solutionwastoincreasethetransmissionvoltage,decreasethecurrent,andreducethelosses.ButtheearlyEdisonstationsgenerateddirectcurrent,orDC,which
wasdifficulttoraiseorlowerinvoltage.However,alternatingcurrent,orAC,iseasily"transformed"fromonevoltagetoanother,andeventu
Page58
allybecamethepreferredsystem.In1895,FolsomPowerHouseNo.1demonstratedthatACelectricitycouldbetransmittedtoSacramento,California,24miles
(38.6km)away.
ThefirsthydroelectricplantinNorthCarolinastartednearClemmonsin1898,andtransmittedpowertoWinstonandSalem,10miles(16.1km)away.Withthenew
powersource,industrializationofthestateproceededapace.AsintheFolsomstation,waterwheelsaregone,replacedbyefficientreactionturbines.Inareaction
turbine,thewaterflowisturnedbyvanes,orblades,ontheoutsideofawheel,or"runner."Becausethewaterisforcedtochangedirection,areactionforceis
generatedagainstthevane,andthisturnsthewheeltodrivethegenerator.Thewholeturbinerunsfullofwater,sothereisnosplashingtowasteenergy.
Attheturnofthecentury,SaultSainteMarie,Michigan,alsoseemedpoisedforindustrialexpansion.Thelocksconstructedinthe1850shadbypassedtherapidson
theSt.Mary'sRiver,andshipsloadedwithcopperfromtheKeweenawPeninsulaandironfromtheMenomineeRangenowpassedthroughfromLakeSuperioron
theirwaysouth.Therewasstillplentyofwaterflowtoexploitthroughthe20foot(6.1m)dropoftheriver,sotheMichiganLakeSuperiorPowerPlantwasbuilt,
withitsseventynineturbinestotaling40,000horsepower(29.8MW).Butthemarketsformanufacturedgoodsweretoodistant,andthehopedforindustrydidnot
come.
Anothertypeofhydraulicturbine,thePeltonwheel,wasdevelopedinthewesternUnitedStates,wherelargewaterpressure"heads"areavailablefrommountain
streams.ThePeltonisextremelycompactforitspoweroutputandisanimpulsemachine.Itisamoderndaywaterwheelinwhichthewatersquirtsfromanozzleto
hitshapedcupsorbucketsmountedonthecircumferenceofawheel,andthewheelmovesfromtheforceofthewaterstrikingit.AtChild,Arizona,athreePelton
wheelstationbeganoperationin1909,runningunderthethenenormousheadof1,075feet(327.7m)ofwater.
IntheeasternUnitedStates,theoutputofmanyhydroelectricplantswasdictatedbytheflowintheriver.ToenabletheRockyRiverplantinConnecticuttogenerate
whenelectricitywasneededinsteadofwhenwaterwasavailable,pumpswereprovidedtopumpwaterbackuphillintoareservoirforuselater&mashawater
storagebatteryofsorts.In1928itsreservoirwasthelargestforpumpedstorageintheworld.
UntilWorldWarI,reactionturbinesweredesignedwithfixedblades.Theseoperatewithmaximumefficiencyatonespecificflowand,thus,onespecificpower.It
hadlongbeenknownthataturbinewithvariablebladeangleswouldoperateathighefficiencyoverawiderangeofpowers,butsuitabledesignswerenotavailable.In
1929thefirstvariablebladeturbineofKaplandesignintheUnitedStateswasinstalledatYorkHaven,Pennsylvania.
Atanotherpumpedstorageplant,theHiwasseeDam,Unit2,inMurphy,NorthCarolina,thetechnologyhadprogressedbeyondthatofRockyRiver,so
Page59
thattheturbinecouldbedriveninreverseasapumpandseparatepumpswerenotrequired.In1956thiswasapremiermachineinaneraofsuperlativelylarge
machinesithadthelargestFrancistypereactionturbinerunnereverbuilt,drivenbytheworld'slargestelectricalmachine.ItsbuilderwasAllisChalmers,ofWest
Allis,Wisconsin.
Apointtoponder:inreadingaboutthesteamengines,turbines,pumps,andgeneratorsofthelastonehundredyears,threecompanynameskeeprecurring:General
Electric,Westinghouse,andAllisChalmers.FortyyearsagoAllisChalmerswasagianttoday,itisnomore.TwentyyearsagoGeorgeWestinghouse'sEast
PittsburghWorkswashummingwiththemanufactureofmotorsandgeneratorstoday,itisshutteredandsilent,andthecompanyhefoundedstrugglesforsurvival.
OnlyGeneralElectricthrives,withgreatchangesintheproductsitofferedfifteenyearsago.Thesuccessesofthepastarenoguaranteeofthefuture.
Page60
VulcanStreetPowerPlant
Appleton,Wisconsin
ThepresentVulcanStreetPowerPlant,areplicaoftheoriginalplantof1882,wasbuiltin1932fortheGoldenJubileecelebrationofwhatwasthenbilledasthe
"World'sFirstHydroElectricCentralStation."Subsequentresearchsuggeststhatthisclaimmustbequalifiedas"thefirstEdisonhydroelectriccentralstationtoserve
privateandcommercialcustomersinNorthAmerica."Still,inadditiontotheAmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers,twootherorganizationstheInstituteof
ElectricalandElectronicsEngineersandtheAmericanSocietyofCivilEngineershaverecognizedtheVulcanStreetPowerPlantasalandmarkinthehistoryof
technology.
Some150Edisoninstalledelectriclightplantsalreadywereatworkinresidences,mills,stores,offices,andonshipsby1882.Edison'sPearlStreetStationinNew
York,withthecapacitytooperate7,200lampsat110volts,wentintoserviceonSeptember4thatyear,whileEnglandhadputa3,000lampstationonlineabit
earlier,inJanuary.
InJuly1882,AppletonfinancierH.J.Rogers,presidentoftheAppletonPaper&PulpCompany,purchasedtheEdisonpatentlicenseerightsforWisconsin'sFox
RiverValley.TheWesternEdisonLightCompanysentanengineer,P.D.Johnson,toAppletontoexplainthelightingsystemtoagroupofAppletonbusinessmen.
Convincedthattheinvestmentwasagoodone,RogersandahandfulofotherinvestorsorderedtwoEdisonType"K"dynamos,eachwithageneratingcapacityof
250lamps,orabout12.5kilowatts.BymidAugust,EdwardT.Ames,WesternEdison'serectorandelectrician,arrivedinAppletontoinstalltheequipment.
MakinguseoftheFoxRiver's33foot(10m)drop,AmesconnectedonegeneratortothewaterwheelofapulpmillthatbelongedtoRogers.Thismill,anotherof
Rogers'smills,andRogers'snearbyresidenceallwerewiredforelectriclight.Thefirsttestofthesystem,onSeptember27,failed,butthreedayslaterthelightswent
on.TheAppletonPostdeclaredthem"asbrightasday."Butthegeneratorwasdrivenbythesamewaterwheelthatdrovethepulpmill,thespeedofwhichfluctuated
sometimesthevoltagewassohighthelampsburnedoutanexpensivefault,sincelampscost$1.60each.Accordingly,inNovember,bothgeneratorswerebeltedto
adedicatedturbineinseparatepowerhouse,amodeststructureonVulcan(nowSouthLawe)Street,resultinginasteadyvoltage.
ThespeedoftheAppletoninstallationwasaccomplishedbysacrificingsafetyandreliabilityfeaturesnowtakenforgranted.Theequipmentwascrude.Therewereno
voltageregulators,voltmeters,orammetersoperatorsusedtheireyesighttogaugetheproperbrightnessofthelight.Therewasnolightingprotectionandnofuses
whenstormscausedshortcircuits,theplanthadtobe
Page61
InterioroftheVulcanStreetPowerPlant
showingEdisongeneratoranddrive.
shutdownuntiltheproblemwasfound.Therewerenocustomermeterscustomerswerechargedsomuchperlamppermonthandservicewasavailableonly
fromdusktodawn.Still,electriclightwasagreatpopularsuccess,andbyNovember1882,severaladditionalhomeswerelightedbytheEdisonsystem.Earlythe
followingyear,Appleton'sWaverlyHousebecamethefirsthotelintheMidwesttoboastelectriclight.
Bytheendof1886,theAppletonEdisonsystemservedalmostonehundredresidential,commercial,andindustrialcustomers.Thatyear,theAppletonEdisonLight
Companybuiltanew190kilowattplantwithalltheadvancedfeaturesoftheEdisonsystem,includingregulatingdevices,fuses,andthethreewiredistributionsystem,
oneoftheworld'searliest.Customermeterswereintroducedin1888andtwentyfourhourservice,in1890.ElectricserviceinAppletonwasnowasmodernas
anywhereintheworld.
Location/Access
AreplicaoftheVulcanStreetPlantislocatedat807SouthOneidaStreet,Appleton,WI54915,nexttothegeneralofficesofWisconsinMichiganPowerCompany.
FurtherReading
LousieP.Kellogg,"TheElectricLightSysteminAppleton,"WisconsinMagazineofHistory6(December1922):38.
ForrestMcDonald,LetThereBeLight:TheElectricUtilityIndustryinWisconsin,18811955(Madison,Wisc.:AmericanHistoryResearchCenter,1957).
Page62
FolsomPowerhouseNo.1
Folsom,California
ThefirstelectricpowerplantincentralCaliforniawasconstructedontheAmericanRiverintheSacramentoBasin.TheoldFolsomPowerhousestillsheltersthe
machinerythatin1895generated3,000kilowattsofelectricityforthecityofSacramento,24miles(38.6km)tothesouthwest.AlthoughFolsomwasnotthefirst
hydroelectricplantinthecountry,itstransmissionlinewasthreetimesaslongasthebetterknownplantatNiagaraFalls(1895),anditdemonstratedthecommercial
feasibilityofelectricaltransmissionoverlongdistances.
ThestoryofFolsombeginswiththeGoldRush.Notalltheadventurersofthatperiodsoughtgoldsome,envisioningindustrialcomplexeslikethoseinNewEngland,
soughttoexploitthewaterpower.OnesuchemigrewasHoratioGatesLivermoreofMaine,who,withhistwosons,acquiredcontroloftheNatomaWaterand
MiningCompanyin1862.Thecompanybought9,000acres(3,642ha)ofland,includingwaterrights,ontheAmericanRiverandin1866setouttobuildadamto
provideaholdingareaforlogsandtofurnishwaterforpowerandfortheirrigationoforchardsandvineyards.Followingprotracteddelays,workonthedammuch
ofitusingconvictlaborfromthenewFolsomprisoninexchangeforwaterpowerprivilegesandcertaingrantsoflandbeganin1888andwascompletedin1893.
Bythelate1880s,HoratioP.Livermore(theelderLivermorehaddiedin1879)understoodthatwaterpowermightbeusedmoreefficientlyifitwasconvertedto
electricityFolsompowercouldevenbeusedtooperatetheSacramentostreetrailways.In1892LivermoreincorporatedtheSacramentoElectricPower&Light
Companytobuildapowerhouseandconstructalongdistancepowerlinetothecapitalcity.WaterfromtheFolsomDamwasdivertedbycanaltothesiteofanew
powerhouse,adistanceofalmost2miles(3.2km).GeneralElectricsuppliedtheelectricalequipment,andS.MorganSmithsuppliedthehydraulicmachinery.
Thepoweroriginatedwithfour30inch(762mm)McCormickreactionturbines,eachhavingacapacityof1,100horsepower(820kW)operatingat300rpmunder
aheadof55feet(16.8m).Toeachshaftwascoupleda750kWGeneralElectricthreephasegenerator,thelargestoftheirtypeyetconstructed.Fromthe
generators,thecurrentpassedtothegeneratorswitchboard,thentoninestepuptransformerseachof250kWcapacityinthesecondstoryofthepowerhouse.
There,thevoltagewasraisedfrom800to11,000thecurrentthenpassedthroughmarbleswitchboardstothebarecopperwiresofthedoublehightension
transmissionline,whichfollowedthehighwayfromFolsomtoSacramento,adistanceof24(38.6km)miles.
At4A.M.onJuly14,1895,a100gunsalutemarkedthefirsttransmission
Page63
OneofthefourdualMcCormickturbines
atFolsomPowerhouse.CourtesyFolsom
LakeStateRecreationalArea.
ofpowerfromFolsomtoSacramento.OnSeptember9ofthatyear,an"electricalcarnival"celebratedwhat,todate,wasthelongestcommercialpowertransmission
evereffected.By1896,inadditiontothecity'sstreetrailways,electricityfromFolsomwasbeingusedformanufacturingandforlightingthecity.
Thegenerators,althoughstillintact,wereremovedfromservicein1952afterfiftysevenyearsofcontinuousduty.In1958,followingconstructionofthenewFolsom
DamaspartofthemassiveCentralValleypowerproject,thePacificGas&ElectricCompanydonatedtheFolsomPowerhousetothestateofCalifornia.
Location/Access
TheFolsomPowerhouseisopenduringthesummerdailyfrom9A.M.to5P.M.andduringthespringandfall,onSaturdayandSundayfrom9A.M.to5P.M.
TourreservationsandinformationareavailablefromtheFolsomLakeStateRecreationArea,7806FolsomAuburnRoad,Folsom,CA95630phone(916)988
0205.
FurtherReading
CharlesM.Coleman,PG&EofCalifornia(NewYork:McGrawHill,1952).
"TheFolsomSacramentoElectricPowerTransmissionPlant,"EngineeringNews35(7May1896):302.
"TheSacramentoFolsomPowerTransmissionLine,"ElectricalWorld30(6April1895):43334.
IdolsStation,FriesManufacturing&PowerCompany
nearClemmons,NorthCarolina
IdolsStation,privatelydevelopedandputintoservicein1898,wasthefirsthydroelectricplantinNorthCarolina.Transmittingalternatingcurrentat10,000volts,the
stationsuppliedpowertofactoriesandpublicutilitiesinWinstonandSalem,some13miles(20.9km)away.(Thetwotownsdidnotbecomeonemunicipalityuntil
1913.)Fromthissmallscale,lowheadstation,NorthCarolina's
Page64
InteriorofthepowerhouseofIdolsStation.PhotographbyBillYoder.
productionofhydroelectricpowergrewrapidly,contributingtoitsrapidindustrializationinthefirstquarterofthetwentiethcentury.
TheYadkinRiverflowssoutheastthroughNorthCarolinaandSouthCarolinabeforeenteringtheAtlanticOcean.In1891industrialistHenryEliasFriescharteredthe
FriesManufacturing&PowerCompanytoharnessDouthit'sShoalsinForsythCountyforthegenerationofhydroelectricpower.Friesissuedcapitalstockin1897
(inventorThomasA.EdisonandstreetrailwayinnovatorFrankJ.Spraguewereamongtheoriginalinvestors)andengagedtwoProvidence,RhodeIsland,firms
C.R.Makepeace&Company,millengineersandarchitects,andLewis&Claflin,electricalengineerstodesigntheplant.
IdolsStationtakesitsnamefromitslocationonthesiteofaformerferrycrossing.Itwasdesignedasa''runoftheriver"planttoavoidfloodingthelowlyingland
adjacenttotheriver.Alow,curvedgravitydamofrubblestone,482feet(147m)longand10feet(3m)high,impoundedasmallreservoir35acres(14ha)inarea.
Withitslimitedstoragecapacityandlowhead,thestationwasdesignedtoprovideamodest2,000horsepower(1,491kW),withitsinitialgeneratingequipment
providingjusthalfthatamount.
Thestationwasequippedwitheight54inch(1,370mm)diameterMcCormickverticalturbinesmanufacturedbyS.MorganSmithofYork,Pennsylvania.These
weredesignedtodeliver165horsepower(123kW)eachwhenrunningunder9feet(2,743mm)ofhead.Bevelgearingconnectedtheturbinestoahorizontaldrive
shaftconsistingoftwosectionsbymeansofacoupling,eitherfouroreightturbinescouldbeemployed.
Thestation'selectricalequipment,manufacturedbytheStanleyElectricManufacturingCompanyofPittsfield,Massachusetts,consistedofasinglethree
Page65
phasegeneratorwithanoutputof750kWat166rpm,woundtodeliver12,000voltstothetransmissionlinewithouttheuseofstepuptransformers.The
transmissionlinecarriedthepowertoasubstationneartheAristaCottonMillinSalem.
About1903,theplant'scapacitywasexpandedwiththeadditionofasecondlineofeightturbinesandasecondgenerator.In1913FriesManufacturing&Power
wasabsorbedbytheSouthernPublicUtilitiesCompany,aforerunnerofDukePowerCompany.In1914DukePowerreplacedtheplant'soriginalmachinerywithsix
300horsepower(224kW)AllisChalmersvertical,54inch(1,370mm)Francistypeturbines.MounteddirectlyaboveeachturbinewasanAllisChalmers2,300
volt,74amp,90rpm,threephasegenerator.TheformergeneratorroomwasconvertedtoatransformerroomtostepupthevoltagefortransmissiontotheDuke
system.Thismachinery,withminormodifications,remainsinservicetoday.
Location/Access
IdolsStationislocatedontheYadkinRiver,onequartermile(0.4km)westofStateRoad3000.DukePowerCompanyWinstonSalem,1405SouthBroadStreet,
WinstonSalem,NC27127phone(704)8754332.
FurtherReading
"TheTransmissionPlantoftheFriesManufacturing&PowerCompany,"AmericanElectrician10(October1898):44750.
MichiganLakeSuperiorPowerCompanyHydroelectricPlant
SaultSainteMarie,Michigan
Cheappowertolureindustry.ThatwasthepremiseonwhichaninvestorsgroupledbyentrepreneurFrancisH.Clergueplannedandbuiltthelargestlowhead
hydroelectricplantintheworldatSaultSainteMarie,Michigan.Whenitopenedin1902,theMichiganLakeSuperiorPowerCompanyhydroelectricplantwasthe
longestintheworldand,indesigncapacity(40,000horsepower,or29,828kW),secondinsizeonlytoNiagara'sAdamsStationintheUnitedStates.However,it
exceededevenNiagarainthevolumeofwaterforwhichitwasdesigned:30,000cubicfeet(850m3)ofwatereachsecondasignificantproportionoftheoutflowof
LakeSuperiorcouldpassthroughitseightypenstocks.
SaultSainteMarie,commonlyknownasthe"Soo,"islocatedonthesouthbankoftheSt.MarysRiver,acrossfromitsCanadiancounterpart,SaultSainte
Page66
Marie,Ontario.Overthecourseofaboutamile(1.6km),theSt.Marys,whichconnectsLakeSuperiorwithLakeHuron,dropssome20feet(6m).Earlierattempts
toexploittherapidsoftheSt.Marysforpowerhadendedinfailure.WhenClergue,whohaddevelopedahydropowerplantandpulpmillsontheCanadiansideof
theriver,offeredtobuytherightstoapartiallycompletedpowercanalatSaultSainteMarie,herevivedtheeconomicallydepressedcommunity'slongheldhopesof
becomingagreatmanufacturingcity.
ClergueappointedHansvonSchon(18511931)aschiefengineer.AGermanbornengineerofwideexperience,vonSchonpreviouslyhaddirectedatopographical
surveyoftheSt.MarysRiver.ThehydropowerdevelopmentvonSchonplannedwasinfluencedbythreefactors:theneedtolimitthecanalrightofwaythroughthe
cityto400feet(122m),dictatinganarrow,deepchannelthedecisiontobuildasingle40,000horsepower(29,828kW)powerhouseratherthanahalfdozen
smalleronesasfirstcontemplatedandthedecisiontoleaseabouthalfoftheprojectedpoweroutput,aswellasaportionofthepowerhouseitselt,tothenewly
organizedUnionCarbideCompanyforthemanufactureofcalciumcarbide.(Calciumcarbideisahard,brittle,crystallinecompoundofcalciumandcarbon.Itismade
byheatingcalciumoxideandcoke,charcoal,oranthracitecoalinanelectricfurnace.Whenwaterisaddedtocalciumcarbide,acetyleneagaswidelyusedinthe
weldingandcuttingofmetalsisproduced.)Thefinaldesignincorporatedanumberofunusualfeatures,includingastoneandsteelpowerhouse1,368feet(417m)
longthelongestintheworldandatimberlinedpowercanalofunprecedentedscale.Thecanal,morethan2miles(3.2km)long,was200feet(61m)wideand
22feet(7m)deep.
TheMichiganLakeSuperiorPowerCompanyhydroelectricplantonopeningday,
October25,1902.EdisonSaultElectricCompanyphotograph,
Page67
Thedecisiontodesigntheplantforcarbidemanufacturefixedtheunitoutputperpenstockat500horsepower(373kW),theratingofUnionCarbide'searlyHorry
furnaces.Thus,todevelopanoutputof40,000horsepower(29,828kW)requiredaminimumofeightypenstocks,anunusuallylargenumberconsideringthatthe
typicalpowerhouseattheturnofthecenturyhadfivetotenpenstocks.VonSchonchose33inch(838mm)horizontalshaftdoubleturbines,arrangedintandem,
placingfourrunnersineachpenstocktosecurethedesiredoutput.FortyonehorizontalJollyMcCormickturbines,eachdeveloping564horsepower(420kW)at
180rpm,weremountedinsteeldraftcasesdesignedandbuiltbytheWebster,Camp&LaneCompanyofAkron,Ohio.(Thirtysevenotherswereaddedfrom1915
to1916,foratotalofseventynineturbineunits.)Theoriginalelectricalequipmentconsistedprimarilyof375kWalternatingcurrentgeneratorscoupledtoeach
turbineshaft.
SaultSainteMarie'sbidtobecomeamajorindustrialcenterunfortunatelywasneverrealizedcheappowerwasnotenoughtoattractnewindustrytoalocation
remotefrombothmarketsandrawmaterials.Fromtheoutset,theMichiganLakeSuperiorPowerCompanywasplaguedwithasuccessionoffinancial,legal,and
technicalproblems.UnionCarbide,throughitssubsidiaryMichiganNorthern(laterCarbide)PowerCompany,assumedcontroloftheplantin1913andoperatedit
forthenexthalfcentury,sellingpowertotheadjacentUnionCarbideplant.WhenUnionCarbidedecidedtocloseitsSoofactoryin1963,theEdisonSaultElectric
Company,alocalutility,purchasedthehydropowerplant,whichisstilloperating,atestamenttothedurabilityofvonSchon'sdesign.
Location/Access
TheEdisonSaultpowerhouseislocatedontheSt.MarysRiverfourblockseastofAshumStreet,thecity'smainthoroughfare.Althoughreadilyvisiblefromthestreet,
itisnotopentothepublic.TheAmericanSooLocks,oneofMichigan'smajortouristattractions,arelocatednearby.
FurtherReading
"TheJollyMcCormickTurbinesatthe'Soo,'"IronAge70(20November1902):14.
TerryS.Reynolds,"The'Soo'Hydro:ACaseStudyoftheInfluenceofManagerialandTopographicalConstraintsonEngineeringDesign,"IA:TheJournalofthe
SocietyforIndustrialArcheology8(1982):3756.
"WaterPowerDevelopmentbytheLakeSuperiorPowerCo.,atSt.Mary'sFalls,Mich.,"EngineeringNews40(4August1898):6871.
U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,NationalParkService,HistoricAmericanBuildingsSurvey/HistoricAmericanEngineeringRecord,SaultSte.Marie:AProject
Report,byTerryS.Reynolds(Washington,D.C.:U.S.GovernmentPrintingOffice,1982).
Page68
ChildsIrvingHydroelectricProject
ChildsandIrving,Arizona
Inthelatenineteenthcentury,acattlemaninArizonaTerritoryscoutingwaterforhisherdstumbledontoagushingspringinthedesolatebutbeautifulVerdeValley,70
miles(113km)northofPhoenix.Theheavymineralcontentofthewatergaveeverythingittouchedafossilizedappearancehence,thewatersourcewasdubbed
FossilSpring,anditsrunoff,FossilCreek.Thecreek'sdropofsome1,600feet(487m)duringthecourseofits10mile(16km)journeytotheVerdeRiver
suggestedthepotentialofdevelopingitforhydropowertoservethecopperminesofJeromeandPrescott.
ThesourceofFossilSpringisbelievedtobealargeareatothesouthoftheGrandCanyon.Rainfallsoaksintotheground,passesthroughsedimentaryformations
(hence,themineralcontent)cappedbyanimperviouslayeroflava,thencomesupthroughavolcanicfissure,formingthespring.Winterorsummer,inwetordry
years,theflowdoesnotvaryappreciably,averaging28milliongallons(106millionliters)aday.
WithacontractinhandforpowersalestotheUnitedVerdeCopperCompany,theElectricOperatingConstructionCompanybeganconstructionofagenerating
plantatChildsin1907.Thefollowingyear,theArizonaPowerCompany(nowArizonaPublicServiceCompany)wasorganizedandassumedtheassetsoftheearlier
company.TheplantlocationwaschosenbecauseofasmallflatknownasDryLake(nowStehrLake),whichcouldbeusedasareservoirforregulatingtheflowof
waterintothepenstock.
Muleteamscarriedallmaterialstotheremotesite.Thelargestpieceofapparatus,thegeneratorstator,requiredatwentysixmuleteam.Interestingly,thesteelforthe
lowerendofthepenstockcamefromtheKruppWorksinGermanybecausenoU.S.companycouldproducesteelpipestrongenoughtowithstandthewater
pressure.Thewatercoursefromspringtolakeconsistedofapproximately7miles(11km)ofconcreteflumesandtunnels,providingastaticheadof1,075feet(327
m)forthreePeltonwheelpoweredgeneratorsturningat400rpmtoproduce9,000horsepower(6,700kW)at44,000volts.FromChilds,adoublecircuit44,000
volttransmissionlinewenttoPrescottviaMayerandPolandJunction,withintermediatetapstoanumberofmines.
Towersforthetransmissionlinepresentedaproblem.Itwasimpossibletotransportwoodenpolesbymule,andsteeltowershadnotyetbeendeveloped.Steel
windmilltowersfurnishedbytheU.S.WindEngine&PumpCompanyofBatavia,Illinois,wereadaptedfortheline.Allthreegeneratorswentonlinein1909.Anew
coppersmelteratClarkdalerequiredadditionalpowerandledtotheconstruction,between1914and1916,ofanotherpowerplantatIrvingthathadasingleAllis
ChalmersreactiontypeFrancisturbineof2,100horsepower(1,566kW).
Page69
ChildsIrvinghydroelectricpowerhouse(centerbuilding),1976.
In1919a75mile(121km)transmissionlinewasbuiltfromSycamoretoPhoenix.Inthe1920sthestatecapital,thenacityoffortyfourthousandpeople,received
70percentofitselectricpowerfromtheChildsIrvinghydroelectricstations.Bothstationsarestillactive.AnnualoutputfromtheChildsplantis23.4millionkWh,that
fromtheIrvingplant10.8millionkWh.Despitetheirageandlowoutputtheregiontheyservetodayisalsoservedbynewerinstallationshavingmanytimestheir
generatingcapacitytheplantsareeconomicaltooperateandmaintain.
Location/Access
TheChildsIrvingplantsareopenuponapplicationtotheArizonaPublicServiceCompany,P.O.Box53999,M/S8510,Phoenix,AZ850725399phone(602)
2502888.
RockyRiverPumpedstorageHydroelectricPlant
NewMilford,Connecticut
The148mile(238km)longHousatonicRiverdropssome650feet(198m)duringitsjourneythroughsouthwesternConnecticuttoLongIslandSound.From
earliestcolonialdays,itwasasourceofpower.Intheearlytwentiethcentury,theConnecticutLight&PowerCompanyownedandoperatedtwohydroelectric
stationsontheHousatonic:BullsBridge(1913),withaninstalledcapacityof7,200kilowatts,andStevenson(1914),withaninstalledcapacityof18,750kilowatts.
Together,theygeneratedacombinedoutputofalmost26,000
Page70
GeneralviewofRockyRiverPumpedstorage
HydroelectricPlantshowingpowerhouseandpenstock.
kilowatts.Butonlyasmallportionofthatoutputsome10,000kilowattscouldbecountedonasfirmcapacity.
Theflowoftherivervariesfromseasontoseasonandfromyeartoyear.Toregulatetheflow,andtherebythefirmhydropowercapacityoftheriver,itwouldbe
necessarytostorewaterintimesofhighflowandreturnittotheriverwhentheflowwaslow.Theobviousmethodforaccomplishingthiswastodamtheriverand
releasewaterasneeded.However,therewerenosuitabledamsitesontheHousatonic.In1926CL&Pproposedaplanwherebywaterwouldbepumpedfromthe
Housatonic,storedinalake,thenreturnedtotheriverduringperiodsoflowwaterflow.Thiswouldbethefirstpumpedstoragehydroelectricplantinthenation.
(PumpedstoragehydroelectricplantswerecommoninEuropetheworld'sfirstwasbuiltatZurich,Switzerland,in1882butthusfarwereuntriedintheUnited
States.)
CL&PselectedasiteforthestoragereservoirontheRockyRiver,atributarythatjoinstheHousatonicjustaboveNewMilford.Therunofffromnaturaldrainage
wouldfurnishpartofthewaterrequiredtofillthereservoirtherestwouldbepumpedfromtheHousatonicintimesofhighwater.Some6,000acres(2,428ha)ofthe
RockyRiverValleywereflooded,requiringtherelocationofmorethan100homes,31miles(50km)ofhighways,andsixcemeteries.Constructionofthemaindam
andpowerplant,underthedirectionoftheUnitedGasImprovementCompanyofPhiladelphia,beganin1926.
Themaindam,about100feet(30m)highand1,000feet(305m)long,waslocatedontheRockyRiveraboutamile(1.6km)aboveitsconfluencewiththe
Housatonic.Anearthfilledstructurewithaconcreteandtimbercorewall,thedamcreatedastoragereservoir10miles(16km)longthatwasnamedLake
Candlewood,afteranearbymountain.Withmorethan60miles(97km)of
Page71
3
shorelineandacapacityofalmost6billioncubicfeet(170millionm ),itwasthelargestpumpedstoragereservoirintheworld.Fivesmallerdamswerebuilt
elsewhereatlowpointsintherimofthebasin.
A3,300foot(1,006m)canaldeliveredwaterfromthereservoirtoa15foot(4,570mm)diameterwoodstavepipeabout1,000feet(305m)long.Passing
throughasurgetankattheendofthepipe,thewaterenteredthepenstock,theinsidediameterofwhichtaperedfrom13to11feet(3,960to3,350mm)asit
droppeddownthehillsideanother670feet(204m)tothepowerhouse.JustoutsidethepowerhousewasaYconnection:onebranchforthegeneratingunit,the
otherforthetwopumpingunits.
Insidethepowerhouse,electricitywasgeneratedbyasingle33,300horsepower(24,832kW),verticalshaftFrancisturbinedirectconnectedtoa30,000kilowatt
generator.Thestationwasequippedwithtwo54inch(1,370mm),8,100horsepower(6,040kW),verticalshaftcentrifugalpumpswithacapacitytodeliver
112,500gallons(425,800liters)perminutetotheLakeCandlewoodreservoiragainstamaximumheadof240feet(73m).Thepumpscouldbeusedtodischarge
waterintothereservoirwheneverthegeneratingunitwasnotinuse.Wheninstalled,thecentrifugalpumpswerethelargestintheUnitedStates.
WiththecompletionoftheRockyRiverPumpedstorageHydroelectricPlantin1928,theriver'sfirmhydropowercapacity(Stevenson,BullsBridge,andRocky
Riverplantscombined)wasboostedfrom10,000to50,000kilowattsanincreaseof500percent.Nowmorethansixtyyearsold,theRockyRiverplantcontinues
toprovidecustomerswithelectricitymoreeconomicallythananoilfueledplant.SeasonalpeakloadsoccurduringthewintermonthstheRockyRiverhydroelectric
plantoperatesforextendedperiods,requiringdrawdownfromthereservoir.Inspring,duringaperiodoflowsystemloads,pumpingresumes(usingtheoutputof
steamplantsthatwouldotherwisebeidle,thusminimizingoperatingcosts)inordertohavethereservoirfullagainbyJune1.In1951thepumpsweremodifiedto
allowthemtooperateinreversewhenwaterwasbeingreturnedtotheHousatonic,therebyboostingthestation'soutputto31megawatts.
Location/Access
TheplantoccupiesbothsidesofU.S.Route7,1.2miles(1.9km)northofU.S.Route202.ConnecticutLight&Power,RockyRiverStation,41ParkLaneRoad,
NewMilford,MA06776phone(203)3556554.
FurtherReading
E.J.Amberg,"PowerfromPumpedWater,"ElectricalWorld91(12May1928):95965.
WilliamW.K.Freeman,"PumpedStorageHydroelectricPlants,"AmericanSocietyofCivilEngineersProceedings54(November1928):2,45775.
JoelD.Justin,"RockyRiverHydroelectricDevelopment,"AmericanSocietyofCivilEngineersProceedings55(March1929):69098.
Page72
KaplanTurbine
YorkHaven,Pennsylvania
WhentheMetropolitanEdisonCompanydecidedtoexpanditshydroelectricplantatYorkHaven,Pennsylvania,in1928,itpurchasedaKaplanturbine.Builtbythe
S.MorganSmithCompanyofYork,Pennsylvania,andputintoserviceonApril5,1929,thiswasthefirstadjustablebladepropellerturbineintheUnitedStates,and
thefirstoffourKaplanturbinesinstalledattheYorkHavenplant.TheKaplanturbinewasquicklyrecognizedasanimportantadvanceinhydraulicturbinedesign,
providingmaximumeconomyforlowandvariableheads.By1930,S.MorganSmithhadbuiltsixteenKaplanturbinesforninelowheadhydroelectricprojectsinthe
UnitedStatesandCanada.
Patentsforanadjustablebladeturbinehadbeenissuedasearlyas1867.ButDr.ViktorKaplan(18761934)ofBrnn,AustriaHungary(nowBrno,Czech
Republic),wasthefirsttorealizetheadvantagesofadjustingboththerunnervanesandthewicketgatessimultaneouslyinordertomaintainhighefficiencyatallloads.
HefiledhisfirstpatentapplicationinEuropeabout1913andintheUnitedStatesin1914.
TheKaplanturbineresemblesaship'spropeller.Itdiffersfromotherwicketgateturbinesintheshapeofthetopplateandintheconstructionoftherunnerandshaft.
Thetopplateisshapedtoformavanefreetransitionspace
TheKaplanturbine,whichresemblesaship'spropeller,isshowntemporarily
removedfromitshousingformaintenancein1973.
Page73
betweenthewicketgatesandtherunnerwaterleavingthegatesinaradialdirectionisdeflectedtoflowaxiallythroughtherunner.Theangleofthemovablebladesis
adjustedbyahubmountedservomotorcontrolledbyhydraulicpressurelinesintheboreoftheshaft.Theangleofthebladeschangessimultaneouslywitheachchange
ofgateopening,sothatthemostefficientgateandvaneanglecoincidenomatterwhattheload,resultinginexceptionallyhighpartloadefficiencies.
InEurope,KaplanturbineswerewidelyadoptedfollowingtheFirstWorldWarby1928,some150wereinuseinprojectshavingmaximumheadsrangingfrom7
feet(2m)to49feet(15m).IntheUnitedStates,S.MorganSmithsecuredexclusiverightstotheKaplanpatentin1927andbegancommercialdevelopment,selling
itsfirstunittoMetropolitanEdisonin1928.
ThefourKaplanturbinesinstalledatYorkHaveneachdeveloped2,970horsepower(2,215kW)at200rpmwitha26foot(8m)head.Thefirstunit,however,
requiredmanualadjustmentoftheblades,adecideddisadvantagebecausetheturbinehadtobeshutdowntochangethepositionoftheblades,resultinginalossof
output.MetropolitanEdisonsubsequentlyorderedthreeautomaticallyadjustableturbines,identicalinsizeandoutputtothefirstunit.Thesejoinedtheplant'searlier
fixedbladeturbines,usingtheSusquehannaRivertopowertwentygeneratorsthatproducedatotaloutputofapproximately20,000kilowatts.(ThesecondKaplan
turbinebuiltbyS.MorganSmith,whichwasalsothefirstintheUnitedStatestohaveautomaticallyadjustableblades,wasputinservicebytheCentralPower&
LightCompanyatitsLakeWalkplantnearDelRio,Texas,inMay1929.)
Kaplanturbinesquicklyprovedtheirworthfordevelopmentswithlowandvariableflowsofwater.Adjustablebladedeliveredhigherefficienciesunderwidelyvarying
loadandflowconditionsthanarepossiblewithfixedbladedesigns.Inadditiontoofferingincreasedtotaloutput,theyalsomadeitpossibletoreducethenumberof
unitsinapowerhouse,reducingthesizeandtherebythecostofthepowerhouseitself.
Location/Access
TheYorkHavenPowerCompanyisownedbyMetropolitanEdisonCompany,P.O.Box16001,Reading,PA196400001phone(717)8487278.
FurtherReading
C.L.Dowell,"AtLastAmericaAcceptstheKaplanTurbine,"PowerPlantEngineering33(1July1929):75760.
GeorgeA.JessopandC.A.Powell,"GreaterEfficiencyforLowHeadHydro,"ElectricalEngineering50(February1931):11821.
B.E.Smith,"TheKaplanAdjustableBladeTurbine,"TransactionsoftheAmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers(Hydraulics)52(1930):13741.
Page74
HiwasseeDamUnit2ReversiblePumpTurbine
Murphy,NorthCarolina
TheHiwasseeDampumpturbine,installedin1956aspartofanexpansionoftheTennesseeValleyAuthority'spowernetwork,wastheworld'slargestreversible
pumpturbineandthefirstpumpturbineinstalledintheUnitedStatesforthepurposeofstoringelectricalenergyinapumpedstoragehydroelectricplant.*
LocatedontheHiwasseeRiverinsouthwesternNorthCarolina,theHiwasseeDamandpowerplantwasbuiltbytheTVAbetween1936and1940asaflood
controlandelectricalgeneratingfacility.Theinitialpowerinstallation,placedinserviceinMay1940,consistedofasingle80,000horsepower(59,656KW)Francis
turbinedrivingageneratorwitharatedoutputof57,600KWat190foot(58m)head.Spacewasprovidedinthepowerhouseforlaterinstallationofasecond,
identicalunit.
Allpumpturbineinstallationsoperateonthesameprinciple:theyuselowcost,offpeakpowertopumpwaterintoareservoir,fromwhichitcanthenbedrawnto
furnishhighcost,peakpower.TheneedtoincreasesystemcapacityduringpeakperiodsmadeiteconomicallyattractivefortheTVAtoinstallareversiblepump
turbine.Asinglehydraulicmachinewouldoperateinonedirectionasaturbineandinthereversedirectionasapump.Adirectconnectedelectricalmachinewould
serveasamotorforpumpoperationandasageneratorforturbineoperation.Duringperiodsofpeakpowerdemand(DecemberthroughMarch),thepumpturbine
wouldfunctionasaconventionalturbinegenerator,adding59,500kWofratedcapacitytothesystemDuringoffpeakperiods,espe
DiagramofHiwasseeDamUnit2
reversiblepumpturbine.CourtesyAllisChalmers.
*Anearlierpumpturbine,installedin1954attheFlatironPowerandPumpingPlantinColorado,wasusedprimarilyforirrigationratherthanelectricalenergystorage.Itwasmuch
smallerthantheHiwasseepumpturbineand,lackingwicketgates,providednocontrolofturbinepoweroutput.
Page75
SPECIFICATIONS
HiwasseeDamUnit2ReversiblePumpTurbineManufacturer:
AllisChalmersManufacturingCo.
Type:
Diameterofrunner,intake:
AsTurbine
AsPump
VerticalFrancis
Centrifugal
266in.(676cm)
Directionofrotation:
Clockwise
Counterclockwise
Ratedhorsepower:
80,000(60,000kW)
102,000(76,000kW)
Ratedhead:
190feet(58m)
205feet(62m)
Rateddischarge:
4,180cfs(118m3
3,900cfs(110m3)
Ratedspeed:
105.9rpm
105.9rpm
Efficiencyatratedheadand 90%
discharge:
90%
ciallyperiodsofminimumrainfall,theunitwouldoperateasapumptoliftwaterfromAppalachiaLakeintoHiwasseereservoiragainstanaverageoperatingheadof
205feet(62m).Inthisway,surpluselectricpowerwouldbestoredasadditionalwaterforreuseduringthenextpeakloadperiod.
Thereversiblepumpturbine,builtbyAllisChalmers,wasplacedinoperationinMay1956.ItincorporatedthelargestFrancistyperunnereverbuiltwithadiameter
of266inches(6,756mm),ithadtobefabricatedandshippedinthreesectionsandboltedtogetheronsite.Themotorgenerator,alsofurnishedbyAllisChalmers,
wasequallyimpressive.Witharatedhorsepowerof102,000(76,061kW)at106rpm,itwastheworld'slargestelectricalmachine,some50percentlargerthanthe
generatorsatGrandCoulee.
PriortotheHiwasseeinstallation,pumpedstorageplantsusedseparatepumpsandconventionalturbinesforstorageandgeneration(see''RockyRiverPumped
storageHydroelectricPlant,"p.69).TheHiwasseepumpturbinedemonstratedtoelectricpowercompaniesworldwidethatreversiblepumpturbinescouldbeused
toefficientlystoreelectricalenergyduringperiodsoflowpowerdemandtomeetlaterpeakloaddemands.TheHiwasseeinstallationservedasaprototypeforthe
constructionofsubsequentpumpedstoragefacilities.Today,reversiblepumpturbineshavealmostcompletelysupplantedtheuseofseparatepumpsandturbines.
Location/Access
Atthetimeofpublication,onlythelobbyisopentothepublic(Route4,Box170,Murphy,NC28906).
FurtherReading
L.R.SellersandJ.E.Kirkland,Jr.,"PumpTurbineAdditionatTVAHiwasseeHydroPlant,"ElectricalEngineering75(March1956):26369.
Page76
Steam
Introduction
byR.MichaelHunt
Say"electriclight,"andthestandardreplywillbe"ThomasEdison."ButEdisonhadtodomorethanperfectandcommercializethelightbulbin1879.Nousehaving
lightbulbsifnooneisgeneratingelectricity.Nousegeneratingelectricityifthereisnowiringorswitchestoconnectit.No,Edisonhadtoinventthewholesystemof
electricpowergeneration.
Bythelatenineteenthcentury,manyofthetechnologicalbuildingblockswerealreadyinplace.Dynamosmachinestogenerateelectricitywereavailable,butthey
weresmallandinefficient.Thereciprocatingsteamenginehadmaturedthroughthecenturyasapowersourceforindustry,whichhadrapidlyuseduptheavailable
waterpowertoturnitsmillsandmachines.Theseengineswerereliableandavailabletoturnthedynamos.
Edisonquicklysoldtheenthusiasticpubliconelectricpower.By1882hehadimprovedandenlargedhisdynamossothateach"Jumbo"dynamocouldbedirectly
coupledtoitssinglecylindersteamengine,thenheinstalledsixofthese240horsepower(179kW)machinesinthefirstcentralelectricpowerstationonPearlStreet
inNewYorkCity.ThePrattInstitutePowerPlantof1900,anexampleofthistypeofplant,stilloperates.
In1891Edisonintroducedanotherincreaseingeneratingunitsize,with640horsepower(477kW),tripleexpansion,marinetypeenginesdrivingdirectcoupled
dynamosof200kilowattseachateitherend.Centralstationelectricpowergenerationwasonitsway.
Asthetwentiethcenturydawned,thelimitationsofthesteamenginelargesizeandslowspeedwereobvious.In1884inEngland,CharlesParsonshad
demonstratedapracticalsteamturbinedrivingadynamo,andthisbecamethenew"engine."Intheturbine,rowsandrowsofwindmilllikebladesweremountedona
rotatingshaft,enclosedinacasingwithrowsofstationarybladesinterspersedbetweenthemovingblades.Steamintroducedintothecasingexpandedthroughthe
movableandstationaryblades,thusturningtheshaft.In1903GeneralElectricintroduceda5,000kilowattturbineofitsowndesign,thelargestintheworld,basedon
Curtispatents.Thesmoothturning,highpoweredsteamturbinehadarrived,andthegiantreciprocatingenginewasonitswayintohistory.
Page77
TheGECurtissteamturbinehadaverticalshaft,withthegeneratorabovetheturbine.Thisallowedforverycompactarrangements,suchasthatoftheGeorgetown
plantinSeattle,butbecameimpracticalasturbinesandgeneratorsgrewinsize.Meanwhile,WestinghousehadtakenoutalicensefromParsonsandwasbuilding
turbinegeneratorswithhorizontalshafts.Thisarrangementbecamethestandardforpowergeneration.
Intheearlyyearsofthetwentiethcentury,coalfiredboilersstillwerefiredbymenshovelingcoalintothefireboxes.Engineerssoonrealizedthatifcoalwas
pulverized,itcouldbeblownintothefiremechanically.Afterfouryearsofexperimentation,pulverizedcoalfiringwasdemonstratedattheOneidaStreetplantin
Milwaukeein1918,witha5percentimprovementinefficiencyoverthehandfiredunits.Thepulverizedcoalfiredboilernotonlyallowedmuchlargerquantitiesof
coaltobeburnedinaboilerofgivensize(thusincreasingitssteampoweroutput)butalsoprovedtobeeasilyconvertedtonaturalgasoroilfiringwhentimes
demanded.
Bythe1920s,steampressureshadinchedupfromtheCurtisturbine's175psig(1,207kPa)toaround300psig(2,068kPa).Theadvantageofpressureisthateach
poundofsteamcontainsmoreheatathigherpressures,andtheturbinecanbemademoreefficient.Ina1925breakthrough,theEdisonElectricIlluminatingCompany
ofBostonopeneditsEdgarStationoperatingat1,200psig(8,274kPa),aworldfirst.Thestationwasvastlymoreefficientthanitscontemporariesandbecamethe
modelforplantsworldwide.
Thenextjumpinturbinegeneratorswasinsize.TheEdgarstationgenerated85,000kWfouryearslater,CommonwealthEdisonCompanyopeneditsStateLine
UnitNo.1inHammond,Indiana,generating208,000kWwithasinglemachine.Forfiftyyears,thiswasthelargestturbinegeneratorintheworld.(Theimportanceof
primemoversizeisthatusefulworktendstoincreasefasterthanlosseswithsize,allelsebeingequal,soefficiencyimproves.)
In1935,thePortWashington,Wisconsin,plantwasbuilt,incorporatingpulverizedcoalfiring,highpressures,andanewdesignofsuperheater(adevicethatputs
moreheatenergyintothesteam).Smashingefficiencyrecords,itbecame"America'spremierstation."
Itappearsnowthatelectricitywillcontinuetobegeneratedinlargecentralpowerstations.Combinedcycleplantsinwhichacombinationofgasturbines,andboiler
andsteamturbinesproduceelectricityveryefficientlywilllikelyincrease.Therewillalsobemoreuseofwindandsolarpower,butthesearecapitalintensiveandthe
institutionalcostofmoneyhasamajoreffectonhowquicklytheywillspread.Fuelcellswillalsodevelop,butprobablyonlyforspecializedapplicationswheretheir
lowpollutionadvantagesoffsettheirlowpowerdensity.Lookingback,weseehowthePearlStreetStationsetthestageformorethanonehundredyearsof
technology.
Page78
Edison"Jumbo"EnginedrivenDynamo
Dearborn,Michigan
ThomasEdison'sincandescentlampof1879wouldhavebeenofscantconsequencewithoutthedevelopmentofapracticallargescaleelectricitygenerationand
distributionsystem.Anessentialpartofsuchasystemwasanefficientandreliableprimemoverdrivengenerator.TheEdison"Jumbo"dynamo,nowlocatedin
GreenfieldVillageattheHenryFordMuseum,generatedpowerinthefirstlargescalecentralelectricstationintheUnitedStates.
WithfinancialbackingfromWesternUnion,theEdisonElectricLightCompanywasformedinOctober1878.EdisonsettoworkinhisMenloPark,NewJersey,
"inventionfactory"todevelopapracticalincandescentlampandanefficientdynamo.Aftermonthsofagonizingtrials,onOctober21,1879,Edisonsealeda
carbonizedcottonfilamentinanevacuatedbulb.Thelampglowedformorethanfortyhours,castingafeeble,reddishglow.Ontheclosingnightsoftheyear,crowds
ofvisitorsarrivedatEdison'slaboratorytowitnessimproviseddemonstrationsputonwithasingledynamoandafewdozenlights.Theycameawayastounded.
Simultaneously,workingwithchiefassistantFrancisUpton,Edisonsettoworkonaconstantvoltagedynamo.Numeroustrialsresultedinabipolardynamo
nicknamedthe"longwaistedMaryAnn"in1879.Edisonattachedapowerstationhousingelevendynamosdrivenbyacentralsteamenginetohis
Edison"Jumbo"enginedrivendynamo.Photographfromthe
CollectionsofHenryFordMuseum&GreenfieldVillage.
Page79
MenloParkmachineshopandwiredlaboratorybuildingsandhalfadozenneighboringhouses.Theawkwardnessandinefficiencyofsomanysmalldynamoswith
theirbeltingledEdisontodesignalargerdynamothatwastobedirectlycoupledtoa120horsepower(89kW)PorterAllenengineorderedfromtheSouthwark
Foundry&MachineCompanyofPhiladelphia.ThePorterAllenenginearrivedinJanuary1881,andengineanddynamoweremountedtogethertoformaself
containedgeneratingunit.Testsofthecoupledenginedynamoprovedittobelessthanperfectforonething,thearmaturedevelopedhighinternaltemperatures,
threateningtodestroytheinsulationofthearmatureconductors.Nevertheless,Edisonwasabletodemonstratehowanabundantsupplyofcurrentcouldbeproduced
atareasonablecost.Henamedthemassiveunitanditssuccessors"Jumbo,"afterP.T.Barnum'sfamouscircuselephant,forgoodreason:theyweighed27tons(24
t)inall,thereweretwelvemassivefieldcoils,andtheSiemenstypearmatureanditsshaftweremorethan10feet(3m)long!
Inthemeantime,Edisonsearchedforasuitablelocationforhisfirstcentralpowerstation,finallyfindinganoldcommercialbuildingat257PearlStreet,NewYork
City,inasqualidsectionnearthefinancialdistrict.Heguttedtheinteriorofthebuildinganderectedanironsuperstructureindependentofthebuildingtosupportthe
generatingmachinery.SteamwassuppliedbyeightBabcock&Wilcoxboilersoccupyingthebasement.Abovetheseweresiximproved"Jumbo"dynamosdirectly
connectedtosixPorterAllensteamengines,eachof240horsepower(179kW).Finally,onSeptember4,1882,withoutfanfare,Edison'sPearlStreetStationbegan
commercialoperation,transmittingpowerthroughsome14miles(22.5km)ofundergroundconduit.
EarliertrialshadshownthatthegovernorsofthePorterAllenenginesfailedtoregulateproperlyduetovibrationofthebuildingframecausingtheengines
toseesawfitfully.EdisonappealedtoenginedesignerGardinerSimsforasteamenginewithamechanicalgovernorthatwouldfunctionunaffectedbyvibration.The
PearlStreetStationlimpedalongononedynamountiltheArmingtonSimsenginesarrivedinNovembertheseweresubstitutedforthePorterAllenengines,
correctingtheearliertrouble.Bytheendoftheyear,193buildingswithmorethan4,000lampshadbeenconnectedtothefirstlargescalecentralpowerstationinthe
UnitedStates.
Edison'sPearlStreetStationoperatedsuccessfullyuntilJanuary2,1890,whenfirepartiallydestroyedit.JumboNo.9wastheonlyoneofthesixoriginaldynamosto
survive.Itwasputbackintooperationandworkedinconjunctionwithbeltdrivengeneratorsandenginesinstalledastemporaryequipmentuntil1893,whenitwas
senttotheWorld'sColumbianExpositioninChicago.In1904itwasexhibitedattheLouisianaPurchaseExpositioninSt.Louis,andin1924itwasdisplayedatthe
GrandCentralPalaceinNewYorktomarkthefortiethanniversaryoftheAmericanInstituteofElectricalEngineers.
In1930JumboNo.9waspresentedtoHenryFordforhisnewmuseumof
Page80
industryandtechnology.ThemachinewascompletelyrebuiltforthefiftiethanniversarycelebrationoftheoriginalPearlStreetStation.Stillfullyoperational,itisa
monumenttotheinventorwhosesuccessfulcarbonfilamentlamp,togetherwithhissystemofelectricaldistribution,movedAmericaandtheworldintotheElectrical
Age.
Location/Access
JumboNo.9isexhibitedinapartialreplicaoftheoriginalDetroitEdison"A"StationinGreenfieldVillageattheHenryFordMuseum,20900OakwoodBoulevard,
Dearborn,MI48124phone(313)2711620.Hours:daily,9A.M.to5P.M.Admissionfee.
FurtherReading
"DescriptionoftheEdisonSteamDynamo,"TransactionsoftheAmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers3(1882):21825.
"TheEdisonElectricLightingStation,"ScientificAmerican,August26,1882,12.
MatthewJosephson,Edison:ABiography(NewYork:McGrawHillBookCompany,Inc.,1959).
Marinetype,Tripleexpansion,EnginedrivenDynamo
Dearborn,Michigan
ThesuccessofEdison'sPearlStreetStationandthehostofsimilarinstallationsthatfolloweditstimulatedtheelectricallightingindustryintheUnitedStates.Inthe
1880s,manufacturersspranguptoproduceeverythingfromlampstogenerators.Itwasaperiodofgreatengineeringadvancesandgreatlegalbattlesoverpatent
rights.
Intheearlyyears,thetypicalcentralpowerstationusedmanysmall,highspeedgeneratorsofthebipolartype.Thearrangementworkedreasonablywell,with
efficient,slowspeedenginesliketheCorlissdrivingthegeneratorsthroughspeedincreasingbelttransmissionsystems.Suchstationsusuallywerearrangedwiththe
enginesonthegroundfloorandthedynamosonthefloorabove.Butasthecapacityofthegenerators(andtheirsize)increased,thisarrangementbecamelimiting.
Between1889and1892,theEdisonGeneralElectricCompanybuiltsome200kWmonstersthatweighednearly20tons(18t).Beltdrives,meanwhile,were
plaguedbyallthedefectsEdisonhadnotedin1880:theyweredangerous,wastefulofspaceandinefficient.Thesolutiontotheseproblemswastobuildmultipolar
generatorsoflargediameterthatwouldoperateefficientlyatspeedsbetween100and150rpm.Thesecouldbedirectlycoupledtotheengines,ashadbeendoneat
PearlStreet,butthepoweroutputofthesenewmachinescouldbefargreater.
Page81
Marinetype,tripleexpansion,enginedrivendynamo
asitappearedin1989,beforeitsrestorationandrelocation
insidetheHenryFordMuseum.Today,theengineand
dynamooperatewiththeassistanceofanelectricmotor.
PhotographfromtheCollectionsof
HenryFordMuseum&GreenfieldVillage.
OnDecember15,1891,theEdisonElectricIlluminatingCompanyofNewYorkputthefirstofitsnewmarinetype,tripleexpansion,enginedrivengeneratorsinto
operationatitsDuaneStreetStation.(Almostsimultaneously,similarunitsbeganoperationatthecompany'sTwentysixthStreetStationtheseweredescribedin
detailintheMarch1892issueofPower.)Withanoutputof400kilowatts,thisrevolutionaryunitrepresentedthetruebeginningoflargescaleelectricpower
generationintheUnitedStates.BuiltbytheDicksonManufacturingCompanyofScranton,Pennsylvania,theenginewasdesignedbyJohnVanVleck,Edisonchief
engineer,andJ.W.Sargent,oftheDicksonCompany,withassistancefromEnglishenginebuildersDavidJoyandS.F.Prest.Thegeneratorsweresuppliedbythe
EdisonGeneralElectricCompanyofSchenectady,NewYork.
Thechoiceofamarinetype(vertical)enginemadeagreatdealofsense.Therequirementsofanurbanpowerstationwerenotunlikethoseofahighspeedocean
liner,i.e.,reliable,continuouspowerproducedinacompactspace.The625horsepower(466kW)engine,withcylinders18,27,and40inches(46,69,and102
cm)indiameterandastrokeof30inches(762mm),wasdesignedtobecompactandreliable.Thesteamchestswereplacedatthesidesofthecylinders(theusual
practicewastoplacethembetweenthecylinders),reducingtheoveralllengthoftheenginebyabout40percent,whilethevalvegearwasoftheJoytype
Page82
withmotionderiveddirectlyfromtheconnectingrodsratherthaneccentrics,decreasingthenumberofworkingpartsandincreasingreliability.Theendsofthemain
shaftcarriedthearmaturesoftwo200kilowattEdisonmultipolardynamos.EachdynamofedonesideofastandardEdisonthreewireDCsystem.Thearmaturewas
ringwoundonthesurface,andcopperbrushescollectedcurrentfromtheoutsideendsoftherings.Themachineseachhadfourteenfieldcoilsandpoles,allowing
efficientpoweroutputattheratedspeedof130rpm.
Thevertical,tripleexpansion,enginedrivengeneratoroperatingatslowspeedrepresentedthefirstphaseoflargescalecentralpowergeneration.Withinfifteenyears,
boththereciprocatingsteamengineanddirectcurrentwereobsolete.In1884CharlesParsonstestedhisfirststeamturbineprophetically,itwasusedtodriveahigh
speedelectricgenerator.Turbinescompact,simple,andcapableofoperatingatoptimalgeneratorspeedssoonprovedtobetheidealpowersourcefor
generators.
Location/Access
Themarinetype,tripleexpansion,enginedrivendynamoisondisplayattheHenryFordMuseum.(See"Edison'Jumbo'Dynamo,"above,forlocationandhours.)
FurtherReading
"VerticalTripleExpansionEngineatTwentySixthStreetEdisonStation,"Power12(March1892):12.
PrattInstitutePowerPlant
Brooklyn,NewYork
AftermakinghisfortuneasamemberoftheStandardOilorganization,oilmerchantCharlesPrattretiredin1874todevotehimselftophilanthropicenterprises.After
muchstudy,hefoundedthePrattInstituteinBrooklynforthetechnicaleducationandmanualtrainingofyoungmenandwomen.ItopenedonOctober17,1887,with
aclassoftwelvestudents.EnrollmenthadgrowntothreethousandbythetimeofPratt'sdeathin1891.
Theinstitute'sphysicalplantwastobethoroughlymodern,withsteamheat,incandescentandarclamps,andelevators.Inthelate1890s,theadditionoftwonew
buildingsincludingtheRenaissancestylePrattInstituteFreeLibrary,thefirstpubliclibraryinBrooklynincreasedtheelectricalloadandforcedanoverhaulofthe
originalpowerplantequipment.Threenewsteamenginesandgeneratorswereinstalledin1900.Thesearestillinservice,qualifyingthePrattpower
Page83
ThePrattInstitutePowerPlantfeaturesthreeGeneralElectricdirectcurrentgenerators.
Thecontrolpanelisattheleft.PhotographbyDavidSharpe,
plantastheoldestgeneratingplantinthenortheasternUnitedStatespoweredbysinglecylindersteamengines,araresurvivorofaoncecommontechnology.
Thehorizontalsinglecylindersteamengine,oftencalledamillengine,wastheworkhorseofthelatenineteenthcentury.Sturdy,uncomplicated,andoccupyingscant
spacecomparedtothetraditionalbeamengine,itfoundunlimitedapplication.Factories,officebuildings,schoolsandotherinstitutions,andstreetcarlinescommonly
generatedtheirownpower,andinthelatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies,thesimplesinglecylinderenginedrivingadynamoataleisurely250to300rpm
reignedsupreme.
ThePrattengineswerefurnishedbytheAmesIronWorksofOswego,NewYork,duringthesummerof1900.Asbuilt,theyexactlymatchedadescriptionof"anew
automaticengine"designedbyE.J.ArmstrongandpublishedintheAmericanMachinistinOctober1893.With14inch(356mm)boreand12inch(305mm)
stroke,theenginesweredesignedforoperationwithsteamat100psig(689kPa).TheyweredirectconnectedtoGeneralElectric75kWgenerators.Initially,the
engineswereequippedwithbalancedslidevalves.Sometimeinthe1920s,theywereconvertedtooutsideadmissionpistonvalves.Speediscontrolledbyinertia
governorsmountedintheflywheel,whichvarythevalvetravel(and,therefore,thesteamadmissionopening)tomaintainaconstantrpmofabout270.
Today,theenginesoperateon120psig(827kPa)steam.Theelectrical
Page84
output120voltsDCsuppliesasmallamountofthelightandpowerloadsoncampus,belyinganEdisonCompanyreportof1929thattheenginegeneratorunits
were"nearingtheendoftheirusefullife."
Location/Access
GrandAvenue,betweenWilloughbyandDeKalbavenues.Thepowerplant,whichnormallyoperatesonlyduringtheheatingseason,isopentothepublic.Visitors
areadvisedtowriteorcallahead:PrattInstitutePowerPlant,200WilloughbyAvenue,Brooklyn,NY11205phone(718)6363694
FurtherReading
"ANewAutomaticEngine,"AmericanMachinist16(12October1893):12.
Schenectady,NewYork
Whenitwasbuiltin1903,the5,000kilowattCurtissteamturbinegeneratorwasthemostpowerfulintheworld.Itstoodjust25feet(7.6m)highcomparedto
60feet(18.3m)forareciprocatingenginegeneratoroflikecapacityandrequiredbutafractionofthereciprocatingengine'sfloorarea.Thecompact,highspeed
turbine"radicalineconomy,simplicityandefficiency"inthewordsofdesignerWilliamLeRoyEmmetconclusivelydemonstratedthesteamturbine'svalueasa
practicalsourceforlargeamountsofpowerandstimulatedthegrowthofmodernelectricalgenerationinlargecentralamountsofpowerandstimulatedthegrowthof
modernelectricalgenerationinlargecentralstationsnationwide.
AspresidentofCommonwealthElectric(nowCommonwealthEdison)CompanyofChicago,SamuelInsullwasresponsibleforbuildingoneoftheearlieststeam
turbinegeneratingstations,theFiskStreetStation.HeequippeditwiththreeGeneralElectric5,000kilowattverticalCurtissteamturbinegenerators,thenthemost
powerfulintheworld.
TheCurtissteamturbinerepresentstheideasoftwomen:patentlawyerandinventorCharlesG.Curtis(18601953)andengineerWilliamLeRoyEmmet(1859
1941).CurtisapproachedGeneralElectricearlyin1897withaproposaltobuildaturbinewithanewkindofwheelthathadasuccessionofconcavebuckets,which
revolvedbytheforceofsteamstrikingthem.GeneralElectricagreedtoofferCurtisthefacilitiesofitsSchenectadyworksforfurtherexperimentationprovideGE
couldpurchasethepatentrightsiftheturbineprovedacommercialsuccess.(Curtiseventuallyreceived$1.5millionforhispatentrights,retainingtherightsto
nonelectricmarineapplications.)
Twoyearslater,whentheturbineexperimentshadyettobearfruit,GEcalled
Page85
TheCurtissteamturbinegeneratorondisplayatGeneral
Electric'sSchenectadyplant,ca.1910.
inlightingengineerWilliamEmmettostudytheproblem.TakingthebucketandnozzlearrangementfromCurtis(i.e.,twostageswiththreerowsofbucketsineach),
Emmetdesignedtwosmallunitsof500kWand1,500kW.Henextbuilta5,000kWturbineabouttwiceasbigasthelargestParsonsturbineinEnglandwhich
waspurchasedbyInsull.TheturbinegeneratorsInsullorderedfromGeneralElectricin1902requiredonetenththespaceandweighedoneeighthasmuchas
reciprocatingenginesofcomparableoutput.Centralstationexecutivesnationwideclamoredforthenewturbines,whosebiggestsellingpoint,nexttoefficiency,was
thatgeneratingcapacitycouldbeexpandedwithinexistingbuildings.
SPECIFICATIONS
Electricaloutput:5,000kW,3phase,25Hzat9,000volts
Speed:500rpm
Turbineinletconditions:175psig(1,207kPa),150F(66C)superheat
Turbineoutletconditions:28inches(711mm)mercuryvacuum
TheCurtisturbineispressureandvelocitycompounded.Eachoftheturbine's
twopressurecompoundedstagesconsistsofanozzle,threerowsofstationary
turningvanes,andfourrowsofmovingbucketsattachedtoonewheel.
Page86
TheCurtissteamturbinegeneratorisofspecialsignificanceinthehistoryofelectricalpowergeneration,foritspelledtheendofthecumbersomebutmagnificent
reciprocatingenginegeneratorsandspurredthedevelopmentofeverlargerturbinesofincreasedefficiency.In1909theoriginalCurtisturbinesatFiskStreetStation
werereplacedbyimprovedCurtisunitsof12,000kilowatts.ThepioneerCurtisunitwasreturnedtotheplaceofitsbirth,GeneralElectric'sSchenectadyplant,and
displayedasamonumenttotechnologicalachievement.
TheoriginalconfigurationoftheearlyCurtismachineswasvertical,withthegeneratorabovetheturbine.Asturbinesgrewlargerandturbinespeedsbecamehigher,
though,horizontalshaftmachinesthatcoulddrawuponthebuilding'sfoundationforgreaterlateralsupportbecamethestandard.
Location/Access
TheCurtisturbinegeneratorislocatedoutsideBuilding263attheGeneralElectricCompanyplantinSchenectady,NewYork.Directquestionsto:GEPower
Generation,1RiverRoad,Schenectady,NY12345phone(518)3853072.
FurtherReading
WilliamLeRoyEmmet,TheAutobiographyofanEngineer(NewYork:TheAmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers,1940)
[WilliamLeRoyEmmet],''TheCurtisSteamTurbine,"ElectricalWorldandEngineer41(11April1903):60912.
JohnWinthropHammond,MenandVolts:TheStoryofGeneralElectric(Philadelphia:J.B.LippincottCompany,1941)
J.C.Thorpe,"A100,000KilowattSteamTurbineStation,"Power26(December1906):71528
GeorgetownSteamPlant
Seattle,Washington
Seattle'sformerGeorgetownSteamPlantcontainsthebestpreservedexamplesoftheworld'sfirstlargescalesteamturbines.By1907,whentheplantwentonline,
theverticalCurtissteamturbinegeneratorhadestablisheditselfasapracticalandcompactprimemovercapableofproducinglargeamountsofpower(see"5,000
kilowattCurtisSteamTurbineGenerator,"p.84)EManufacturedbytheGeneralElectricCompanybetween1902and1913,Curtisturbinesmadepossiblethe
widespreadmarketingofelectricityfordomesticandindustrialuse,andmarkedthebeginingoftheendofreciprocatingsteamenginesforthatpurpose.
Locatedon18acres(7ha)oflandontheDuwamishRiver,theGeorgetownSteamPlantwasdesignedandbuiltfortheSeattleElectricCompanybyStone&
WebsterofBoston,withFrankB.Gilbreth(18681924)servingasconsultant.
Page87
CrosssectionviewoftheCurtissteamturbinegenerators
attheGeorgetownSteamPlant.
Thereinforcedconcretestation,envisionedasthefirstunitofamuchlargerplant,wasdesignedreadyforexpansioninthefuture.Itwasinitiallyequippedwithtwo
Curtisverticalshaftturbinegenerators,oneof3,000kWandtheotherof8,000kWcapacity,manufacturedbyGE.AccordingtoEngineeringRecord,oneofthe
plant'smostsignificantfeatureswasthatgeneratingequipmentwithacapacityof11,000kWoccupiedafloorspaceonly64by78feet(20by24m)insize,thus
underscoringjustoneaspectofthesteamturbine'seconomycomparedwithmuchlargerreciprocatingengines.
ThenewplantwasintendedtoprovideSeattleElectricwithadditionalpeakloadcapacity.Two500kWmotorgeneratorsetssupplied600voltdirectcurrenttothe
city'sstreetrailwaysystem,whiletwo500kW,13,800to2,3000voltwatercooledtransformersfurnishedcurrentfortheGeorgetownneighborhood.Theplant's
fourteenStirlingwatertubeboilerswereoilfired,thoughtheboilerplantwasdesignedforeitheroilorcoalfiredoperation.
In1912thePugetSoundPower&LightCompanypurchasedSeattleElectric,consolidatingalloftheelectriccompaniesintheSeattleareaexceptforthemunicipal
utility.Fiveyearslater,theGeorgetownplantwasexpandedwiththeadditionofathirdCurtisturbinegenerator,thistimeahorizontaltypeof10,000kWcapacity,
whichwassimplerandmorecompactthanitspredecessors.Butbythelate1920s,theGeorgetownplantwasoutdated,andin1930PugetSoundPowerbuiltanew
steamplantatRenton,Washington.TheGeorgetownSteam
Page88
Plantwasrelegatedtostandbyduty,supplyingpowerwhentherewasnotenoughwatertoallowthehydroelectricplantstomeetpeakdemand
In1951theCityofSeattleLightDepartment(nowSeattleCityLight)purchasedthepropertiesofPugetSoundPower&Light,includingtheGeorgetownSteam
Plant.Theplantmadeitslastproductionrunduringthewinterdroughtof1964.Todayitisbeingredevelopedasamuseumofelectricpower.
Location/Access
TheGeorgetownSteamPlantislocatedat6066ThirteenthAvenueSouth(offSouthHardyStreet),4miles(6.4kms)southofthedowntownbusinessdistrict.
FurtherReading
"An11,00kw.TurboGeneratorStationinSeattle,Wash.,"EngineeringRecord57(6June1908)72124
EastWells(Oneida)StreetPowerPlant
Milwaukee,Wisconsin
Theearlyyearsofcentralstationelectricpowerproductionwereplaguedbythegrowingpainsofanewtechnology.Efficiencieswerelowaboutonethirdthoseof
modernstationsoutageswerefrequentandexpectedcoalwasdeclininginqualityevenasitwasrisingincost.Duringthisperiod,JohnAndersonandFred
DornbrookweregettingtheireducationsatseaAndersonasamarineengineerintheBritishNavy,Dornbrookasamarineengineeronalakesteamer.Later,asthe
twotopmechanicalengineersofTheMilwaukeeElectricRailway&LightCompany(TMER&L),theyagreedthatthehardestworkeitherhadeverdoneaboardship
washandstokingtheboiler.
Outoftheirdiscussions(DornbrooklatergavethecredittoAnderson)cametheideaofgrindingthecoaltoafinepowderandfeedingitintothefurnacewithlarge
blowers.Andersonforesawtwoadvantages:pulverizedcoalcouldbedeliveredintoafurnacemoreefficientlyandeconomicallythanlumpcoal,whilecrushingthe
coalwouldincreaseitsburningsurfacemanyhundredtimes,insuringcompleteandtherebymoreefficientcombustion.
Burningpulverizedcoalwashardlyanewidea.Attemptshadalreadybeenmadetoburnpulverizedcoalinlocomotives,withoutsuccess.In1914Andersonreceived
permissiontoconductexperimentsontheuseofpulverizedfuel.Andersonandhisteam(Dornbrook,W.E.Schubert,andRayMistele)concurrentlystudiedthe
pulverizingprocessandtheefficientburningofcoal.Earlyin1918,TMER&LmanagementapprovedatrialinstallationattheOneida(laterrenamed
Page89
EarlytwentiethcenturyviewoftheOneidaStreetPower
Plant,siteofthefirstsuccessfuluseof
pulverizedcoalinutilityboilers.
EastWells)StreetPowerPlant.Equipmentfordryingandpulverizingthecoalwasinstalled,andanexperimentalboilerwasplacedinserviceinMay.
TheboileronwhichthefirsttestswereperformedwasanEdgeMoorthreepass,watertubeboiler,equippedwithaFostersuperheater.Thecoalfeedersand
burnerswereofthe"Lopulco"type,manufacturedbytheLocomotivePulverizedFuelCompanyofNewYork.Preliminaryoperationwasnotwithoutproblems.An
insufficientairsupply,forexample,causedhighfurnacetemperatures,whichinturncausedashparticlestofuseintoslagandaccumulatebetweenthetubes,onfurnace
withalargercombustionchamberandauxiliaryairopeningsequippedwithdampers.Topreventtheaccumulationofslag,theyraisedthepointoffueladmissiontothe
furnace,therebyraisingtheflamepathabovethebaseofthepitsothatashparticlesdroppingfromtheflamewerenotfusedash,intheformofpowderandsmall
slugsofslag,couldbeeasilyrakedfromthepit.
OnAugust12and13,1918,theengineersranafinalefficiencytest,withencouragingresults.Thepulverizedcoalboilershowedagrossefficiencyof85.22percent,
comparedtoamaximumstokerfedboilerefficiencyof80.54percent."Theeaseofcontrollingthefuel,feed,anddrafts,"FredDornbrookreportedinNational
Engineer,"theabilitytotakeonheavyoverloadsinabrieftime,[the]thoroughcombustionofthecoal,andtheuniformhighefficiencyobtainableundernormal
operationmakespulverizedcoalamostsatisfactoryformoffuelfor
Page90
centralstationuses."Inaddition,thepulverizedcoalboiler,fedautomaticallybyscrewconveyorsandblowers,requiredverylittleattendance."Thedayofthe
roughneckfiremanisgone,"JohnAndersonobservedfollowingatestoffive468horsepower(349kW)boilersattheOneidaStreetplant.
TheOneidaStreetexperimentswerewidelypublicizedandcloselywatchedbycombustionengineersandCentralstationexecutives.Thetestsconclusivelyprovedthe
efficiencyofpulverizedcoalandresultedinchangesthateventuallybecamestandardinsteamelectricplantsworldwide.TheOneidaStreetinnovationswere
incorporatedintoTMER&L'sLakesidePowerplant(1920)inMilwaukee,thefirstinthenationdesignedtoburnpulverizedcoal.
AccordingtohistorianForestMcDonald,"thedevelopmentofpulverizedfuelanditsattendantdevelopmentsconstitutedamonumentalachievement,rankingwith
Edison'slampandmultipledistributionsystem,Stanley'stransformer,andParsons'steamturbineasoneofthefourfundamentaltechnologicaldevelopmentsthatmade
lowcostcentralstationservicepossible."
Location/Access
TheEastWellsPowerPlant,108EastWells,Milwaukee,WI53202,wasretiredin1982andisnowoccupiedbytheMilwaukeeRepertoryTheater,phone(414)
2241761.Oneofthehistoricpulverizedcoalboilershasbeenpreservedinsituandsectionedlongitudinallyasapermanentpublicexhibit.
FurtherReading
JohnAnderson,"PulverizedCoalUnderCentralStationBoilers,"Power51(2March1920):33639,
FredDornbrook,"PulverizedFuelintheOneidaStreetPlantoftheT.M.E.R.&L.Co.,"NationalEngineer22(October1918):53539.
ForrestMcDonald,LetThereBeLight:TheElectricUtilityIndustryinWisconsin,18811955(Madison,Wisc.:TheAmericanHistoryResearchCenter,1957).
"TheNewLakesidePulverizedCoalPlant,Milwaukee,"Power52(7September1920):35860
EdgarStation,EdisonElectricIlluminatingCompany
Weymouth,Massachusetts
Intheearly1920s,steampressuresontheorderof300psig(2,068kPa)werecommontotheelectricutilityindustry.Butnewmaterialslikechromemolybdenum
steel,offeringsuperiorheatresistance,promisedsubstantialgainsinefficiency.WhenBostonneededanewelectricstation,IrvingE.Moultrop(18651957),assistant
superintendentofconstruction(laterchiefengineer)oftheEdisonElectricIlluminatingCompanyofBoston,tookaboldstepbyplanningthe
Page91
The1,200psigturbinegeneratorunitsoftheCharlesL.EdgarStation
servedasamodelforhighpressurepowerplantsworldwide.
first1,200psig(8,300kPa)steamplantintheworld.The1,200psigboilerandturbinewouldworkwithamoreconventional350psig(2,400kPa)steamturbine
systemthelatter,ineffect,wouldoperateontheexhauststeamofthehighpressureunit.
NamedafterCharlesL.Edgar,presidentofBostonEdisonforthirtytwoyears,thestationwasdesignedandbuiltbyStone&WebsterofBostonunderMoultrop's
direction.The1,200psigboilerwasofthecrossdrumtypewithwatertubes15feet(4,570mm)longand2inches(51mm)indiameter,spaced4inches(101mm)
oncenters.Thedrumwasa32foot(9,753mm)longsteelforgingof4foot(1,219mm)diameterand4inch(101mm)wallthicknessmadeinthegunworksofthe
MidvaleSteelCompany,Philadelphia.Tocheckforflaws,thecastingsusedforvalvepartsandpipefittingswereXrayedapioneeringapplicationofthisnow
standardprocedure.
Anewrecordforeconomywasestablishedwhenthefirstphaseofconstructionwentintocommercialserviceattheendof1925:performancerecordsshowedthat
highpressuresteamresultedina12percentincreaseinefficiencyandsubstantialsavingsinthecostoffuel.Twoyearsafteritwentonline,theEdgarStationwas
extended.Thecompletedinstallationcomprisedfourhighpressureboilerssupplyingsteamtotwo10,000kW,highpressureturbines,whichexhaustedthrough
reheatersintheboilerstothethrottleofa65,000kWmaingeneratingunit,givingagrossoutputof85,000kW.TheEdgarStationbecameamodelforhighpressure
powerplantsallovertheworld.
Page92
TheoncepioneeringequipmentoftheEdgarStationhassincebeenovertakenbytechnology.A1947plantadditionfeaturedanevenmoreefficientturbogenerator,
whiletheboilerfiringwaschangedfromcoaltopulverizedcoalandoillater,itwasagainmodifiedtoallowtheuseofnaturalgasasanalternativefuel.Theearliest
equipmentwasremovedfollowingtheplantsretirementin1971.
Location/Access
BridgeStreetattheForeRiver,Weymouth,Massachusetts.Nopublicaccess.
FurtherReading
I.E.Moultrop,"StoryofFirst1,200Ib.SteamPlant,"Power67(24April1928):71318.
I.E.MoultropandE.W.Norris,"HighPressureSteamatEdgarStation,"TransactionsoftheAmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers50(1928):3240.
StateLineGeneratingUnitNo.I
Hammond,Indiana
Foraquarterofacenturyfrom1929to1954UnitNo.IoftheStateLineStation,withitsratingof208megawatts,wasthelargestturbinegeneratorintheworld.
LocatedontheIllinoisIndianaborder,itrepresented"reasonablepreparation"forthefuturepowerneedsoftheburlyindustrialdistrictstretchingfromChicagoto
Gary,Indiana,accordingtoSamuelInsull(18591938),themanresponsibleforthismarvel.
InteriorviewoftheStateLinepowerplant.
CourtesyCommonwealthEdisonCompany.
Page93
AspresidentofCommonwealthEdisonCompany,InsullsetouttocreateamonopolyofserviceintheChicagoregion,advocatingthesupplyofelectricityfromlarge
centralstations.By1919,hisstationscoveredmostofIllinoisandexctendedintoneighboringstates,.In1929,InsullannouncedplantsforthemillionkilowattState
LineStation.(In1903Insullhadinstalleda5,000kilowattCurtissteamturbinegenerator,thenthemostpowerfulintheworld,inChicago'sFiskStreetStationsee
p.84.)
TheStateLinepowerplantwaslocatedon90acres(36ha)offillontheLakeMichiganshore,asiteprovidingamplewaterandreadilysuppliedwithcoalbyrailor
water.Sargent&LundyservedasconsultingengineersandGraham,Anderson,Probst&White,asarchitects.TheGeneralElectricCompanyfurnishedthe208
MWturbinegenerator,designatedUnitNo.I.Itconsistedofonehighpressureturbineof76MWaandtwolowpressureturbinesof62MWeachthelatteralso
drovetwo4MWauxiliarygenerators,givingthetriplecrosscompoundunitatotalcapacityof208MWwhenturning1,800rpm.SixBabcock&Wilcoboilers
furnished450,000pounds(205,000kg)ofsteamperhourat650psig(4,500kPa)and730F(387C),burning1.5tons(1.2t)ofcoalperminute.
InDecember1953StateLineUniteNo.1wasretiredaschampionbya213MWturbinegeneratorinOhio.Ithassincebeendismantled.
FurtherReading
SamuelInsull,PublicUtilitiesinModernLife(Chicago:Privatelyprinted,1924).
ForrestMcDonald,Insull(Chicago:TheUniversityofChicagoPress,1962).
"StateLineStationOfficiallyOpened,"Power70(29October1929):67074.
PortWashingtonPowerPlant
PortWashington,Wisconsin
WhenTheMilwaukeeElectricRailway&LightCompany'sPortWashingtonStationwasdedicatedduringthefirstweekofSeptember1935,morethan36,000
visitorscametoseeit.Hailedas"America'spremierstation,"PortWashingtonconsistedofoneboiler,oneturbine,onesetoftransformers,one132kilovolt
transmissionline,andonesetofauxiliaries,combining,inthewordsofPowerPlantEngineering,"theutmostinheateconomywithlowunitcost."Theplantquickly
smashedgeneratingefficiencyrecords,producingakilowatthourwithlessthan10,700Btu's(II,286KJ),oraboutfourfifthsofapoundofcoalthisatatimewhen
theU.S.averagewasabout16,000Btu's(16,876KJ).
LocatedonthewestshoreofLakeMichigan,28miles(45km)northofMilwaukee,thenewplantwasatthenorthendofa132,000volttransmissionlooparound
theMilwaukeemetropolitandistrict.ItsdesignwastheresultofThe
Page94
InteriorviewofthePortWashingtonPowerPlant
showingpulverizedcoalfeeders.
MilwaukeeElectricRailway&LightCompany'stwodecadesofpioneeringworkwithpulverizedcoal(see"EastWellsStreetPowerPlant,"p.88),highpressure
steam,andradiantsuperheaters,andfollowedthecompany'scelebratedLakesideplant(1920),thefirstpowerstationintheworlddesignedtoburnpulverizedcoal.
ThePortWashingtonStationconsistedofone80,000kilowattturbogeneratorandoneboilerdesignedtooperateat1,320psig(9,100Kpa)withamaximumsteam
temperatureof850(454C).Firedbypulverizedcoal,thethreedrum,benttubeboilerhadatotalheatingsurfaceof44,087squarefeet(4,096m2)andacapacity
of690,000poundsofsteamperhour(313,00kg/h).Thetandemcompoundturbine,builtbytheAllisChalemersCompanyofWestAllis,Wisconsin,droveanair
cooledgeneratoroperatingat1,800rpmand22,000volts.Laidoutontheunitsystem(i.e.,oneboilersuppliesoneturbine),thePortWashingtonplantwasdesigned
sothatitsinitialcapacityof80,000KWcouldreadilybeexpandedwithfiveadditionalunitsto480,000KWinthefuture.
TheplantproducedelectricityforthefirsttimeonOctober14,1935,coincidingwiththecelebrationofPortWashington'scentennial.Followinganinitialshakedown
period,performancerecordsshowedthatthepowerplantwasturningoutkilowatthoursathigherefficiencythananyotherintheworldarecordithelduntil1948,
whennewerplantsfinallysurpassedit.Additional80,000kilowattunitswereaddedin1943,1948,and1950,bringingPortWashington'stotalgeneratingcapacityto
thepresent400,000kilowatts.
Location/Access
Contact:WisconsinElectricPowerCompany,231,WestMichigan,MilwaukeeWI53203phone(414)2212345.
FurtherReading
"PortWashingtonStation,'PowerPlantEngineering39(November1935):63637.
ThomasWilson,"PortWashingtonTiesIn,"Power79(November1935):58589.
Page95
InternalCombustion
Introduction
byEuanF.C.Somerscales
Thegasturbinehasalwaysfascinatedmechanicalengineersbecauseitappearstobetheidealprimemover.Itisarotatingmachine,likethesteamturbine,which
meansthatitcanbeperfectlybalanced.Unlikethereciprocatingengine,ittakesinaircontinuously,notintermittently.Inotherwordsitisacontinuousflowmachine
consequently,itspoweroutputcanbemuchlargerthanthatofthereciprocatingengineofthesamesize.Finally,itisaninternalcombustionengine,whichallowsitto
usetheenergyreleasedbythecombustionofthefuelmoreefficientlythandoesthesteamturbine.
Surprisingly,thegasturbinehasamuchlongerhistorythanisgenerallyrealized.Thefirstpatentwasissuedin1791,butapparentlyaworkingmachinewasneverbuilt.
Thepatentdescribedalltheelementsofagasturbine:acompressortoraisethepressureoftheintakeair,acombustionchamberinwhichthefuelwasburnedtoheat
thecompressedair,andanexpansionturbineinwhichtheenergyintheheatedairwasconvertedtoworkbeforeitwasdischargedtothesurroundings.
Earlyattempts(19001910)tobuildgasturbineswereunsuccessfulfortworeasons.First,theefficiencyoftheavailablerotarycompressorswassolowthatittookall
theworkproducedintheexpansionturbinetodrivethem,withtheresultthatnosurplusenergywasavailabletodriveanelectricalgeneratororotherload.Second,
themetalsthatwerenotavailableforconstructingthebladesoftheexpansionturbinewerenotablewithstandthetemperatureofthehotgasesleavingthecombustion
chamber.Asaconsequence,thepowerthatwasproducedandsuppliedtothecompressorwasinsufficienttoraisetheairpressuretoanadequatelevel.Thatdidnot
stopengineersfromtryingtoconstructagasturbine,andsomenotableattemptsweremadeinFrance.
Tocircumventthedifficultiesarisingfromthecompressor,HansHolzwarthbuiltanumberofsuccessfulgasturbinesinGermanybetween1908and1993.Inhis
machines,thecompressionoftheintakeairwasaresultofburningtheairandfuelinaclosedchamberbeforereleasingitintotheexpansionturbine.Thesemachines
hadintermittentaction,likethereciprocatingengine,whichmeantthattheydidnothavetheadvantagesproducedbythecontinuousflowoftheair.
Page96
ThelastofthegasturbinesdesignedbyHolzwarthwasbuiltbytheBrownBoveriCompanyofSwitzerland.Theirexperiencewiththatmachine,togetherwiththeir
substantialexperiencewithsteamturbines,convincedthemthatengineeringknowledge,particularlyconcerningcompressordesign,hadadvancedsufficientlyby1933
tojustifyareconsiderationofthecontinuousflowgasturbine.TheywereabletointeresttheSunOilCompanyinpurchasingagasturbinetoprovidelargevolumesof
hotgasforuseintheHoudrycatalyticconvertersthatwereinstalledatthecompany'sMarcusHook,Pennsylvania,refineryin1936.Thisturbinewasnotrequiredto
producetheworknecessarytodriveanelectricalgenerator,soitrepresentedaveryappropriatefirststepinthedevelopmentofapowerproducingmachine.The
opportunitytodothiscamein1939,whenthefirstcommercialgasturbinedrivenelectricgeneratorwasplacedinserviceatNeuch&ciecatel,Switzerland.The
significanceofthismachinewasrecognizedin1988,whenitwasdesignatedaHistoricMechanicalEngineeringLandmark.
WhileBrownBoveriwasmakingitsverypublicentryintothemanufactureofgasturbines,otherengineersinGermany,England,andtheUnitedStateswereworking
secretlyinthelate1930songasturbinestoreplacetheaircraftpistonengine.OneofthesegroupswaslocatedattheSchenectadyplantoftheGeneralElectric
Company.Theyhadoriginallybeeninterestedinagasturbinetopoweralocomotivebuthadswitchedtoaircraftgasturbinesattherequestofthegovernmentwhenit
appearedlikelythattheUnitedStateswouldbedrawnintoWorldWarII.Theyproducedaturbojetenginethatflewin1946andaturbopropengine,whichwas
plaguedwithdifficultiesanddidnotflyuntil1949.
AlthoughthewartimeyearswereahiatusinGeneralElectric'seffortstoproducealocomotivegasturbine,theexperienceobtainedinthedevelopmentofthetwo
aircraftgasturbinesprovedtobeinvaluable.Followingtheendofthewar,theSchenectadyengineersreturnedtotheirworkonthelocomotivepowerplant,andby
1949theyhadanoperatingmachine.Asthingsturnedout,however,itwasfirstusedinthatyearforelectricpowerproductionattheBelleIslestationofthe
OklahomaGas&ElectricCompany.Laterinthesameyear,AlcoGEgasturbinelocomotiveNo.50,usinganessentiallyidenticalturbine,wastestedonanumberof
Americanrailroads.
TheNeuchtelandtheBelleIslturbinesweretheforerunnersofalongseriesofgasturbinesofincreasingpowerandefficiently,andthetrendappearstobe
continuing.Thegasturbinecameintotheworldwithdifficulty,butitspresentthrivingstateisamonumenttotheskillsofmechanicalengineersandtheircontributionsto
thewelfareofsocietyatlarge.
Page97
NeuchtelGasTurbine
Neuchtel,Switzerland
AlthoughthegasturbinewasdescribedinapatentgrantedtoJohnBarberofEnglandin1791,itsuseasaprimemoverfortheproductionofelectricityremainedlittle
morethananinventor'sdreamuntiltheadventinthe1930sofhighefficiencycompressorsandmodernalloysabletowithstandhightemperatures.
Gasturbinesareinternalcombustionengines,suchasconventionalsparkignitionordieselengines,exceptthattheyuserotatingcompressorsandexpansionturbines
insteadofpistonsreciprocatingincylinders.Inaninternalcombustionengine,airisdrawnintotheengineandcompressed,fuelisaddedtotheairbeforeorafter
compression,andthemixtureisburned,raisingthetemperatureofthegas.Thehotgasesarethenexpandedi.e.,theirtemperatureandpressureareloweredby
withdrawingtheenergysuppliedbytheburningfueltodrivetheload.
Inagasturbine,thesesameprocessesarecarriedoutinseparatecomponents,namely,acompressor,acombustionchamber,andanexpansionturbine.Airis
compressedfromatmosphericpressure(14.5psia,or100kPa)toabout60psia(or413kPa),mixedwiththefuel,andburnedinacontinuousflowcombustion
chamber.Thehotgasesentertheturbineatatemperatureofabout1,000F(538C)andexhausttotheflueorstack.About75percentoftheturbineoutputisusedto
drivethecompressor,whiletheremainingpowerisavailableforthegenerationofelectricalenergy.Thegasturbineappearedtobetheidealprimemoverbecauseof
itsinternalcombustion,whicheliminatedtheneedforasteamplantwithitsmanycomplexandexpensiveauxiliariesbecauseoftheuniversalpresenceofitsworking
medium,airandbecauseitisarotatingmachine,likethesteamturbine.
ThepioneerNeuchtelgasturbine,stillinservicetoday.
Page98
In1939BrownBoveri&CompanyofBaden,Switzerland,pioneeredtheconstructionofgasturbinestogenerateelectricalpowerbyinstallingthefirstcommercial
unitinanundergroundemergencystandbypowerstationatNeuchtel,Switzerland.Theunit'ssimplicityanditsindependenceofwaterfacilitiesmadeitidealforthis
classofservice.
Thesingleshaft,simplecyclegasturbineatNeuchtelconsistsofacompressor,turbine,andgeneratorarrangedinlineanddirectlycoupled,similartolargesteam
turbines.Rotatingat3,000rpm,ithasapoweroutputof15,400kW,ofwhich11,400kWisabsorbedbythecompressor.Theremaining4,000kWdrivesthe
generator.Officialtestsmadepriortoinstallationindicatedathermalefficiencyof18.04percentwhenoperatingwithaturbineinlettemperatureof1,067F(574C).
FollowingtheinstallationatNeuchtel,BrownBoveriinstalledgasturbineunitsatgeneratingplantsinIran,Peru,Venezuela,Egypt,andLuxembourg.Butbecauseof
itslowefficiency,thegasturbinecouldnotcompetewiththesteamturbineforbaseloadpowergeneration.Untilrecentyears,thegasturbinewasusedprimarilyfor
peakloadelectricalgeneration,aspowerplantsforoffshoreoildrillingplatforms,andforaircraftpropulsion.Today,however,thegasturbineincreasinglyisusedfor
baseloadelectricalgenerationinsocalledSTAGcycles(combinedsteamandgas).Hotgasesleavingthegasturbineareusedtogeneratesteam,whichisthen
suppliedtoasteampowerplantboththegasturbinesandthesteamturbinesdrivegeneratorstoproduceselectricalpower.Thethermalefficiencyofthelatestsuch
plantsisabout51percent,comparedtoabout43percentforcontemporarysteamturbineplants.
ThepioneerunitatNeuchtel,installedtomeetthepowerrequirementsofvitalindustriesintimeofwar,remainsinservicetoday.
FurtherReading
AdolphMeyer,''TheCombustionGasTurbine:ItsHistory,Development,andProspects,"InstitutionofMechanicalEngineersJournal&Proceedingno.3:197
212.
R.TomSawyer,TheModernGasTurbine(NewYork:PrenticeHall,Inc.,1945).
S.A.Tucker,"NowGasTurbinesThatWork,"Power83(June1939):5861.
BelleIsleGasTurbine
Schenectady,NewYork
Installedin1949attheArthurS.Huey(laterrenamedBelleIsle)StationoftheOklahomaGas&ElectricCompanynearOklahomaCity,thiswasthefirstgasturbine
usedtoproducecommercialpowerintheUnitedStates.Itrepresentedthetransformationoftheaircraftgasturbineengine,whichseldomranformore
Page99
TheBelleIslegasturbinefollowingitsremovalfromservicein1980.
thantenhoursatastretch,intoareliableandlonglifeprimemover.Thelowcost,simplecyclegasturbineprovidedquickadditionalcapacity,arousingconsiderable
interestintheU.S.electricutilityindustryandleadingtowidespreadadoptionofsimilarunits.Between1966and1976,Americanutilitiesinstalledmorethanfourteen
hundredgasturbineswithoutputsover3,500kilowatts,accountingforsome9percentoftotalelectricoutputnationwide.
GasturbinesusingconstantpressurecombustionwerebuiltindependentlybySanfordMossintheUnitedStatesandbyRenArmengaudandCharlesLemalein
Franceanddemonstratedin1993.Neitherwassuccessfulbecausematerialpropertiesplacedlimitsonthetemperatureofthegasenteringtheexpansionturbine,
resultinginreducedthermalefficiencyincomparisonwithotherprimemovers.
In1936theSunOilCompanyinstalledagasturbineatitsMarcusHookrefinerynearPhiladelphiatosupplyairtotheHoudrycatalyticcrackingprocess.Theturbine,
constructedbyBrownBoveri&CompanyofBaden,Switzerland,didnotperformusefulwork,buttheknowledgeBrownBoverigainedledtotheconstructionofthe
firstcommercialgasturbinedrivenelectricgeneratoratNeuchtel,Switzerland(seeNeuchtelGasTurbine,p.97)in1939.Bothmachineswerecharacterizedby
comparativelylowtemperaturesattheinlettotheexpansionturbine(875950F,or468510C,atMarcusHook1,020F,or548C,atNeuchtel)andmodest
compressionratios(3:1atMarcusHook,4:1atNeuchtel).Significantincreasesincompressionratios,expansionturbineinlettemperatures,andpowercameasa
resultoftheintenseeffortduringWorldWarIItoproduceapracticalgasturbineformilitaryaircraftpropulsion.
Inthelate1930s,engineersatGeneralElectric'sSchenectadyplantbegantostudytheapplicationofgasturbinestolocomotives.WiththeoutbreakofwarinEurope,
theteam,underthedirectionofAlanHoward(190566),turneditsattentiontoaircraftengines,producingbothaturbopropengine(agasturbinethatdrivesan
aircraftpropeller)andaturbojetengine(whichproducesahigh
Page100
speedgasjet).Drawingontheirexperiencewithaircraftengines,theengineersreturnedtotheiroriginalgasturbinelocomotiveprojectfollowingtheendofhostilities.
OneoftheselocomotivegasturbineswasslightlymodifiedforstationaryusetodriveanelectricgeneratorandsoldtoOklahomaGas&Electric.Itwasinstalled
intheutility'sBelleIsleStationin1949.
Thegasturbinewashousedinaseparatebuildingaddedtoonesideoftheexisting51MWsteamplantandcoupledtoaconventional4,000kW,3,600rpm
generatorandexciter.Anabundanceoflowcost,highBtunaturalgasmadetheinstallationattractive.OnJuly29,1949,the3,500kWunitstarteddeliveringpower
tothecompany'sdistributionsystem.BySeptember1953,whenitwasremovedfromserviceforanoverhaul,ithadoperatedfor30,000hoursmorethananyother
gasturbineintheworldatlessmaintenancecostthansteamturbinesandboilers.
Togetherwithasecondunitinstalledin1952,theBelleIsleturbineservedOklahomaGas&Electricforthirtyoneyears.Itwaswithdrawnfromservicein1980when
thestationwasclosed,andreturnedtoGE'sSchenectadyplantfordisplay.
Location/Access
ThegasturbineislocatedoutsideBuilding262attheGeneralElectricCompanyplantinSchenectady,NewYork.Directquestionsto:GEPowerGeneration,1River
Road,Schenectady,NY12345phone(518)3853072.
FurtherReading
J.W.BlakeandR.W.Tumy,"3,500kWGasTurbineRaisesStationCapabilityby6,000kW,"Power92(September1948):6471.
JoelW.Blake,"BelleIsleGasTurbine:After30,000Hours,"Power98(August1954):7579.
AlanHoward,"DesignFeaturesofa4,800HPLocomotiveGasTurbinePowerPlant,"MechanicalEngineering70(April1948):3016.
SPECIFICATIONS
BelleIsleGasTurbine
Output:3,500kW
Speed:6,700rpm(stepdowngearingdrovethealternatorat3,600rpm)
Compressor:15stage,axialflowwith6:1pressureratio
Combustors:6
Fuel:naturalgas
Expansionturbine:2stage
Inlettemperature:1,400F(760C)
Exittemperature:780F(415C)
Weight:64,000lbs.(29,000kg)
Length:18feet(5,486mm)
Width:9feet(2,743mm)
Page101
Nuclear
Introduction
byR.MichaelHunt
FollowingtheannouncementbytwoGermanphysicitsin1938thattheyhadobservedthesplittingoftheatomicnucleus,manyscientistsrealizedthatabombof
enormouspowercouldbeconstructedutilizingthis"fission."By1943theAllieswereatwarwithGermany,Italy,andJapanandwereinalloutefforttoproducethe
bombbeforeitcouldbedevelopedbytheenemy.ThatsameyearEnricoFermi,expatriateItalianphysicist,demonstratedaselfsustainingnuclearfissionreactionwith
an"atomicpile"ofnaturaluraniumandgraphiteundertheStaggFieldGrandstandattheUniversityofChicago.
Evenintheinfancyofthenuclearage,itwasrecognizedthatthepowerreleasedinthisreactioncouldbeharnessedforpeacefulpurposes,suchasthegenerationof
electricity.ButthefirstnewsthatthepublichadofthisnewtechnologywastheexplosionoftheatomicbomboverHiroshima,Japan,at8:15A.M.onAugust6,
1945.
Afterthewar,therewereamazingprophesiesaboutthenew"atomicpower."Atomicpoweredairplaneswouldflyaroundtheglobenonstop,andatomicpowered
carswouldfuelupjustonceayear.Electricitywouldbecometoocheaptometer.Butagainthenextbigstepwasnotcivilianbutmilitary.
AdmiralHymanG.Rickoverbecameconvincedthatthesubmarinecouldhavealmostunlimitedrangeifpoweredbyanuclearreactor.CleverlyplayingofftheNavy
DepartmentandtheAtomicEnergyCommission,heaskedindustryforproposalsfornuclearpropulsionsystems.WestinghouseElectricofPittsburgh,Pennsylvania,
wonwithitspressurizedwaterreactorconcept,installedintheUSSNautilusin1955.Inthis,thenuclearreactoriscontainedinaverystrongsteelvesselandis
cooledby,andthereforeheatsup,water.Bykeepingthewaterinthisprimarycircuitunderveryhighpressure,itispreventedfromboiling.Pipescarrythishotwater
intoheatexchangersalsocooledbywaterinwhichsteamiscreated.Thesteamdrivesturbinesthatturnthepropellersandaturbogenerator,whichmakes
electricityfortheboat.Thecooledprimarywaterreturnstothereactor,andthecyclecontinues.
In1954,PresidentDwightD.EisenhowerannouncedtheAtomsforPeaceprogramtoacceleratethepeacefulusesofatomicenergy,andconstructionofthe
Page102
nation'sfirstcommercialpowerreactorwasbegun.BasedontheWestinghousesubmarinetechnology,thepowerplantwasconstructedatShippingport,Pa.,onthe
OhioRivernearPittsburghandoperatedbyDuquesneLightCompany.Thepressurizedwaterreactorhassincebecomethepreferredreactortypeforelectricpower
generationthroughouttheworld.
Asatechnology,nuclearpowerseemstwoedged.Properlycontrolled,maintained,andrunningsmoothly,thenuclearreactorisoneofthemostenvironmentally
benignwaystomakeelectricity.Nuclearwastedisposalisanissue,butseemstobeonerequiringadecisiononmethodologyratherthanpracticality.Butitsbirthin
thebomb,thecomplexityofitstechnology,andtheinvisibilityandpotentiallongtermlatenteffectsofnuclearradiationhavemadeusfearful.Intrinsicallysafepower
reactordesigns,whichdonotrelysoheavilyonmotors,pumps,valves,etc.,forsafety,areonthedrawingboards.OnlytimewilltelliftheywillbebuilttintheUnited
States.
Page103
ShippingportAtomicPowerStation
Shippingport,Pennsylvania
ThedevelopmentofnuclearpowerplantsforthegenerationofelectricitywasacornerstoneofPresidentDwightD.Eisenhower'sAtomsforPeaceplan,aproposalto
givetheworldaccesstononmilitarybenefitsofnuclearfission.Inthe1950stherewasnoobviousorsingledirectionleadingtowardtheproductionofeconomical
powerreactors.Consequently,theU.S.Governmentjoinedprivateindustryindevelopingavarietyofprototypes,includinglightandheavywatercooledreactors,
gascooledreactors,andothersystems.Whenplansforaproposedaircraftcarrierpoweredbyalargescale,lightwatercooledreactorwerecanceled,theNaval
ReactorsBranchoftheAtomicEnergyCommission(AEC),ledbyCaptainHymanG.Rickover,redirecteditseffortstowardacivilianreactorfortheproductionof
electricpower.
TheAEC'sdecisiontobuildthefirstfullscalepowerreactorwasafirststeptowardestablishinganewindustry.In1953theAECinvitedproposalsforinvestmentin
theproject.Ofthenineoffersreceived,thatfromtheDuquesneLightCompanyofPittsburghwasbyfarthebest.Thecompanyofferedtobuildtheplantonasiteit
ownedinShippingport,Pennsylvania,asleepyvillageontheOhioRiver25miles(40km)northwestofPittsburgh.Duquesneofferedtobuildthe
ShippingAtomicPowerStationpriortoitsclosurein1982.
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turbogeneratorplantandoperateandmaintaintheentirefacilityWestinghousewouldserveasgeneralcontractorforthepowerplant,whichtheAECwouldown.
OnLaborDay(September6)1954,groundwasbrokenforthenation'sfirstcommercialpowerreactor.SpeakingfromDenverviaradioandtelevision,President
Eisenhowerannouncedhisadministration'sAtomsforPeaceplan,then,wavingan"atomicwand,"setabulldozerinmotionattheShippingportsite.Hesaidofthe
plant,expectedtoproduceenoughpowerforonehundredthousandpeople:"Inthusadvancingtowardtheeconomicproductionofelectricitybyatomicpower,
mankindcomesclosertofulfillmentoftheancientdreamofanewandbetterearthIamconfidentthattheatomwillnotbedevotedexclusivelytothedestructionof
manbutwillbehismightyservantandtirelessbenefactor."
TheShippingportAtomicPowerStationwasdesignedandbuiltundertheguidanceofCaptainRickover,whopaidfrequentvisitstothesitetocheckprogressand
conferwithprojectmanagersJohnW.SimpsonofWestinghouseandJohnE.GrayofDuquesneLight.TheprojectteamhadtheseeminglyHerculeantaskofbuilding
theplantintwentyfourmonths'time,byMarch1957,thoughlaborstrikesandsteelshortagespushedcompletionbacktoDecemberofthatyear.
TheShippingportprojectwasdirectedtowardadvancingthebasictechnologyoflightwater(i.e.,ordinarywater)cooledreactorsthroughitsdesign,development,
building,testing,andoperationaspartofapublicutilitysystem.Thereactorwashousedinfourinterconnectedcontainmentvesselsofreinforcedconcreteandsteel
buriedbelowground.Itconsistedofaprimarysystemcontainingthenuclearreactorandthewaterthatcirculatedthroughthereactorcoretocoolit,andacompletely
isolated(andtherebyuncontaminated)secondarysystemcontaininglight(demineralized)water.Asitflowed,thewaterintheprimarysystemabsorbedheatfromthe
fissioningnuclearfuel.Theprimarysystemwaskeptunderhighpressure2,000psig(13,780kPa)topreventthewateraroundthereactorcore.)Theheatedwater
flowedtofourheatexchangersthroughwhichthewaterofthesecondarysystemcirculated.Here,thesecondarysystemwaterwasconvertedtosteam,providingthe
energytodrivethesingleturbineanditsgenerator.
Theseedandblanketreactorcorewaschosen.The"seed"consistedofenricheduranium,whichleakedneutronsintoa"blanket"ofnaturaluraniumcomprising
95,000fuelelements,theheartofthereactor.Itwashousedinapressurevessel25feet(7,620mm)highand10feet(3,048mm)indiametermadeof8inch(203
mm)thickcarbonsteelwallsthatapproachedtheverylimitsofsteelfabricationatthattime.
TheShippingportreactorachievedcriticallyonthemorningofDecember2,1957,fifteenyearstothedayafterEnricoFermihadachievedtheworldsfirstnuclear
chainreactioninChicago.Twoweekslater,theturbinegeneratorwassynchronizedwithDuquesneLightsdistributionsystem.OnWednesday,Decem
Page105
ber18,1957,justaftermidnight,thefirstelectricitywasfedintothepowergrid,whichcarrieditthroughoutthegreaterPittsburgharea.OnDecember23,thereactor
attaineditsfullcapacityof60megawatts.
Thoughconstructiondelays,escalatingcosts,designredundancies,andexpensivetestequipmenthadcombinedtopushtheplant'sgenerationcoststoasmuchasten
timesthoseofexistingfossilfuelstations,itsengineeringachievementswerenotable.Shippingport,anuclearpower"laboratory,"representedafundamentallynew
conceptionofreactordesignspecificallyfortheproductionofelectricpower.Theplantperformedalmostflawlesslyfromthefirstdayofoperation,establishingitself
asaresourceofinformationonreactortechnologyforafledglingindustry.Overthenextsixyears,hundredsofengineersandtechnicianslearnedtherudimentsof
reactortechnologyatShippingport,whilehundredsofexcellentperformanceandtheinformationitprovidedcontributedtotheadoptionoflightwaterreactor
technologybynationsworldwide.Today,about80percentoftheworld'sreactorsarelightwater.Theirheritage,historianWilliamBeaverhaswritten,"canbetraced
toShippingport."
TheShippingportstationoperatedwithitsfirstcoreuntil1964.Asecondcoreincreasedtheplant'sgeneratingcapacityto100megawatts.From1976to1977the
plantwasmodifiedwithinstallationofalightwaterbreederreactorcore,designedtoproducemoreuranium235thanwasusedtoproduceenergy.Thepioneering
plantwasshutdowninOctober1982.Sincethen,ithasachievedanotherhistoricfirst,becomingthefirstnuclearpowerplanttobecompletelydismantled.The
reactorvesselandothercontaminatedcomponentsarenowstoredattheHanford,Washington,reservation.
Location/Access
TheshippingportAtomicPowerStationhasbeendismantled.
FURTHERREADING
WilliamBeaver,NuclearPowerGoesOnline:AHistoryofShippingport,ContributionsinEconomicsandEconomicHistory(NewYork:GreenwoodPress,
1990).
RichardG.HewlettandJackM.Holl,AtomsforPeaceandWar,19531961:EisenhowerandtheAtomicEnergyCommission(Berkeley,Calif.:Universityof
CaliforniaPress,1989).
Page106
Geothermal
Introduction
Energystoredwithintheinterioroftheearthisavailableforexploitation.Generallytheheatflowistoosmallforpracticaluse,buttherearelocations,typically
associatedwithvolcanoes,hotsprings,fumaroles(steamjets),andotherphenomena,wheretheheatflowislargeenoughtobeuseful.Thisgeothermalenergywas
usedbytheRomanstwothousandyearsagotoheattheirbaths,andcertaintownsinFrancehaveusedgeothermalwaterfordomesticheatingsincetheMiddleAges.
Warmwaterspasarereputedtohaveimportanttherapeuticproperties.
Geothermalenergywasfirstusedasasourceofpowerin1904inItaly.PrincePieroGinoriContiusedsteamissuingfromthegroundatLarderelloinTuscanytodrive
asteamengineconnectedtoanelectricalgenerator.ThesteamattheGeysersinCaliforniawassimilarlyharnessedinthemid1920s.
ThesteamavailableatLarderelloandtheGeyserscontainsrelativelylittlemoistureandisconsequentlyeasytouseinsteamenginesandsteamturbines.Most
geothermalsourcesyieldamixtureofsteamandhotwater,andsuchliquiddominatedsourcesaremoredifficulttouseasasteamsourceforenginesandturbines.
Nevertheless,smallpowerplantswerelocatedatsuchsourcesinJapanin1925andin1951buthavesincebeenabandoned.Largescaleexploitationofsourcesof
thistypefirsttookplacein1958attheWairakeiplantinNewZealand.
Asof1980,1,072MWofelectricalpowerwerebeingproducedattheGeysers,391MWatLarderelloandotherItaliansites,and281MWatWairakeiandother
NewZealandlocations.Variouscountries,includingJapan,Iceland,andtheformerSovietUnionaremakingsubstantialuseofgeothermalpower.Withaviewto
encouragingwideruseofthisenergysource,theUnitedNationshasconvenedanumberofinternationalconferencesonthetopic,andasaresult,manyother
countrieshavebeguntoassessthepossibilitiesofexploitingtheirgeothermalresources.
Thefluidsproducedbygeothermalsourcesarecomplex,including,besidessteamandsubstantialamountsofwater,dissolvedmineralsandgases.Theseconstituents
havetoberemovedtoagreaterorlesserextentbeforethefluidcanbeusedinasteamturbine.Muchefforthasbeenappliedtothedevelopmentof
Page107
suitableseparationmethods.Insomecasesthegeothermalfluidhasbeenusedtoheatasecondaryfluid,whichisthensuppliedtotheturbines.Thiswas,infact,the
procedureoriginallyadoptedattheLarderelloplantinItaly,butitwassubsequentlyabandoned.Suchindirectmethodsincuranefficiencypenaltybecausethe
secondaryfluidcannotreachthetemperatureofthegeothermalfluid.
Themineralandgaseousconstituentsofthegeothermalfluidcanpresentproblemsofdisposalaftertheavailableenergyhasbeenextractedbecausedischargeof
wastewaterintoriverscandegradethewaterqualityfordownstreamusersorreleasehazardousmaterialsintotheenvironment.Wherethisisaproblem,reinjectionof
thewaterintothegroundhasbeentried,butitseffectonthefluidissuingfromthesourceisuncertain.Noiseandfumesarealsoassociatedwiththeuseofgeothermal
energy.Soitisnotasbenignasmightatfirstappear.Inspiteofthis,theanticipatedincreaseinfuelpricesasaconsequenceofthedecreaseinavailableoilwillmake
geothermalenergymoreattractive,particularlytodevelopingcountriesthathavesuchasourceavailable.Themechanicalengineercanthereforeexpecttohavemany
interestingproblemstosolvebeforethistypeofenergyisexploitedtoitsfullpotential.
Page108
TheGeysersUnitI,PacificGas&ElectricCompany
nearHealdsburg,California
HuntinggrizzliesinthemountainsbetweenCloverdaleandCalistogain1847,explorersurveyorWilliamBellElliottcameuponastartlingsight:puffsofsteamrising
fromthecanyonofBigSulphurCreek.Theawestruckhunterthoughthehadcomeuponthegateofhell.WhatElliotthadseen,infact,werepuffsofgeothermal
steam,calledfumaroles.''TheGeysers,"astheareacametobecalled,quicklyacquiredfameforitshotsprings,fumaroles,andsteamvents,andin1851ahotelwas
builtthere.(Thename"Geysers"isamisnomer,asnogeysersoccurhere.)MorethancenturyafterElliott'sdiscovery,thenaturalsteamwouldbeputtowork,
poweringthefirstcommercialplantintheUnitedStatestogenerateelectricityfromgeothermalsteam.
Geothermalsteamoriginatesinthemagma(moltenrock)oftheEarth'sinteriorandfromslowradioactivedecayinsolidrockformations.Althoughthethicknessofthe
Earth'scrustaverages20miles(32km),insomeplacesitisthinnerorthereareweakspots.Suchregionsaremarkedbyvolcanicactivityand,inareaswheretrapped
bodiesofsubterraneanwaterexist,bythepresenceofhotsprings,geysers,orfumaroles.
Inthe1920s,J.D.GrantofHealdsburgbegandrillingwellswiththehopeofharnessingthesteamforthegenerationofpower.Furtherdevelopmentwasrestrainedby
therelativelycheapfossilfuelavailableforsteamelectricpowergenerationandtheneedforimprovedmaterials,especiallystainlesssteel,that
TheGeysersUnitI.CourtesyPacificGas&ElectricCompany.
Page109
couldstanduptothecorrosiveeffectsofthehydrogensulfideinthesteam.In1955MagmaPowerCompanyleased3,200acres(1,295ha)oflandfromtheGeysers
DevelopmentCompanyanddrilleditsfirstwell.Ayearlater,MagmacontractedwiththenewlyformedThermalPowerCompanytodrilladditionalwellsandaidin
marketingthesteam.
In1958PacificGas&ElectricCompanysignedacontractwithMagmaThermaltobuildasteamelectricpowerplantandagreedtoconstructadditionalgenerating
facilitiesasMagmaThermaldevelopedthenecessarysteamsupply.PG&E'sgeothermalcomplexbeganmodestly.OnSeptember25,1960,theGeysersUnitI,with
anetcapacityofIImegawatts,cameonline.
Theprincipaldifferencesbetweenageothermalpowerplantandotherpowerplantsarethreefold:(1)thereisnoboiler(2)steampressuresarelower(Ioopsig,or
689kPa,attheGeysersUnit1)and(3)thesteamcontainsmuchlargerquantitiesofnoncondensiblegases,whichmustberemovedfromthecondenserstomaintain
vacuum.
AtUnit1,superheatedsteamisobtainedfromanetworkofwells7,000to10,000feet(2,134to3,048m)deep.Thesteam,asitcomesfromthewell,contains
particulates(rockdust,forexample),whichmustberemovedbywhirlingthemoffincentrifugalseparators.Thesteamisthenpipedtotheturbinegeneratora
12,500KWGeneralElectricunitinstalledin1924atPG&E'sSacramentoPowerPlantthatwasmodifiedtopermitgreatersteamflowwhereitisexpanded
throughsixstagestodriveanelectricgeneratorofstandarddesign,thenexhaustedintoabarometriccondenser.Condensingsteamandcoolingwatermix,andthe
mixturedropsdownabarometriclegintoahotwell,fromwhichitispumpedtoacoolingtowerwhereitiscooledbyevaporation.A10mile(16km),60KW
transmissionlineconnectstheplanttothePG&Esystem.
Noncondensiblegasestheseaverage0.75percentbyweightandincludemethane,hydrogen,hydrogensulphide,andammoniaarecleansedfromthesteamby
steamjetejectors.Originally,thegaseswereexhaustedintotheatmosphereathighvelocity.Inthe1970s,Unit1wasretrofittedwithanincineratorandachemical
watertreatmentsystemthatusesavanadiumsolutiontocleansethewastegasesofmalodoroushydrogensulfide.Condensate,formerlydischargedintoadjacentBig
SulphurCreek,todayisreinjectedintothesteamfieldthroughinjectionwells,helpingtoreplenishthesteamreservoirandallayingenvironmentalconcerns.
Fromitssmallbeginningin1960,theGeysersofPG&Ehasgrowntoacomplexof19geothermalunitsinSonomaandLakecounties.In1984naturalsteamfrom
belowtheEarth'ssurfacewasharnessedtoproducearecord7.1billionkilowatthoursofelectricity,enoughtomeettheneedsofmorethanamillioncustomers.Unit
1,thegrandfatherofgeothermalenergyintheUnitedStates,continuestoproducepowertoday.
Page110
Location/Access
TheGeysersUnit1islocatedonGeysersRoadnearHealdsburg,95miles(153km)northofSanFrancisco.
FurtherReading
E.T.AllenandArthurL.Day,SteamWellsandOtherThermalActivityat"TheGeysers"California(CarnegieInstitutionofWashington,1927).
A.W.Bruce,"NaturalSteamSourceHarnessed,"ElectricalWorld153(27June1960):4650.
AlbertW.BruceandBenC.Albritton,"PowerFromGeothermalSteamattheGeysersSteamPlant,"JournalofthePowerDivision,Proceedingsofthe
AmericanSocietyofCivilEngineers85(December1959):2345.
Page111
POWERTRANSMISSION
Introduction
Theutilizationofpowerrequiresitsgeneration,itstransmissiontosomepointofuse,anditsapplication.Asanexample,theautomobileenginegeneratespowerfrom
burninggasoline,transmitsthepowerbyadriveshaft,andappliesthepower,throughthewheels,tomovethevehicle.Rotarymotioniscommontoeachoneofthese
sequencesofprocesses.Theenginecrankshaftrotates,thedriveshaftrotates,andthewheelsrotate.However,allthesecomponentsmustbeguidedandrestrainedin
someway:arotatingshafthasnonaturaldisciplineitmustbeimposed.Atthepointofrestraintthe"bearing,"asthemechanicalengineercallsitonepartwill
rotateinsideanother.Ourownexperiencetellsusthatatthebearingthereisfrictionandgenerationofheat.Thisheatrepresentsalossofpower.However,theloss
canbeminimizedbylubricatingthebearingwithasemisolidmaterial:greaseoraliquidoil.
Althoughbearingsareaconceptdatingfromtheinventionofthewheelinprehistorictimes,itisonlyrecentlysomewhatmorethanonehundredyearsagothat
mechanicalengineershaveunderstoodhowtodesignbearingsthatminimizethelossofenergyduetofriction.Thismay,atfirstsight,seemlikealimitedcontributionto
thewelfareofthehumanrace,butittakeslittlereflectiontoappreciatethatfrictionispresentwheneveronesurfacemovesoveranother.Becauseoftheuniversalityof
thislossandtherecognitionthattheenergyhascome,inmostcases,fromafiniteandrenewablesource,areductioninfrictioncanbeseenasasubstantialbenefit.
RobertH.Thurston(18391903)ofCornellUniversity,andoneofthenineteenthcentury'sleadingengineeringeducators,probablywasthefirstAmericanengineerto
recognizethepossibilitiesofdesigningbearingsrationally.In1885hepublishedATreatiseonFrictionandLostWork.Asaconsequencehewasconsultedbyother
engineersfacedwithproblemsinlubrication,andhedrewhisstudentsintothisworkbyassigningthemprojectsconnectedwithquestionsarisingfromhisconsulting
activities.Oneofthesestudentswasabrightand
Page112
impecuniousfellowbythenameofAlbertKingsbury(18621943).Kingsbury'slifeseemstobetypicalofthatofmanyAmericanengineersworkingattheturnofthe
century.Forfinancialreasonshealternatedbetweencollegeandworkasamachinist,butthiswasnobadthing.ItgaveKingsburyandotherslikehimapractical
senseaboutmechanicaldevicesthatwascriticaltohisinventionofanentirelynewtypeofbearing,theKingsburythrustbearing.Thisstoryistoolongtotellhere,but
thereisanintriguingrelatedtalethatmustbementioned.Assooftenisthecaseintechnicalwork,thestoryofthethrustbearingisoneofsimultaneousand
independentinvention.AbearingessentiallyidenticaltoKingsbury'swasinvented,quiteindependently,byanAustralianengineer,A.G.M.Michell(18701959).Even
moreinterestingisthecommonoriginoftheseinventions.BothKingsburyandMichellwereledtothedesignoftheirbearingsbythetheoreticalworkofOsborne
Reynolds(18421912),professorofengineeringattheUniversityofManchesterinEngland,andoneofthemostdistinguishedofengineeringscientists.In1886,
ReynoldshadshownbypuremathematicalanalysishowtodesignthetypeofbearingthatKingsburyandMichellhadinvented,butbysomeoversightoffatehedid
nottaketheextrastepandinventthepracticaldevice.
Thepivotedpadbearing,astheKingsburyandMichellbearingsshouldproperlybecalled,isusedextensivelyinsteamturbinesandwaterturbines.Inmachinesof
boththesetypes,theshaftscarrysubstantialthrustsalongtheiraxis,arising,inthecaseofthesteamturbine,fromunbalancedsteamforces.Inthewaterturbine,which
isarrangedwiththeshaftvertical,thethrustbearingcarriestheweightofthegeneratorrotorandturbinewheelinamodernmachine,thiswouldamounttoseveral
hundredtons.Priortotheintroductionofthepivotedpadbearing,theaxialthrustintheseapplicationsusuallywascarriedbyasocalledmulticollarthrustbearing.
Withthistypeofbearing,collarsthatareintegralwiththeshaftarearrangeduniformlyalongitslength,andahorseshoeshapedbearingpadislocatedbetweeneach
pairofcollars.Thisdevicecantakeupasubstantiallengthofshaft(severalmeters,inthecaseofmarinesteamturbines),butthecomparablepivotedpadthrust
bearingistypicallylimitedtoalengthoflessthanameter.
Thetransmissionofpowerisnotthestuffofdramanevertheless,itsroleinmodernsocietyiscritical,andthestory,notwithouthumaninterest,haslessonsfortoday
aboutengineeringresearchandpractice.Threepeopleworkingindependentlywereabletorevolutionizethetransmissionofpower.Likesomanyofthecontributions
ofthemechanicalengineertomodernlife,theyareunknowntoawiderpublic.
Page113
KingsburyThrustBearing
Holtwood,Pennsylvania
ThefirstKingsburythrustbearingwasputintoserviceonJune22,1912,underthe10,000kilowattUnit5attheHoltwoodhydroelectricstationofthePennsylvania
Water&powerCompany.The48inch(1,219mm)diameterbearinghasbeenatworkeversince,effortlesslycarrying410,000pounds(186,000kg)ataspeed
of94rpm.
Allrotatingmachinerymustusebearingstomaintainthecorrectlocationbetweenstationaryandrevolvingparts,andtomaintainthecorrectrelativepositionofthe
shaftanditssupportingstructure.Specifically,athrustbearingmaintainstherelativeaxiallocationofashaftanditssupportingstructure.Helicopterrotors,for
example,andboatandairplanepropellersneedthrustbearingsontheirshafts.Sodowaterandsteamturbines,whichmustoperatecontinuouslyforlongperiodsof
timeusuallyseveralyearswithnomaintenance.
TheKingsburythrustbearingwasthebrainchildofPittsburghmechanicalengineerAlbertKingsbury(18631943).Kingsbury'sideawasdeceptivelysimple:instead
ofrollerbearings,aseriesofadjustablebearingsurfaceswouldcarrytheweight,gliding,astheydidso,overacontinuousfilmofoil.
Patentedin1910(No.947,242),theKingsburythrustbearingconsistsofastationarycastironring(calleda"runner"),acupshapedframeorcollar(to
AlbertKingsbury(right)andFrederickA.Allner,wholaterbecame
avicepresidentofthePennsylvaniaWaterandPower
Company,inspecttheUnit5thrustbearingin1937.
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containthelubricant),theshaft,andasegmentalringbearingmembercomprisedofseveralwedgeshapedbearingshoes(usuallysix,asinthecaseofHoltwoodUnit
5)thatareidenticalinsize.Eachshoeislooselyboltedthroughatappedholeatitsmidpointsothatitcanrockabit.Astheshaftrotates,afilmofoilisforced
betweenthestationaryringandtheshoes,wherethepressureishighest.Theoilactuallysupportstheweightthereisnophysicalcontactbetweentherunnerandthe
shoesresultinginextremelylowfrictionandalmostnomechanicalwear.
UntiltheadventoftheKingsburythrustbearing,unitslike
Holtwoodrepresentedtheupperlimitofhydroelectricturbinesizeeventhen,rollerthrustbearingscommonlyusedinsuchinstallationsworeoutquicklyandhadtobe
repairedorreplacedwithannoying(andexpensive)frequency.Kingsburybearingscouldsupportonehundredtimestheloadofrollerbearingswithnegligiblewear
andwererapidlyadoptedforhydraulicandsteamturbineuse.Eventually,PennsylvaniaWater&PowerputthemonalltenHoltwoodunits.
WhenHoltwoodUnit5wasrebuiltforsixtycycleservicein1950,theoriginalKingsburybearingwasfoundstilltobeinperfectcondition.Thebearingwasinspected
againin1969withthesameresult."Notasingleparthaseverbeenreplaced",readsaplaqueattachedtotheunitinrecognitionofAlbertKingsbury'ssingular
mechanicalachievement,whichmadepossiblethedesignofmuchlargerhydroelectricunits,includingthoseoftheTennesseeValleyandBonnevillepowerauthorities.
Kingsburythrustbearingshavealsofoundwideapplicationonthepropellershaftsofoceanliners.
Location/Access
AmodeloftheKingsburybearingismountedonUnit5,PennsylvaniaPower&LightCompany,405OldHoltwoodRoad,Holtwood,PA17532phone(717)284
4101.
FurtherReading
RichardF.Snow,"BearingUpNobly,"AmericanHeritageofInventionandTechnology4,no.1(Spring/Summer1988):45
"AThrustBearingforHighUnitPressures,"AmericanMachinist38(13March1913):44445.
"WaterWheelThrustBearing,"EngineeringRecord67(11January1913):4445.
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MINERALSEXTRACTIONSANDREFINING
Introduction
byRobertM.Vogel
Oneofourearliestorganizedindustrialactivitiesifnottheearliestwastheextractionfromtheearthofavarietyofusefulmineralsandtheirseparationfromthe
worthlesscomponentsoftheirores.SincethetimeoftheBronzeandIronages,vastamountsofhumanenergyandgreatingenuityhavegoneintolocating,andthen
digging,hacking,drilling,firesetting,crushing,blasting,hauling,hoisting,separating,washing,smelting,andbyanalmostendlessarrayofothermethods,systems,
andtreatmentsobtainingthosemetallicandchemicalsubstancesneededorsimplydesiredbypeopleintheircontinualforwardmarch.Asinliterallyeveryother
undertakinginvolvinganydegreeofmechanicaltechnology,theroleofthemechanicalengineerinthisservicegraduallyevolvedfromthatofthemillwright,inventor,
andgeneral"artificer,"andskilledminer,smelter,andrefiner.
Itcaneasilybearguedthatdespitetheincreasingintroductionofaluminumandplasticsintotheproductsandengineeringworksoftoday'sworld,weremaininthe
IronAge.Thegreatbulkofallmachinery,transportationsystems,andtheworksofconstruction,downtoeventhefinestinstruments,arebasedoncastiron,steel,or
somealloyofsteel.Historically,thiswastrueeveninthe"WoodenAge"forwiththeexceptionofthesimplestwoodenimplements,allobjects,devices,andstructures
ofwoodortimberincorporatedferrouselementstojoin,reinforce,resistwear,orprovideacuttingedge.Asirondoesnotoccurinitsnative,metallicstate,the
smeltingofitsoreshasbeenachallengefromantiquity.Althoughhistoricallyavarietyofprimitivemeanswereusedtoextractthemetalfromitsore,notuntilthe
eighteenthcenturywasthereanythinglikewidespreaduseinEuropeoftheblastfurnace,thenasnowthemostpracticalandefficientmethodofironorereduction.
Here,fuelintheform(then)ofcharcoalandafluxoflimestoneorshellswereburnedwiththeoreathightemperatureinavertical,
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cylindricalfurnaceunderacontinuousblastofair.Thiscausedthemetallicirontoseparatefromtheotherconstituentsandsinktothefurnacebottomtoberunoffinto
moldsaspigiron.
Theprincipalimprovementinblastfurnacetechnologywasthesubstitutionforthecharcoalofcokemadefromsoftcoal.Thisoccurredfirstintheearlyeighteenth
centuryalthough,forreasonshavingtodomainlywiththechemicalcompositionofdifferentores,charcoalpigironwasproducedincommercialquantitiesinall
industrialnationsuntillateinthenineteenthcenttury.CharcoalSmeltingpersistedfarlongerintheUnitedStatesandSweedenthaninGreatBritainforthesimple
reasonthattheBritishtimberlandshadbeendepletedearlyandheavilymoreover,GreatBritianwasblessedwithanearlyinexhaustiblereserveofcoal.
ThelandmarkironworksatSaugus,Cornwall,andRingwoodallwerecharcoalfueledthroughouttheirhistory,althoughsmeltingwithanthracitewasbrieflyand
unsuccessfullyattemptedatCornwall.
Secondinimportanceonlytotheextrationofironfromitsoreintheproductionoftheferrousmetalsistheconversionofirontosteel.Historically,arelativitysmall
percentageofthepigironproducedwasconvertedintothestrongerintothemaleablewroughtironand,toanevenlesserextent,intothestrongerandhardersteel.
WithinvetioninthemidnineteethcenturyoftheBessemerandopenhearthprocessforproducingsteelcheaplyandinlargequantities,theworldenteredtheAgeof
steel,andbyabout1890,wroughtironwasbeingproducedonlyinlimitedvolumeforspecilizedproducts.
Byabout1950,openheartsteelhadalmosttotallydisplacedBessemer,andyettodayhardlyanopenheartfurnaceoperatesanywhereintheindustrilizedworld,that
processinturnhavingbeenalmostotallyeclispsedbythefasterandcheaperbasicoxygenmethod.
Whiletheferrousmetalscanberegardedasthebasisofthe(ongoing)IndustrialRevolution,noothermetalhashadaspowerfulanimpactonthecourseofworld
historyasgold.Gold'sintrinsicvalue,theconsequenceofitspeculiarphysicalandchemicalproperties,haslednotonlytotheepochalsearchesandtheextractionof
themealbothfromtheearthitsoreswhennotfoundinthenativestate.Avastarsenalofmechanical,hydraulic,andchemicalprocesshasneendevelopedforthese
purposes.ThelandmarkstampmillatheReedgoldmineistypicalofthemachineryonceusedinthegoldfieldstoreducegoldbearingrockotafinenessthat
permittedulitmateseprationofthemetalfromthewothlesselements,whiletheAlaskaGoldDredgetypifiestheminingonamassivescaleoflowyieldalluvial
deposits.ThesegreatfloatingprocessingplntscombinedthetechnologiesofDredging,matericalshandling,andoreconcertratingintoaningenious,highlyspecialized
machinededicatedtoextractingaminuscule
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quantityofveryvaluablesubstancefromahugevolumeoftotallyworthlessstuff,thevalueoftheproductjustifyingtheenormoscapitalcostsofthedredgeandits
operation.
Attheotherendofthescaleistheengineer'schallengetomineamatericalsuchascoal,wheretheunitvalueisrelativelylowbutwherethereremainstheproblemof
handlingreatvolumesofboththematerialitselfandauselessoverburdenthatmustberemovedtoreachit.Whilethathasalwaysbeenaprobleminthetwentieth
centurytheentirecomplexionoftheprocesschanged.Openpitcoalminingamountstolittlemorethanexcavatingmassivevolumesofoverburdenand(usually)
somewhatlesservolumesofcoal.Withthisprocess,miningtechnologyessentiallybecameoneofbuildinglargerandlargermechinicalshovels,suchas"BigsBrutus,"
inanefforttoreducecoststhroughsheereconomyofscale.Today,strippingshovelsinvariablyelectricallypowered,areamongthelargestmovableobjectsonland,
operatingastheydoentirilyfreeofdimensionalandweightconstraints.
ThediscoveryofthePennsylvaniaoilfieldsin1859commemoratedbytheDrakeWelllandmark,signaledtheappearanceofnewsourceofenergythathasinmany
areasperphapsonlytemporarilydisplacedcoal.Thishasgivenrisetoamammothindustrythatcontinuestoexpandinscaleandtechnologicalrefinementtothe
presentday.Whereastheforcedrivingthepetroleumindustryinthenineteenthcenturywastheneedforilluminatingoilstoreplacethewaningsupplyofwhaleoil,by
theendmanyfractionsfoundofautomobileandtruckusage,spawnedtechnologiesinthedrillingofdeepwellsforwaterandbrineextractionwerewelldevelopedby
timeDrake'sexploithadinspiredexplorationinmanypartsoftheworld.Underpressuretobreakthecrudeoilintoitsvariouscommericallyusefulfraction,engineers
andchemitsquicklydevelopedavarietyofrefiningprocessbasedonearlierchemicaltechnological.Simplestills,suchasthatatNewhall,withcapacitiesmeasuredin
hundredsofgallons,rapidlyevoledintomasive,fullfledgedrefineriesasdemandforilluminants,fuels,solvents,lubricants,andotherpetroleumbasedproducts
explodedinthiscentury.
Aradicallynewsourceofenergyandtherequirementforanequallynontraditionalmeansof"refining"itsmineralbaisiemergedwithstunningsuddennessintheyears
justpriortoandduringWorldWarII.Withthediscoveriesthatinatomicfissiontherelayundreamedofenergypontentialandthatthereweremeansforeffctively
harnessingthatenergy,theAtomicAgewasbon.The"effectiveharnessing"wasanythingbutsimple,however.Underwartimepressurestopro
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duceanatomicbomb,anentirelynewindustrywasdeveloped.''Atomicpiles"thatconvertedtheenrichednaturaluraniumintotheplutoniumfuelneededinthebomb
wereerectedatthelandmarkHanfordBReactor.
Thevastpotentialofautomicenergyistempered,ofcourse,bytheproblemsrealandperceivedinitsonalargescalefortheproductionofelectricalpower,andit
seemsunlikelythatitwillentirelyreplacethefossilfuelsinthenearfuture.
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SaugusIronworks
Saugus,Massachusetts
TheSaugusIronworkswasthefirstsuccessfulintegratedironworksinNorthAmericaandaprototypeofAmericanindustry.ItwaspromotedbyJohnWinthropthe
YoungerandtheCompanyofUndertakesoftheIronWorksinNewEngland,agroupofsometwentyEnglishmenandservalMassachusttesresidentsorganizedfor
thepurposeofdevelopinganironworksintheAmericancolonies.Winthroupandhissuccesor,RichardLeader,builttwoplantsbetween1644and1647toconvert
bogironintocastandwroughtiron.AtBraintee,southofBostonnearLynn,wasacompleteironworks.Undertakenonlyaquartercenturyafterthelandingofthe
Pilgraims,itwasanimpressivetechnologicalachievementforanearlycolony.
TheironworksatSaugusor"Hammersmith,"astheplantwascalledcoiedthoseinEngland,fromwhichitsbuilderscame.Itconsistedofahugefurnaceaforge
comprisingtwofineries,achafety,andahammerarollingandslittingmillandextensivewaterpowersystemandworkers'housing.Thefurnacewasashellof
fieldstone,about26feet(7.9m)squareatandabarrelshapedhollowcore,theinwardlyslopinglowersectionofwhichthe&ldquobosh"supportedthechargeof
ore,flux,andfuel.Belowtheboshwasasquarecruciblelinedwithrefractorysandstone.Thechargingtherawsurmountedbyastackwithasideopeningatitsbase
chargingtherawmaterialsfromatimberconnectingthefurnacetotheadjacenthillside.
TheSaugusIronworksNationalHistoricSiteisareconstruction
ofthesuccessfulintegratedironworksinNorthAmerica.
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Leatherbellows,operatedbyawaterwheel,suppliedtheairblastthroughatuyere(ornozzle)inthefurnacebase>Undertheinfluenceofheat,theore(ironoxide)
wasreducedbynthecharcoalfuel(carbon)tometalliciron.Theheavymoltenmasscollectedinthehearthatthebaseofthefurnace.Imputitiesthatwerecoalesced
bythefluxfloatedontopofthemoltenironandweredrawnoffasslag.Totaptheiron,thesideopenninginthehearth,temporarilysealedwithfireclay,were
pierced.Theresultingironwaseithercastdirectlyintoarticlessuchaspots,skillets,andfirebacksoritwasinotslablike"pigs,"ehichwerelaterreheatedand
processedintoavarityofcastorwroughtironarticles.About3tons(2.7t)ofbogoreand265bushels(9,3381)ofcharcoalwererequiredtomakeasingleton(0.9
t)ofiron.
Intheforgehouse,equippedwithwaterpoweredbellowsandahammer,werethetwofineriesandchafery.Inthefineries,theironpigwasmeltedandtheresidual
carbonremovedbyoxidationtoproducewroughtiron.Itwasthenworkedbyhammerintoaroughrectangularbar,orbloom.Bloomswerereheatedinthechafery,
thenforgedbypowerhammerintolongrectangularbars,theprincipalproductoftheironworks.Inthenearbyrollingandslittingmill,someofthebarironwasfurther
reducedtoflats,thencutlengthwiseintorodsandbundledforsaleandeventualreductiontonails.
ThewaterpowersystematHammersmithconsistedofastoneandearthendamacrosstheSaugusRiver,formwhichwaterwasdirectedbya1,6000foot(488m)
canaltoareservoir.Fromthereservoir,aracechanneledthewatertowheelsthatpoweredthefurnacebellows,theforge,andtherollingandslittingmill.
Archeologicalexcavationhasshownthatthefurncebellowsweredrivenbyasixspokedovershotwheelbetween16and17feet(4,877and5,181mm)indiameter
andabout2feet(610mm)wide.Thesizeandtypeoftheotherwheelsisnotdefinetlyknown.
TheSaugusIronworkswasnotfinanciallysuccessful,norwasitaslonglivedasmanyofitssuccessors.Theironworkschangedowenersanumberoftimesand
sufferedfromlackofcapital,highproductioncametoanendabout1670.Evenbeforeitsdemise,however,Hammersmithhadbeguntotheskilledlabourwithout
whichtheymightneverhavegottenunderway.By1700,ironworkshadbeenestablishedinMassachusetts,Connecticut,RhodeIsland,andNewJerseymmostwere
startedorstaffedbytheworkerswhohadonceworkedatBraintreeorHammersmith.
Follingextensive(ifimperfect)archologicalinvestigationbetween1948and1954,theAmericanIronandSteelInstitiuteandtheFirstIronWorksAssociation,Inc.,
understookthereconstructionoftheSaugusIronworks,whichtodayincludesafurnace,forge,blacksmithshop,androllingandslittingmill.Theironworkshouse
complexthatsurvives.
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Location/Access
TheSaugusIronworksNationalHistoricSite,administratebytheNationalParkService,islocatedat244CentralStreetnearSaugusCenter,Saugus,MA01906
phone(617)2330050.Admissionfree.
FurtherReading
E.N.Hartley,IronworksontheSaugus(Norman,Okla:UniversityofOlkahomaPress,1957).
CornwallIronFurnace
Cornwall,Pennslvania
TheironidustryintheAmericancoloniesbeganinNewEnglandintheseventeenthcentury.(see"SaugusIronworks,"p.119),butitdidnotshowrealgrowthuntilthe
eigteenthcentury.ThenPennsylvaniatookthelead,owingtoitsseeminglyinexhaustibledepositsofironore,endlesstimberlands,greatdepositsoflimestone,plentiful
waterpower,andgreatpoolofironmasterandskilledworkers.Ironmakingflourishedtherebetween1720,whenironwasfirstpeoducedattheCoalbrookdale
FurnaceinBerksCounty,andtheRevolutinaryWar.Bythestartofwar,therewereabouttwentyfurnacesinPennsylvania,morethaninanyothercolony.Oneof
these,theCornwallIronFurnace,istheonlyoneofseveralhundredsofAmericancharcoalfueledblastfurnacestosurvivefullyintact.
TheCornwallFurnaceoweditsexistencetotherenownedCornwallOre
TheCornwallIronFurnaceasitappearedca.1860.
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Banks,locatedafewmilessouthofLebanon.Thiswasonextraordinarliyrichdepositofmagnetiteironorethat,untildevelopmentoftheLakeSuperiorores,wasthe
mostimportantsourceintheUnitedStates.PeterGrubbofCornwall,England,purchased300acres(121ha)oftheironrichlandin1732,andby1742hisCornwall
Furnacewasinfulloperation.Grubbdiedin1745andhissonsinheritedtheestate.IronmasterRobrtColemanfamily'slongstewardship,finallygoingoutofblastin
1883.
TheCornwallFurnacehadtwodistinctlydifferentlives.Whenconstructedinthemideightteenthcentury,itwasentirlytypicalofAmericanironfurnacesofthat
period,consistingofasquatstonestack20feet(6,096mm)squareatthebase,11feetperiod,consistingofasquatstonestack20feet(9,144mm)high.Apairof
woodandleatherbellows,drivenbyanovershotwaterwheelpoweredbyanearbystream,providedthecoldairblast.Theresultingironwascastintopigsorelse
directlyintopots,firebacks,andotherdomesticarticles.DuringtheRevolutionWar,Cornwallcastmunitionsandsaltpans(formakingsaltfromseawater,tomake
upforthewartimeembargo).
From1856to1857,thefurnacewasentirlyrebuilt.Theancillarybuildingswererebuiltinstone,thefurnacestrenghtenedandenlargedto28feet(8,534mm)square
athtebaseand21feet(6,400mm)squarearthetop,althoughitscapacity,or"tubs"anddrivenbya20horsepower(15kW)steamengine,replacedthebellows.The
singlecylinderenginewitha9inchby26inch(228mmby660mm)cylinder,togetherwithapairofplaincylinderboilerssetinthethroatofthefurnaceandheated
bythestackgaseswerefabricatedbytheWestPointFoundry,ColdSpring,NewYork.
Thismodernizedfurnaceistheoneweseetoday.Neitheranthracitecoalnorcokewereeverintroducedasthesmeltingfuel,althoughbothhadretained,although
manycontemporaryironmatersconnectedironmastercontended(aswassubsequentlyproved)thathotblastincreasedproductionefficiency.After1860,charcoal
ironwasprincipalusedfortheproductionofspecialtysteelsfortoolandalleidindustries,andsuchaslocomotiveandcarwheelsandaxles.
Eventually,providemethodsofsteelmaking,especiallytheopenhearthfurnaceresultedinthereadyavaiablityofsteelsequaltothoseproducedfromcharcoaliron
andledtothetotaldemiseoftheoldprocess.WhentheCornwallFurnacewentoutofblastin1883,itreminedintheColemanfamily,whichcontinuedtooperate
other,moremodernfurnacesinthearea.TheoldsitewaspreservedasamonumenttoearliergenerationsofColemanironmasters.In1931MargaretC.Buckingham,
greatgranddaughterofRobertColeman,deededthefurnaceandtsancillarystructurestotheCommonwealthofPennsylvania.
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Location/Access
TheCornwallIronFurnace,administratebythePennsylvaniaHistorical&MuseumCommission,islocatedabout29miles(45km)eastofHarrisburgonRemount
RoadatBoydStreet,Box241,CornwallPA17016phone(717)2729711.Facilitiesincludethecharcoalhouse,furnacecomplex,ironmakingexhibits,anda
picnicarea.Hours:TuesdaySaturday,9A.Mto5P.M.Admissionfee.TheCornwallironmine,oncethelargestopenpitmineintheEast,wasabandoned(about
1973)andnowisfilledwithwater.Twonineteenthcenturyminersvillagesarewithinahalfmile(0.8km)ofthefurnace.
FurtherReading
CedillaBathe,AnEngineer'sMiscellany(Philadelphia:Paterson&WhiteCo.,1938).(Seechapter6,"TheOldCornwallFurnace,"pp.6177.)
AthurCecilBinding,PennsylvaniaIronManufactureintheEighteenthCentury,PublishcationsofthePennslavaniaHistoricalCommission,Vol.6(Harrisburg,
Pa:PennsylvaniaHistoricalCommission,1938).
PaulF.Paskoff,IndustrialEvolution:Organization,StructureandGrowthofthePennslavaniaIronIndustry17501860,StudiesinIndustryandsociety,no.3
(Baltimore:TheJohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1983).
RingwoodManorIronComplex
Ringwood,NewJersey
AmongthemostcolorfulfiguresassociatedwiththecolonialironindustrywastheGermanbornironmasterPeterHasenclver(171693),whoestablishedthefirst
largescalecolonialironworksatRingwoodintheRamapoMountainsofnoorthernNewJersey.Beginninginthe1740s,andcontinuinguntilthe1870s,Ringwood
turnedouttoolsforwarandpeacetime.
Hasenpfeffer,withtwopartners,purchasedtheRingwoodIronworksin1764.Ringwoodhadbeenestablishedi1742bytheOgdenFamilyofNewarkfollowingthe
discoveryofironorebutsthenhadbeenallowedtodecay.Hasencleverrebuilttheironworks,recruitingskilledGermanlaborersotworkit.By1766,Ringwood
consistedofoneabout20ot25tons(18to22t)perweek.Meanwhile,HascencleverassembledoneofthelargestbusinessempiresintheAmericancolonies,
acquiringmorethan50,000acres(20,000ha)oflandinNewJersey,NewYork,andNovaScotia,andbuildingtheCharlotteburgandLongPondironworks(New
Jersey)andCortlandtIronworks(NewYork).
In1767theAmericanCompany(asthenowexpandedinvestorsgroupwascalled)appointedHascenlevermanagerofallofthecpmpany'sproperties.Butit
Page124
RingwoodManorIronworks,ca.1870.DrawingbyLouisP.West,Sr.,
andEdwardMorgan,March1970.
abruptlyreplacedhim,leadinghimtoaninvestigationbytheroyalgovernorofNewJersey,WilliamFranklin.AninvestigatingcommtteeinspectedtheRingwood
worksin1768,findingitinexcellentorderbut,thoughtheFranklinCommitteeprasiedHaseclever'sresourcefulnessandtheefficiencyoftheworks,thedefeated
ironmasterdepartedforLondonin1769,nevertoreturn.
RobertErskinearrivedfromEnglandtomanagethepeopertiesin1771.ErskinewassympathetictotheAmericancause,anddespiteshortagesofworkers(and,
inexplicably,desireitsEnglishowernship),devotedtheRingwoodworkswhollytomakingironforAmericanmilitaryuse.Hisnephew,EbenezerErskine,succeeded
himfollowinghisdeathin1780,butbywar'send,theoncethrivingRingwoodworkswasonceagainidle.
In1807MartinJ.RyersonofPompton,NewJersey,acquredthepropertiesatRingwoodandLongPond.Ryerson,anexperincedironmaster,resumediron
productionatRingwood,makinghouseandbuiltasmallFederalstylehousethatformsthewestwingogthepresentRingwoodManor.Hardtimesandpoorbusiness
acumeneventuallyledRyserson'ssons,whoinheritedRingwoood,tosellittoNewYorkindustrialistandfinancierPeterCooperin1853.Thepropertyalmost
immediatelywastransferredtotheTrentonIronCompany.AbramS.Hewitt(18221903),TretonbusinessmanagerandCooper'ssoninlaw,movedtherewithhis
familyin1857.
HewittagainhadRingwoodthriving.DuringtheCivilWar,Ringwoodturnedoutmortarcarrigesandotherequipment,butfollowingthepanicof1873,theironworks
languishedandwasneveractiveagain.TheHewitts,meanwhile,transformedRingwoodfromacelebratedironworkstoadistingulishedfamilyseat.Hewitt,deeded
thepropertytotheStateofNewJerseyin1936.
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Location/Access
RingwoodStatePark,onSloatsRosd2miles(4km)northofRingwood,isadministeredbytheNewJerseyDivisionofparksandForesty,Box1304,Ringwood,
NJ07456.Besidescollectionoffurnitureanddecorativeartsinthemanorhouse,theRingwoodgroundsarelittereswithartifactsoftheironcomplex,includingthe
hammerheadandanvilofanearlywaterpowerdbloomery.TheNewJerseyHighlandsHistoricalSociety,basedatRingwood,maintainsarchivesandalibraryrelated
ottheNewJerseyironindustryduringtheperiodsof17401940.Hours:WendnesdaySunday,10A.Mto4P.MAdmissionfee.Phone(201)9627031.
FurtherReading
JamesM.Ransom,VanishingIronworksoftheRamapos:TheStoryoftheForges,Furnaces,andMinesoftheNewJerseyNewBorderArea(New
Brunswick,N.J:RutgersUniversityPress,1966).
DrakeOilWell
Titusville,Pennsylavania
WhenEdwinL.Drake(181980)drilledthefirstoilwellinAmericain1859,heiniticatedanewindustryandtechnologicalchangesmorerevolutionarythananyone
couldhavepredicated.Arichsourceofcenctratedenergyandabundentchemicalcomondents,petroluemwouldsuppportsweppingchangesinillumination,
lubrication,powergeneration,transporation,andchemistry."Feweventshavesotransformedhtefaceofcivilization,"readstheplaquemarkingtheDrakeWellasa
HistoricMechanicalEngineeringLandmark.
OilCreekinnorthernwesternPennsylvaniawasabusylumberregionin1851whenDr.FrancisBeattieBrewermovedotthevillageofTitusvilletojoinhisfather's
lumberfirm,Brewer,Waston&Companmy,andfoundanoilspringoncompanyland.In1853hecarriedasampleofpertoleumontriptoHanover,New
Hampshire,whereDr.DixiCrosbyoftheDartmouthMedicalSchoolpronounceditvaluablebutoflimitedusesincetheoilcouldnotbeobtainedinlargequantties.
Afewweekslater,NewYorklaweyerGeorgeH.BissellsawtheoilinDr.Crosby'sofficeandpartners,JonathanG.Eveleth,purchasedthelandfromBrewer,
Waston&CompanyinNovember1854andorganizedthePennslaviaRockOilCompanyofNewYorkthefollowingmonth.Withtheinfusionofmoneyfroma
groupofNewHavencapitalist,includingbankerJamesM.Townsend,thecompanywasreoganizedasthePennsylvaniaRockOilCompanyofConnecticutin1855
butmadelittleprogressowingtodissensionamongstockholdersandnationwidefinancialpanic.Whilematterswereatastandstill,Boswellwasattractedbyan
advertise
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HowOilWellsWereDrilled
OneofthebestdespriptionsofhowoilswellsweredrilledinthenineteenthcenturywaswrittenbyJ.H.A.Bone:
Theexactspotbeingdetermined,ahugederrickiserectedimmediatelyoverit.Thisisasquareframeoftimbers,substantiallyboltedtogether,
makinganenclosureaboutfortyfeet[12m]high,andabouttenfeet[3m]atthebase,taperingsomewhatasitascends.Thisisgenerallyboarded
upaportionofthedistancetosheltertheworkmen.Agroovedwheelorpulleyhangsatthetop,andawindlassandcrankareatthebase.Ashort
distancefromthederrickasmallsteamengine,eitherstationaryorportable,isfixed,andcoveredwitharoughboardshantyapitmanrod
connectsthecrankoftheengineithoneendofthealargewoodenwalkingbeamisarudeimitationofthatofasidewheelsteamer.Arope
attachedtoitsotherendpassesovertheintendedhole.Acastironpipe,from4to5inches[114to127mm]indiameter,isdrivenintothe
surfaceground,lengthfollowinglengthuntiltherockreached.Intheolderwellsthegroundwasdugouttotherock,andawooodentubeputin
it.Theearthhavingbeenremovedfromtheinteriorofthepipetheactualprocessofboringordrillingiscommmenced.Twohugelinksalongand
heavyironpipeisfixed,andintheendofthisisscrewedthedrill,aboutthreeinches[76mm]indiamter,andayard[914mm]long.Whenallis
readythedrillanditsheavyattachmentsareloweredintothetubeengineissetinmotion.Witheveryelevationofthederrickendofthewalking
beam,thedrillstrikestherock,theheavylinksofthe"jars"slidingintoeachotherandthuspreventingajerkingstrainontherope.Therock,as
itispounded,mixesinapulverizedconditionwiththewaterconstantlydrippingintothehole,andassumesapasyform.Afterawhilethedrillis
hoistedoutandasandpumpdroppedintothehole.Thesandpumpisacoppertube,aboutfivefeet[1.5m]long,andalittlesmallerthanthedrill,
havingavalueinitsbottomopeningupwardsandinwards.Asthetubeisdroppedintotheholethepastymassrushesintoitthroughthevalue
andremainsthere.Whenthishasbeendoneseveraltimesthetubeishoistedoutanddrillingrecommences.Itisevidentthatasthedrillisnot
roundattheunlesssomeothermeanswereadopted.Thisispartiallyaccomplishedbytheborer,whositsonaseataboutsixoreightfeet[1828or
2400mm]abovethehole,andahandlefixedtotherope,givingthelaterahalftwistateveryblow.Bythismeansanearerappeoachtoacylinder
holeisattained.Buttheholemustbeasnearlyroundaspossible,andthereforethetoolsaretakenout,anda"rimmer,"or"reamer,''sentdown,
whichcutsdowntheirregularitiesofthehole.Y
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Whentheholehasbeensunktoasufficientdepthand"strikeoil,&dquothenextthingistoextractheoilfromthewell.Ifaflowingwellhasbeen
struck,allthetroubleonthisheadissaved,astheoilandgasrushoutinastream,somethingswihsuchviolencethatthemenhavetomaketheir
arrangementswithconsiderablyrapidity,orthepriviousfluidrunstowaste.Thefirstbusinessistotubethewell.Anironpipe,withavalueatthe
bottomlikethelowervalveofapump,isrundowntheentiredepthfothewell,thenecessarylengthbeingobtainedbyscrewingthesectionfirmly
together.Iftheoildoesnotflowspontaneoulsy,apumpbox,attachedtowoodenrod,alsomadeofsectionscrewedintoeachotheristhetube,
andupperendoftherodattachedtothe"walkingbeam."Thewellisnowreadyforpumping.
Source:Bone,J.H.A.,PetroleumandPetroleumWills(Philadelphia:J.B.Lipping&Company,1865),26264
mentfor"Kier'sPetroleum,orRockOil"depictingaderrickoverasaltwellfromwhichtheoil,soldformedicinaluse,wasobtainedasabyproductitocccuredto
himthatpetroleummightbedrilledinthesameway.
OnMarch23,1858,agroupofNewHavencapitalistledbyTownsmenorganizedanewcompanycalledtheSenecaOilCompany,assumedtheleasetotheTensile
property,andtheNewYork&NewHavenRailroad,toserveasgeneralagent.TheysentDraketoTitusvillein1858todrillforoil.Afternumerousdelays,hebegan
throughtheshiftingsandandclay.Progresswasslow,oftenlessthan3feet(914mm)aday.OnSaturdayafternoon,August27,asDeakeandgiscrewwereaboutto
quitwork,thedrilldroppedintoacreviceatadepthof69feet(21m)andslippeddownsixinches(512mm).Theypulledoutthetoolsandwent
DrakeOilWell,ca.1860.
Page128
home.Latethenextday,drillerWilliamA."UncleBilly"Smithpeeredintothepepeandsawadrakbrownliquid.Theyhadstrukoil!
WhilenooneknowsforcertaintheexactmethodDrakeused,drillersoftheperiodcommonlyerectedawoodenderrickabout40feet(12m)high,trperingatthe
top,whereapulleywasfastened.Overthepulleyranacabletowhichwasattachedaweighteddrillwithachiselpoint.Theotherendofthecablewasattacheda
weigteddrillwithachiselpoint.Theotherendofthcablewasattachedtoawalkingbeam,aheavytimberbeampivotedatthecenter.theotherendofthebeamwas
attachedtothedrillingrope.Withthewalkingbeamseinmotion,thedrillrepeatedlystrucktheearth,boringacylinderhole.Asdrillingprogressed,sectionofmetal
pipewerepushedintotheground,oneaftertheother,tomaintaintheholethroughunstablestratauntilrockwasreached(seesidebar).
By1865,oilfevehadtakenholdoftheformelydrowsyvillageofTitusvilla.Withthedrillingofotherpioneerwells,thepetroleumindustrybegantotakeshape,
spawningalliedindustries:barrelfactories,refineries,engineandboilerworks,andoilwellsupplycompanies.Boomtownsmushroomedasthousandsofwellswere
sunk.TypicalwasPitholeCity,wherebetweenMayandSemtember1865thepoplutionjumpedfromasinglefarmsfamilytofifteenthousand,withhotels,theaters,
churches,andlecturehalls.Noteveryonestruckitrichoilcountrybeenlaidforagreatindustry.
DrakeleftTitusvillein1863,eventuallylosingeverythingbyspeculatinginoilstocks.In1873thePennsylvaniaLegislaturegrantedDrakeapensionof$1,500annually
inrecognitionoftheimportantcontributionhehadmadetotheeconomicdevelopmentsoftheCommonwealth.Pennsylvania'soilproductionpeakedin1891,with
millionbarels(4.9billion1).
Location/Access
AworkingreplicaofDrake'swellandderrickmarksthesitefirstcommericaloilwell.TheDrakeWellandderrickmarksthesiteofthefirstcommericaloilwell.The
DarkeWellMusem(administratedbythePennsylvaniaHistrorical&MuseumCommission,RD#3,Box7,Titusville,PA16354phone(814)8272797)offRoute8,
Titusville,includesdocumentsandartifactsrelatedtothediscovery.Hours:MondaySaturday,9A.Mto5P.MAdmissionfee.InWoodlawnCemetery,Route8,
UnionCity,istheDrakeMemorial,acutstoenmonumenteithabronzestatueofTheDrillererectedin1901.Drake'sbodywasbroughtherefromBethlehemin
1902.
FurtherReading
PualH.Giddens,comp.anded.,Pennsylvania,17501872:ADocumentaryHistory(Titusville,Pa:PennsylvaniaHistoricalandMeseumCommission,1947)
HaroldF.WilliamandArnoldR.Daum,TheAmericanPetroleumIndustry,vol.1,TheAgeofIllumination,18591899(Evanston,Ill:NorthwesternUniversity
Press,1959).
Page129
PioneerOilRefinery(CaliforniaStarOilWorksCompany)
Newhall,California
ThepursuitofpetroleumatTitusville,Pennsylvania,followingEdwinL."Colonel"Drake'scelebratedstrikein1859setoffaperiodoffranticcompetitionandlaidthe
foundationforgreatindustry.Thedemandforoilforlubricationandilluminationheightenedjustasthesupplyofwhaleoildecreased,spurringexplorationasfar
awayasCalifornia.There,fourwellsweredrilledinPicoCanyoninthefoothillsoftheSantaSusanaMountainsintheearly1870s.Toproduceasalableproduct,the
LosAngelesPetroleumCompanybuiltasmallrefinerynearLyonsStationin1873,buttheventure,forfinancialandtechnicalreasons,wasunsuccessfulandthe
companywentoutofbusiness.
In1876theCaliforniaStarOilWorksCompanywasorganized.Meanwhile,betterdrillingmethodsimportedfromtheoilfieldsofPennsylvaniahadgreatlyincreased
productionfromthePicowells,dictatinganewrefinery.In1876theCaliforniaStarOilWorksCompanyestablishedthefirstcommerciallysuccessfulrefineryinthe
WestatAndrewsStationnearthepresenttownofNewhall.
J.A.Scottsupervisedconstructionoftherefinery,whichwaslocatedneartherouteofthenewlyconstructedSouthernPacificRailroadbetweenSanFranciscoand
LosAngeles.CompletedinAugust1876,therefineryconsistedofthreestills.Twoofthem,of15and20barrel(1,789and2,3851)capacity,hadbeenmovedfrom
theearlierLyonsStationrefinerythethirdstill,of150barrel
ThePioneeroilrefinery.
Page130
(17,886l)capacity,wasnew.Afourthstillof150barrelcapacitywasaddedashorttimelater.Initially,a1.5mile(2.4km)pipelinebroughtcrudeoildownfromthe
wellsitestothecanyon'sstoragetanksfromthere,itwashauledbywagontotherefinery.By1879,a7mile(11.3km)long,2inch(50mm)diameterpipeline
connectedPicoCanyonwiththerefinery.Oilflowedtothestillsbygravityfromstoragetankssetonahillside.
TheCaliforniaStarrefineryatAndrewsStationturnedoutseveralproducts,includingilluminatingoil,lubricatingoil,andsmallquantitiesofbenzene.Butkerosenewas
themainproduct,andtwogrades"Lustre"and"PrimeWhite"foundaprofitablenicheintheSanFranciscomarketjustasEasternkerosenewasrisingsharplyin
price.KeroseneproductionatAndrewsStationaveraged750gallons(2,8381)perday.
In1880CaliforniaStarbuiltamuchlargerrefineryatAlamedaintheSanFranciscoBayarea.TheolderrefineryatAndrewsStationwasphasedoutby1888,having
produced90,000barrels(10,732kl)duringitstwelveyearcareer.Inthe1930s,theStandardOilCompanyofCaliforniacarefullyrestoredthetwolargeststillsand
openedthehistoricsitetothepublic.UpinPicoCanyon,meanwhile,PicoNo.4theoldestworkingoilwellintheWeststilloperates,producingonebarrel(119
1)ofcrudeaday.
Location/Access
ThehistoricrefineryislocatedoffPineStreet,lessthanaquartermile(0.4km)southofSanFernandoRoadinNewhall,California.
FurtherReading
HaroldF.WilliamsonandArnoldR.Daum,TheAmericanPetroleumIndustry,vol.1,TheAgeofIllumination,18591899(Evanston,111.:Northwestern
UniversityPress,1959).
ReedGoldMineTenstampMill
Stanfield,NorthCarolina
TheCarolinaPiedmont,nottheAmericanWest,wasthesiteofthefirstU.S.goldrush.Traditionhasitthatin1799,twelveyearoldConradReedfoundayellow
lumpaboutthesizeofasmoothingironinMeadowCreek.Itservedasadoorstopuntil1802,whenJohnReed,theboy'sfather,unawareofitsvalue,solditfor
$3.50.Reedsoonfoundotherlargenuggetsandformedapartnershiptoexploithisfarm'swealth.ThesuccessoftheReedGoldMineby1845,themine's
productionwasestimatedat$1millionstartedastatewidegoldhunt.Between1799and1930,morethan$23millionworthofgoldwasminedinNorthCarolina.
Page131
TheReedGoldMinetenstampmill,builtin1895bythe
MecklenburgIronWorksofCharlotte.
TheReedGoldMine,designatedastatehistoricsitein1971,exhibitsatenstampmillbuiltbytheMecklenburgIronWorksofCharlottein1895.Itisvirtually
identicaltothatwhichpoundedthegoldbearingoreintodustthefirststepinseparatingthegoldfromthe"gange,"oruselesscomponentoftheoreattheReed
Mineinthe1890s.ThemillwasmovedtotheReedGoldMinefromtheCogginsMineinMontgomeryCountryin1974andrestoredtooperatingcondition.
ThetenstampmillhasitsorigininsixteenthcenturyGermany.Resemblinganoversizemortarandpestle,thestampmillconsistsofaheavyoakframecontainingtwo
setsoffiveheavyironstamps,eachweighing750pounds(340kg).Operatingwithinverticaltimberguides,thestampsareraisedbya5inch(127mm)diameter
camshaftanddroppedfromaheightof5to7inches(127to177mm)intoironmortarboxes.(Thedistancevariesaccordingtothesizeofthecrushedore.)
Themortarboxes,each14incheswideby60incheslong(355mmby1,524mm),areconstantlysuppliedwithfreshoreandwaterasthemillworks,thecrushed
particlesfloatoutofthemortarboxthroughafinebrassortinplatescreen.Thecamshaftrotatesat35rpm,droppingastampfirstinthelefthandmortarbox,thenin
therighthandbox,alternatinginanirregularbutconstantpatternfromboxtobox.At350strokesperminute,thetenstampmillcouldcrush10tons(9t)oforein
twelvehours.
Originallysteampowered,theReedGoldMinetenstampmillisnowpoweredbyanelectricmotorconnectedbybeltandpulleytothelineshaft.Itisbelievedtobe
theonlysuchmilltosurviveeastoftheMississippi.ThelastundergroundexcavationattheReedGoldMinewasrecordedin1912.
Page132
Location/Access
ThetenstampmillislocatedoffStateRoute200atReedGoldMineStateHistoricSite,9621ReedMineRoad,Stanfield,NC28163,whichpreservesthesiteof
thefirstauthenticateddiscoveryofgoldintheU.S.(1799).Severalshaftshavebeenretimberedandareopentovisitors.Phone(704)7868337.Hours:April
October:MondaySaturday,9A.M.to5P.M.Sunday,1P.M.to5P.M.NovemberMarch,TuesdaySaturday,10A.M.to4P.M.Sunday,1P.M.to4P.M.
Noadmissionchargedonationsaccepted.
FurtherReading
C.G.WarnfordLock,PracticalGoldMining(LondonandNewYork:E.&F.N.Spon,1889).
FairbanksExplorationCompanyGoldDredgeNo.8
nearFox,Alaska
FollowingthediscoveryofgoldonPedroCreekin1902,dozensofminingcampswereestablishedtoexploittherichplacerdepositsoftheFairbanksdistrict.Early
prospectorscommonlyuseddriftmining(alsocalleddeepplacermining)methods,sinkingaverticalshafttobedrockdriving"drifts,"orundergroundgalleries,from
thebottomoftheshaftalongthetopofthebedrockthawingthefrozengroundwithsteampointsbreakingupthematerialwithpicksandshovelsandhoistingitby
steamenginetothesurfaceforwashinginsluices,searchingthesandandgravelfor"colors."
ThesupplyofreadilyaccessiblegoldhadbeenexhaustedwhentheFairbanksExplorationCompany,asubsidiaryoftheUnitedStatesSmelting,Refining&Mining
Company,begantoprospectnearFairbanksin1924.ThefirmacquiredlargeblocksofalreadyworkedclaimsonClearyandGoldstreamcreeksandbuilt
FairbanksExplorationCompanyGoldDredgeNo.8.
Page133
the90mile(144km)longDavidsonDitchtodeliverwaterfromtheChatanikaRiver.Thewater,togetherwithcompletionoftheAlaskaRailroadin1923,made
largescalegoldproductionpossible.
Goldbearinggraveloccursinstreambedsburiedbeneathupto80feet(24m)offrozenmuckdecayedmossandvegetablematter.Thefirststepwastodrillholes,
spacedfrom200to400feet(60to120m)apart,todeterminewhatareascouldbeprofitablydredged.Next,usingjetsofwaterfromhydraulic"giants"(see"Joshua
HendyIronWorks,"p.161),thesurfacelayerofmuckgraduallywasremoved,exposingsuccessivelayerstothaw."Hydraulicking"usuallywasdonetwoormore
yearsinadvanceofdredging,dependingonthedepthoftheoverburden.Next,thegoldbearinggravelwasthawedbydrivingpipesintriangularformation,spaced
16to32feet(5to10m)apart,downtobedrockandforcingcoldwaterthroughthem.Aftertwotofourmonthsofthawing,dredgesfloatingonpondsscoopedup
thegoldbearinggravels.
TheFairbanksExplorationCompanypioneeredtheuseofdredgesintheFairbanksdistrict.OnethatcombinedexcavatingandconcentratingplantswasDredgeNo.
8,withasteelhull99feet(30m)long,50feet(15m)wide,andadraftof7feet,9inches(2.4m).Thedredgewasmanufacturedbytheshipbuildingdivisionof
BethlehemSteelandassembledonGoldstreamCreek,14miles(22.5km)northofFairbanks,earlyin1928.
Inaction,thedredgeresembledananimatedhouseboat.Itsendlesschainof68steelbuckets,eachwithacapacityof6cubicfeet(0.17m3),dredgedtoanaverage
depthof19feet(5.8m),dischargingthegravelintotheupperendofaninclined,revolvingscreenthatseparatedthegoldbearinggravelfromthecoarserrock.The
relativelyheavygoldfellthroughthescreensandwastrappedintheriffles,whilewastegravelwassentbyconveyortothetailingspilebehindthedredge.After
retorting,assaying,andsampling,thegoldwasshippedtotheUnitedStatesMint.
Anadjustablespudatthesternheldthedredgeinposition.Withthespudasacenter,electricwinchesandcablesanchoredtotheshoreswungthedredgeinanarcof
60.Aftereachswing,theendlessbucketwasloweredandanothercuttaken.Whenthegravelwasdredgedtobedrock,thedredgewasmovedforwardmakingits
ownwaterwayasitchewedthroughpaydirtandtheprocesswasrepeated.Thecompanysupplieditsownpowerat4,000volts(steppedupto33,000voltsfor
transmissionthendownto2,300voltsinthefield)fromaturbogeneratorplantatFairbanks.
Thedredgecrewconsistedofaskilledwinchoperator,whomaneuveredthedredgetwooilersandoneortworoustabouts,orgeneralpurposelaborers.A
dredgemastersupervisedtheoperationfromacontrolroomontheupperdeck.Workstoppedinthefall,whenthedredgepondfrozesolid,andresumedinthe
spring,whencrewsexcavatedicefromthepondtostartthedredgesagain.
In1931,workingthreeshiftsduringtheeightmonthseason(MaytoDecember),
Page134
3
DredgeNo.8advancedadistanceof5,057feet(1,541m),removingandprocessinganaverageof5,040cubicyards(3,853m )perday.Thedredgeoperated
from1928until1959.
Location/Access
LocatedatMile9ontheOldsteeseHighway(P.O.Box81941,Fairbanks,AK99708),thedredgeisopenfromlateMaytoearlySeptemberfortours.Admission
feeincludesgoldpanningkeepwhatyoufind.Nearby,aformerminers'bunkhouseanddininghallnowservesasabar,restaurant,andhotel.Phone(907)457
6058.
FurtherReading
GuyR.Plumb,"WashingGoldatFairbanks,"MinesMagazine22(June1932):910
HanfordBReactor
Richland,Washington
Builtfrom1943to1944aspartoftheManhattanProjecttoproducetheatomicbomb,theHanfordBReactorwastheworld'sfirstplutoniumproductionreactor.*
Itshistorybeganwiththeselectionofavastareaofflat,aridscrublandinsouthcentralWashingtonStateasthesiteofthe"HanfordEngineerWorks".TheHanford
sitewaschosenbecauseofitsproximitytotheBonnevilleandGrandCouleedams,reliablesourcesofplentifulelectricity,andtheColumbiaRiver,whichwould
provideabundantwaterforcooling.Therewereplentyofaggregatesfortheextensiveconcretetheprojectwouldrequire,andtheremotesiteofferedsecrecyand
security.
Hanford'sprimarypurposewouldbetheproductionofplutoniumbytheirradiationofnaturaluraniuminlargewatercooled,graphitemoderatedreactors.Nine
productionreactorseventuallywerebuiltatHanford,ofwhichthree(B,D,andF)werebuiltduringWorldWarII.(Simultaneously,uraniumenrichmentfacilitieswere
builtatOakRidge,Tennessee,sincenoonewassurewhichmaterialwouldproducethebestweapon.)Primecontractorforthedesign,construction,andoperationof
theHanfordfacilitieswasE.I.duPontdeNemours&CompanyofWilmington,Delaware.In1946theGeneralElectricCompanysucceededDuPontasoperating
contractor.
*TheX10reactoratOakRidge,Tennessee,whichservedasapilotplantforHanford,operatedasaplutoniumproductionreactorbetweenFebruary1944andJanuary1945.When
Hanfordwentonline,theX10wasidleduntilafterWorldWarII,whenitwasusedtoproduceavarietyofisotopes.Thus,HanfordBwasthefirstreactorbuiltandoperated
solelyfortheproductionofplutonium.
Page135
TheHanfordBcomplexduringconstruction,1944.
GroundforCampHanford,whichwouldhouseasmanyassixtythousandconstructionworkersandtheirfamiliesatthepeakofactivity,wasbrokenonApril6,
1943.WorkonthefirstoftheHanfordproductionpilesbeganonJune7,1943,andwascompletedinjustmorethanfifteenmonths,astheUnitedStatesworkedto
beatGermanyintheracefortheatomicbomb.OnSeptember13,1944,thedaytheconstructionteamleftHanford,nuclearphysicistEnricoFermi(190154)
insertedthefirstaluminumcanneduraniumslugtobeginloadingthereactor.(Onlytwentymonthsearlier,FermihadfirstdemonstratedinChicagothatanuclearchain
reactioncouldbesustainedandcontrolled.)LoadingwascompletedonSeptember26,andthereactorwentcritical(i.e.,achievedasustainedchainreaction)atafew
minutespastmidnight.ByDecember28,allthreeHanfordreactorshadgonecritical:plutoniumproductioninquantityhadbegun.
TheHanfordnuclearreservationincludedfuelelementfabricationfacilities,productionreactors(or"piles"),andchemicalseparationfacilities.Irradiatedslugsejected
fromaproductionreactorweretemporarilystoredinpoolsofwater,thenmovedinshieldedcasksonrailroadcarstooneofthreechemicalseparationbuildings,
wheretheyweredissolvedinhotnitricacid.Precipitationandcentrifugalprocessesseparatedoutradioactivewastesandsmallquantitiesofhighlypurifiedplutonium
nitrate.TheplutoniumnitratewasshippedbyArmyconvoytoLosAlamos,NewMexico,forfinalpurificationandassemblyintotheworld'sfirstatomicweapons.
Thereactorrequired2,000tons(1,814t)ofmachinedgraphitebarslaidtoatoleranceof0.005inch(0.127mm)andboredwith2,004channelsto
Page136
holdtheuraniumslugs.Twochannelflowribsallowedfilteredwatertocirculatearoundthecanneduraniumslugsatarateof30,000gallons(113,5501)aminute.
Thegraphitebarsformeda36by36by28foot(10.97by10.97by8.53m)block,surroundedbya10inchthick(254mm)envelopeofcastironanda4foot
(1,220mm)thickbiologicalshieldofsteelandconcrete.Supplementingthereactorshields,theroomwallsweresolidconcrete,3to5feet(914mmto1,524mm)
thick.Withtheexceptionoftwoyearswhenitwasidled,Breactoroperatedcontinuously,makingplutoniumformilitaryuseuntilitwasdeactivatedin1968.
By1960,eightproductionreactors,designedsolelyfordefenseproduction,wereatworktomeettheplutoniumneedsoftheColdWar.Allwereshutdownbetween
1964and1971.Nreactor,builttoproducebothelectricityandplutoniumforweapons,wentonlinein1963butwasshutdownin1987forsafetyrepairsfollowing
theChernoby1accident.Today,the560squaremile(1,450km2)HanfordreservationisaghosttownoftheAtomicAge,atemporaryburialgroundforradioactive
waste.Plutoniumreprocessingandfinishingplantsaretheonlyoperatingfacilities.
Location/Access
ThecontrolroomofBreactorisopenfortoursbyspecialarrangement.InformationisavailableattheHanfordScienceCenter,phone(509)3760557.
FurtherReading
RichardG.HewlettandOscarE.Anderson,Jr.,AHistoryoftheUnitedStatesAtomicEnergyCommission,vol.1,TheNewWorld,19391946(University
Park,Pa.:ThePennsylvaniaStateUniversityPress,1962).
VincentC.Jones,Manhattan:TheArmyandtheAtomicBomb(Washington,D.C.:CenterofMilitaryHistory,U.S.Army,1985).
RichardRhodes,TheMakingoftheAtomicBomb(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,1986).
FirstBasicOxygenSteelmakingVessel
Trenton,Michigan
In1954McLouthSteelCorporationintroducedthebasicoxygenprocessofsteelmakingtotheUnitedStates.Borrowingfromaprocessusedonasmallerscaleby
twoplantsinAustria,McLouthpurchasedthreetopblownoxygenconvertersandbuiltahighpurityoxygenplantcapableofproducing3.5millioncubicfeet(99,110
m3of99.5percentpureoxygenperday.ByDecember1954,theDetroitareasteelmakerwasproducing40ton(36t)heatsofcloselycontrolledsteelineighteento
twentythreeminutes'blowingtime.
Page137
Thebasicoxygenprocessquicklyprovedapracticalandeconomicalmethodformakinghighqualitysteel.Withacapitalinvestmentofjust$7million,McLouth's
threevesselsweresooneachproducingupto66tons(60t)ofsteeleveryfortyfiveminutesatonsperhourratenearlythreetimestheopenhearthrecord.By
early1955,McLouthhadproduced600,000ingottons(544,200t)usingthebasicoxygenprocess.Thesteelhadexceptionaldrawingqualityasaresultofthelow
nitrogencontent(aslowas0.0013percent,wellbelowtheusualopenhearthminimum)andthemetallurgists'improvedabilitytocontrolchemicalcomposition
carbon,manganese,phosphorous,andsulfurwithinverycloselimits.
Basicoxygensteelmakingisnotonlyfasterthantheopenhearthprocess,butbecauseitisexothermic(i.e.,thereactionproducesheat),itrequiresnofuel.At
McLouth,moltenironfromthecompany's1,350ton(1,225t)blastfurnacewasrolledintothemeltshopin200ton(181t)bottlecarsandchargedintooneofthree
oxygenvessels,eachapproximately13feet(3,962mm)indiameterand22feet(6,705mm)high,linedwithrefractorybrick.Thevessels,fabricatedbythe
PennsylvaniaEngineeringCorporationofNewCastle,Pennsylvania,weresuspendedfromtrunnionsatgroundleveltoeliminateliftingandpouringthehotmetalby
crane.Next,scrap(representingapproximately20percentofthecharge)andflux(burnedlime,limestone,millscale)wereadded.
Finally,awatercooledlancesupportedbyajibcranewasloweredintothevessel,withitstipjustabovethemoltenmetal,andoxygenwasblowninathighpressure.
Theoxygenrapidlyreactedwiththeirontoformironoxide.Theturbulencecausedbytheoxygenjetresultedinrapidmixingoftheoxidewiththerestofthemetal,
oxidizingoutimpurities(principallysulfurandphosphorous)inthe
Oneofthethreeoriginalvessels,nolongerused,is
displayedoutsideMcLouth'sTrenton,Michigan,plant.

teachers
Page138
formofslag.Abouttwentyminuteslater,thelancewaswithdrawn,theslagpouredoff,andthemoltensteelteemed(poured)intoheavycastironmolds,whereit
solidifiedintoingotsforlaterrollingintoplatesandsheets.
Operatingexperiencequicklyprovedtheworthofthetopblownoxygenconverter.Duringtheperiod194952,theoxygenprocessaccountedfortheproductionof
just12,000tons(10,880t)ofsteelworldwideby1955,itaccountedforalmost1.7milliontons(1.5milliont).Today,thebasicoxygenprocesspioneeredinthe
UnitedStatesbyMcLouth(andsimultaneouslyinCanadabyDominionFoundries&SteelofHamilton,Ontario)accountsforthemajorpartoftheworld'ssteel
production,andtheproportionisstillgrowing.
Location/Access
Oneofthethreeoriginaloxygenvessels,nolongerused,isondisplayatMcLouthSteelProductsCorporation'sTrentonPlant,1650W.Jefferson,Trenton,MI
48183phone(313)2851200.
FurtherReading
C.R.Austin,''OxygenSteelintheUnitedStates,"IronandSteelEngineer33(May1956):6468.
ThomasHruby,"OxygenSteelmakingArrives,"Steel136(4April1955):8084.
WilliamT.Lankford,et.al.,TheMaking,ShapingandTreatingofSteel,10thed.(Pittsburgh:AssociationofIronandSteelEngineers,1985).
"BigBrutus"MineShovel
nearWestMineral,Kansas
BuiltbytheBucyrusErieCompanyin1962,"BigBrutus"wasthesecondlargestsurfaceminingshovelintheworld.(Eclipsingitwasa115cubicyard[88m3]
capacityBucyrusErieshovelthatbeganoperationsattheSinclairMinenearParadise,Kentucky,thesameyear.)ThePittsburg&MidwayCoalMiningCompany
commissionedtheshovel,whichwasbuiltatBucyrusErie'sSouthMilwaukeefactoryandshippedtoHallowell,Kansas.There,itsassemblyoccupiedfiftytwo
Pittsburg&Midwayemployeesforelevenmonths.WhentheshovelwasfinallyputtoworkatP&MMine19onJune6,1963,minesuperintendentEmilSandeen
dubbedthemechanicalgiant160feet(49m)tallandweighing11millionpounds(5millionkg)"BigBrutus."Thenamestuck.
Themodel1850Bshovel,theonlyoneofitskindeverbuilt,wasdesignedtoremovethemine'sthickoverburdenfasterandmoreefficientlythanthe950Bunitit
replaced.Agroundcablesystemsupplied7,200voltpowertotheshovelfromanewGeneralElectrictransformerstation.Withabucketcapacityof90
Page139
BucyrusErie's"BigBrutus"mineshoveltakes
a90cubicyard(69m3biteofKansascoal.
cubicyards(69m3),theshovelaveraged5,000cubicyards(3,823m3)perhourworkinginnormaloverburden,handlingmaterialaveraging60feet(18m)in
thicknessanddoublingproductionfromthemine's18and14inch(406and360mm)seams.AbulldozerandtwosmallershovelsworkinginconjunctionwithBig
Brutushandledthecoalloadingjob.Electricutilitiesconsumedthebulkofthemine'soutput.
BigBrutusremainedinoperationforelevenyears,strippingoverburdentorecoverapproximately9milliontons(8.16milliont)ofcoalduringthattime.Theshovel
wasretiredin1974.Toobigtorelocate,Pittsburg&Midwaydonatedtheshovel,asite,andfundsforitsrestorationtoBigBrutus,Inc.,anonprofitorganization
whosemembershavedonatedthousandsofhoursrefurbishingitasamuseum.
Location/Access
TheBigBrutusmineshovelislocated6miles(10km)westofthejunctionofKansasroutes7and102insoutheasternKansasnearWestMineral(P.O.Box25,
WestMineral,KS66782)phone(316)8276177.Hours:daily,generallyfrom9A.M.tillsunset,butitvarieswiththeseason.Admissionfee.
FurtherReading
"SecondLargestShovelUpsTonnageandLifeatMine19,"CoalAge69(February1964):96100.
Page140
MANUFACTURINGFACILITIESANDPROCESSES
Introduction
Mechanicalengineersaredirectlyinvolvedwithallphasesofmanufacturing,itisappropriatethatanumberofthelandmarkscelebratetheirachievementsinthisfield.
Thischapterincludeslandmarksthatareexamplesofthebasicprocessesofmanufacturing,anditalsoincludeslandmarksassociatedwithmassproduction,that
quintessentialAmericancontributiontotheorganizationofmanufacturing.
Sinceprehistorictimesmostmanufacturedpartshavestartedlifebybeingcastfrommoltenmetalbutsuchmaterialsgenerallydonothavethehardness,strength,or
ductilitythatisrequiredforfurtherprocessingoruse.Asanalternativetocasting,partscanbeformedbyanequallyancientprocess,namelythatofforging.Inforging,
ablockofmetal,usuallyheatedtoahightemperature,issqueezedorhammeredintoshape.Thematerialthatresultsfromthisprocessisparticularlyusefulfor
applicationsinvolvingsuddenlyappliedforces,suchasthoseexperiencedbyaircraftlandinggearatthemomentoftouchdown,becauseithasaninherentstrengthand
ductilitynotfoundinthesamemetalwhencast.
Intheearliesttimes,thesmithusedahandheldhammerforforging,butthislimitedtheamountofmetalthatcouldbehandled.However,theinventioninthefourteenth
centuryofthetilthammer,whichwasdrivenbyawaterwheel,greatlyincreasedthesmith'scapabilities.Nevertheless,bytheearlyyearsofthenineteenthcentury,even
thetilthammerwasinadequate.Thisledtotheinventionofthesteamhammer,asdescribedinthischapter.Itwasastoryofsimultaneousinvention,possiblyindustrial
espionage,andthetransferoftechnologyacrossinternationalborders.
Moderndevelopmentsinforgingavoidtheimpulsiveblowofthesteamhammerbyemployingpresses,whichapplytheloadinacontrolledmanner,oftenunderthe
supervisionofacomputer.Thebeneficialresultonthemetalarethen
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muchmoreevenlydistributedthroughoutthematerial.Whatareprobablythetwolargestpressesinexistencecanexertforcesupto50,000tons(45,000t),andthese
havebeendesignatedaslandmarksinrecognitionoftheircapacity.Assofrequentlyisthecasetoday,theincentiveforproducingsuchmassivepiecesofmachinery
hascomefromtherequirementsofmodernaircraft.
Notallmetalpartsoriginatefromacastingoraforging.Nowadays,manyarticlesarefirstformedfromfinelydivided(150 mto1 mdiameter,or0.006inchto
0.00004inchdiameter)metalpowderbycompressionandbyheatingtoasufficientlyhightemperaturethatthemetalparticlesarefused,orsintered,intoonesolid
mass.Powdermetallurgy,asitisnowcalled,enteredintothemainstreamofmanufacturingin1909,whenW.D.Coolidge(18731975)oftheGeneralElectric
Companyappliedittothemanufactureoftungstenlampfilaments.Forthemodernengineer,powdermetallurgyisofinterestnotsuchmuchbecauseofitsabilityto
formrefractorymetals,suchasplatinumandtungsten,butbecauseitallowstherapid,lowcostmanufactureofarticlesinasequenceoffullyautomatedandcontinuous
processesofcompactingandsintering.Isostaticcompressionwasintroducedin1930toeliminateinternalstressesintheformedpartthatledtocracking.TheBattelle
MemorialInstituteextendedtheconceptbydevisinghotisostaticpressing(HIP)between1959and1964,andthisdevelopmentwasrecognizedbythedesignationof
thefirstHIPvesselasaHistoricMechanicalEngineeringLandmark.
Thepermanentjoiningoftwopiecesofthesamemetaltoformonehomogeneouspiecehasalwaysbeenfeasiblebyforgewelding,wherethetwopartsaresoftened
byheatingandthenhammeredtogether.Theprocess,whichisexpensiveandtimeconsuming,hasbeenreplacedbyelectricarewelding.Thisdatesfromabout1900,
butasmightbeexpected,itwasonlygraduallyintroducedintoeverydayengineeringpractice.Probablyitsmostimportanttestcamewhenitwasappliedin1930to
thesteamdrumsofhighpressureboilers.Thisaccomplishmentisrecognizedbythefortysecondlandmark,whichisasampleweldeddrumthatsuccessfullywithstood
theapplicationofapressuresixtimeshigherthanitscalculatedsafeworkingpressure.Thekeywasautomationandinspectiontheobjectivewastoeliminateweld
variabilitybyusingautomaticweldingmachines,followedbyXrayexaminationoftheweldstodetectflawsthatmightweakentheweld.
Castandforgedpartsgenerallydonothaveasmoothenoughfinishformanyapplications,sothemetalhastobeformedtoitsfinaldimensionsbycuttingwithasharp
tool.Thedevelopmentofsuchmachiningprocessesrepresentspossiblythemostimportantforwardstepinmechanicalengineering.Previouslyprecisionandaccuracy
werelimitedtopartsthatcouldbefinishedbyhand.Aftertheintroductionofmachinetools,largepartsforsteamengines,forexample,couldbemachinedaccurately
andtoclosetolerances,thusallowingmachineswithapredictableperformance,suchasthesteamengine,tobemanufactured.
Theearliestmachinetoolshavenotsurvived.IntheheartofruralVermont,
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however,atrulyoutstandingcollectionofhistoricallysignificantexampleshasbeenassembledattheAmericanPrecisionMuseuminWindsor.Byastrokeof
imaginativegenius,thismuseum,thefirstoftheMechanicalEngineeringHeritageCollection,hasbeenestablishedintheformershopsofRobbins&Lawrence,oneof
the"shrines"ofearlyAmericanmanufacturingtechnology.
ItwasinNewEnglandfactories,likethatofRobbins&Lawrence,thattheAmericanIndustrialRevolutionhaditsbeginnings,andprobablythemostimportantof
thesewastheU.S.GovernmentArmoryinSpringfield,Massachusetts.Here,between1794,thedateofitsfounding,andabout1850,twoofthefundamental
techniquesofwhatwewouldnowcallmassproductionweredeveloped.Historiansoftechnologynormallyrefertothe"Americansystemofmanufacturing"when
discussingtheinnovationsintroducedatSpringfield.Thishadtwosignificantcharacteristics:interchangeabilityofthepartsproducedandtheuseofmachinetools,as
opposedtohandmethods.InterchangeabilitymeantthatanypartofarifleormusketproducedattheSpringfieldArmorycouldbereplacedbyanyoneofthe
correspondingpartsproducedinthesamearmory,withoutanyadjustmentormachiningbeingnecessary.
Themanufactureofriflesandmuskets,eveninverylargequantities,forasinglecustomerdoesnotrepresentwhatwewouldtodaycallmassproduction.Mass
productioninvolvesalargenumberofcustomersaswellasproductioningreatquantities.Itwasthetextileindustrythatreallystartedmassproduction.Theplaceof
textilemachineryinthehistoryofmechanicalengineeringisasimportantastheoftennotedroleofthesteamengine.Thishasbeenrecognizedbythelandmark
designationoftheWatkinsWoolenMillinLawson,Missouri,andindirectly,intheSlaterMill,whichcontainsaremarkablecollectionofoperatingtextilemachinery.
Theapplicationofautomaticmachinerywasextendedfromthetextileindustrytomanyotherareasofmanufacturing.Strikingexamplesofthisareseeninthreeofthe
landmarksdescribedinthischapternamely,theOwensCorningbottlemachineof1903,theCorningribbonmachineof1926,whichproducedelectriclightbulbs,
andtheautomaticplantforautomobileunderframemanufacturethatwasdesignedandbuiltbytheA.O.SmithCompanyofMilwaukee,Wisconsin,whichwentinto
operationin1921.Thelastoftheseprobablyrepresentsoneofthefirstapplicationsofrobotsasareplacementforhumanworkersinautomobilemanufacture.
Massproduction,asweseeit,dependsoninterchangeability,machinetools,and,now,robots,butorganizationisalsoimportant.Organizationinthecontextof
manufacturingmeansthefactorysystem.Thiscombinestheworkersintodisciplinedgroups,workingregularhours.Italsoplaceslargeamountsofmachinepowerat
theworkers'hands,therebyincreasingworkerproductivity.TheNewEnglandarmoriesandtextilemillssuchastheWatkinsWoolenMillareearlyexamplesof
factories.However,amuchearlierexampleprobablyistheshipyard,
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asexemplifiedbythePortsmouthKitteryNavalShipyard,datingfrom1774.AttheotherendofthetimescalewehaveJoshuaHendy'sIronworks,whichis
representativeofthemanylatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturygeneralengineeringworkshopsthathavebeenanimportantfactorinregionalandnational
development.
Inreviewingmanufacturing,weobtainprobablytheclearestsenseofthechangethathasoccurredintheshorthistoryofmechanicalengineering,whichdatesformally
fromabout1750,althoughhumanshavepracticedengineeringinvariousguisesfarlonger.Theearliestengineerswereabletoformmetalbycastingandforging,but
whenitcametocuttingmetal,theirmachinetoolswereofacruditythatisdifficulttocomprehendtoday.Machinetools,combinedwithfactoryorganizationandthe
developmentofinterchangeablemanufacture,hasresultedinourbeingabletoproducegoodsinabundanceandofaqualitythatwouldbeconsideredluxuriousinan
earlierage.Themechanicalengineerhasplayedthemostimportantpartinallthis.
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PortsmouthKitteryNavalShipbuildingActivity
Portsmouth,NewHampshire,andKittery,Maine
Portsmouth,namedafterPortsmouth,England,isNewHampshire'soldestsettlementandonlyseaport.There,themouthofthePiscataquaRiverformsagoodand
deepharborwhosesingularadvantageswererecognizedandexploitedasearlyastheseventeenthcentury.In1603MartinPring,thefirstEuropeantoexplorethe
river,describeditas"anoblesheetofwater,andofgreatdepth,withbeautifulislandsandheavyforestsalongitsbanks."TheBritishgovernmentcommissioneda
surveyoftheharboratPortsmouth,andby1650,timberformastswasbeing,selected,marked,andharvestedforusebytheRoyalNavy.Navalshipbuildingonthe
Piscataquabeganin1690withconstructionofthefirstofthreefrigatesfortheRoyalnavy,the54gunFalkland.The32gunBedfordfollowedin1696andthe60
gunAmerica,in1749.
In1774FortWilliamandMary,whichhadcommandedtheharborentrancesince1690,wasseizedbylocalcolonists.WiththePiscataquafreeofBritishforces,
shipbuildingoperationstosupportthecolonialrevoltgotunderwayonLangdon's(nowBadger's)Island,markingtheoriginofU.S.navalshipbuildingactivityat
PortsmouthKittery.Between1775and1800,sevenvesselswerebuiltherefortheColonialNavy.Thefirstofthesewasthe32gunfrigateRaleigh,launchedfrom
PortsmouthonMay21,1776,sixweeksbeforetheDeclarationofIndependence.CaptainJohnPaulJoneswasAppointedtocommandthenextshipbuilthere,
Ranger,aswiftsloopofwarof18gunsandacrewof150,launchedinMay1777.
In1800theSecretaryoftheNavyrecommendedthepurchaseofthe58acre(23ha)Dennett'sIslandforanewnavyyard.Theislandwasgraduallycleared,anda
blacksmithshop,sawpits,shiphouse,andshedfortimberstoragewerebuilt.InMarch1814thekeelofthe74gunshipofthelineWashingtonwaslaidthevessel
wascommissionedonAugust26,1815,followingthedeclarationofpeacewithEngland.In1866thegovernmentpurchasedtheadjacentSeavey'sIsland,containing
105acres(42ha).Thetwoislandsgraduallywerejoinedbyaccretionsandfilling.Withtime,Portsmouthbecameafullyintegratedshipbuildingoperation,withitsown
foundry,forge,andblacksmithshopscarpenter,tinsmith,andcoppersmithshopsropewalk,mastshopriggingandsailloftsandfloatingdrydock.Theshipyard
evengrewsomeofitsownfoodandkeptasmallherdofcattle.
Ofthethirtythreebuildingsconstructedbefore1900thatarestillextant,abouthalfpredatetheCivilWar.Theoldestisthe"MastandBoatShop,RiggerandSail
Loft"of1837.Ofgraniteandtimberconstruction,itoriginallywasanopenbuildingacanalranthroughthecenter,intowhichlogscouldbefloated,thenwinchedup
forconversionintomastsandspars.Twofloorswereaddedinlateryears,andthebuildingisstillusedastheriggers'shop.
Portsmouthbuiltandrefitdozensofshipsforthenavyinthenineteenth
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USSTennesseeindrydock,PortsmouthNaval
Shipyard,1913.Officialphotograph,U.S.Navy.
century,graduallyshiftingfromsailtosteam.ThefirststeampoweredvesselbuiltherewasthesidewheelfrigateSaranac,launchedin1848.Theyears186263
sawthePortsmouthNavyYardworkingtocapacity.Accordingtoonehistorian,theyardthenemployedmorethantwothousandmen,whobuiltsevenshipsor
gunboatsandrepairedandrefitthreeothers.
Portsmouthbecamethefirstnavalshipyardtobuildasubmarine,theL8,layingitskeelinNovember1914.Today,theshipyardisacenterforthedesign,
construction,andrepairofsubmarines.Since1963,itsofficialnamehasbeenPortsmouthNavalShipyard,eventhoughtheislandsitoccupiesarepartofKittery,
Maine.
Location/Access
ThePortsmouthNavalShipyardMuseumisopentothepublicbyappointment.ItislocatedatPortsmouthNavalShipyard,Code100H,Portsmouth,NH03804
5000phone(207)4383550.Nearby,theKitteryHistoricalandNavalMuseuminterpretsKittery'sandthenation'snavalshipbuildinghistory,aswellaslocal
history.ItisonRodgersRoad,nearroutes1and236phone(207)4393080.
FurtherReading
WalterE.H.Fentress,CentennialHistoryoftheUnitedStatesNavyYardatPortsmouth,NewHampshire(Portsmouth:O.M.Knight,1876).
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SpringfieldArmory
Springfield,Massachusetts
Establishedin1794,theSpringfieldArmorywasthebirthplaceofthesmallarmsindustryintheUnitedStatesandanearlyexampleoflargescalemanufacture.Here,
inthefirstdecadesofthenineteenthcentury,armsmakingwastransformedfromacrafttoanindustry,musketsfromashoptoafactoryproduct.Ordnancefromthe
SpringfieldArmoryhasfiguredineveryAmericanWaritsnamebecamesynonymouswiththeworld'sfinestmilitaryarms.Today,theSpringfieldArmoryNational
HistoricSitehousessometwentythousandriflesincludingthefirstofeachweaponmanufacturedheremakingitoneofthelargestcollectionsofsmallarmsinthe
world.
SpurredbytheU.S.Army'sdemandforsmallarmsofconsistentlyhighquality,asystemofnationalarmorieswasauthorizedbyCongressin1794.Springfield,onthe
eastbankoftheConnecticutRiver,hadservedasafederalstorageandsupplydepotduringtheRevolutionaryWar.presidentGeorgeWashingtonselectedthishilltop
townasthesiteofthefirstUnitedStatesarsenalforavarietyofreasons:itslocationfarenoughinlandtopreventattackbyseaabundantwaterforpowerand
transportationthepresenceofskilledgunsmithsandotherartisansgoodroadsanditsproximitytothenortherndepartmentoftheContinentalArmy.ArmorySquare
becamethesiteofaclusterofworkshopsandstoragebuildings(calledtheHillShops),whileoperationsneedingwaterpower(theMillShops)occupiedscattered
sitesontheMillRiver,amile(1.6km)tothesouth.
"Lock,stock,andbarrel"definetheprincipalelementsandthusmanufacturingfunctionsofshoulderarms.Thelock,orfiringmechanism,requiresmanysmall,
precisionmademetalcomponentsstrongenoughtowithstandpowerfulmechanicalstresses.Thestock,traditionallymadeofhardwood,requiresthecuttingof
irregular,curvedsurfacesfortheexternalformandtoaccommodatethelockandbarrel.Thebarrel,madeofironorsteelcapableofwithstandingtheexplosiveforce
andheatoffiredammunition,requiresprecisionshapingrolling,andweldingthenboringordrilling,rifling,andfinishing.Thearmy'sdemandforreliablemilitary
weaponsofhighqualityandwithinterchangeablepartsledtoSpringfield'spioneeringadvancesinlargescalemanufacture,includingmechanization,millingandquality
control.
Inthe1820s,ThomasBlanchard(17881864)designedstockmakingmachineryabatteryoffourteenspecialpurpose,waterpoweredwoodworkingmachines
thatcompletelymechanizedtheprocessunlikeanythingseeninAmericauptothattime.Blanchard'sbiggestcontributionwasacopyinglatheforturninggunstockor
anyotherirregularlyshapedobjects.Thelathewaswidelyappliedtothemanufactureofshoelasts,handlesforaxesandagriculturalimplements,andcarriageparts.
TogetherwithBlanchard'sotherspecialpurpose
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BlanchardlatheattheSpringfieldArmoryinthe
1920s.CourtesyNationalMuseumofAmericanHistory.
machines,iteliminatedskilledlaborandsetAmericanmanufacturingontheroadtowardmechanizedproduction.
Inthe1840s,chiefmechanicCyrusBuckland(17991891)designedthearsenal'ssecondgenerationofgunstockingmachinery,whichrefinedthetasksoftheearlier
machineryandtookfulladvantageofsteampower.TogetherwithmechanicThomasWarner,Bucklanddevelopednewmillingandcuttingtools,andfilingjigsfor
formingmetalparts.BytheeveoftheCivilWar,theSpringfieldArmoryhadachievedtheU.S.WarDepartment'slongtimegoal:weaponsconstructedwithuniform
partsthatcouldbeeasilyrepairedinthefield.
Duringitslongcareer,theSpringfieldArmorymanufacturedfivemajortypesofshoulderarms,beginningwiththeFrenchsingleshot,smoothboreflintlockmuskets
produceduntil1842.Smoothboremuskets,withlocksadaptedtopercussionignitionofammunition,wereproducedfrom1844until1865rifledmuskets,from1857
to1865.Breechloadingrifles,thethirdmajorweapontype,weremadeherefrom1865until1893.Beginningin1893,thearmoryconcentratedonboltaction,or
repeating,rifles,standinginfantryissueuntil1931.TheseincludedtheKragJorgensenrifle,basedonaDanishdesign,andtheModel1903Springfieldrifle,
unsurpassedamongmilitarysmallarmsduringWorldWarI,whenaquartermillionSpringfieldswereproduced.ThefifthtypeofriflewasthesemiautomaticM1,
madeherefrom1937to1957,andfullyautomaticM14madefrom1959to1963.
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InventorJohnC.Garand'sM1didawaywiththetimeconsuming,manualoperationofunlocking,withdrawing,closing,andlockingtheboltbetweeneachshot.''So
farasfirepowerisconcerned,"Garandsaidin1943,"onemanwiththisweaponisequivalenttofivewiththeconventionaltyperifle."
AsaresultofGarand'ssuccesswiththeM1,thearmory'smostmodernmassproductionmachinerywasinstalled,settingthestandardforordnancemanufacture.
Morethan4.5millionM1riflewereproducedtheweaponservedaroundtheworldduringWorldWarIIandtheKoreanconflict.
ByWorldWarII,whentheSpringfieldArmorydeliveredmorethan3.1millionrifles,publicarsenalsalreadywereavanishingbreedprivateindustrynowmademost
Americanmilitaryproducts.Springfield'sfocusshiftedtoresearchanddevelopment,butprotractedbureaucraticbattlesledtotheDefenceDepartment'scontroversial
decisiontoclosethearmoryin1968.
Location/Access
TheSpringfieldArmoryNationalHistoricSite,atOneArmorySquare(offFederalStreet),Springfield,MA01105,encompassesapproximately55acres(22ha)
andseveralbuildingsoftheoriginalarmorycomplex.TheMainArsenalbuilding(1840s)housetheworld'slargestcollectionsofsmallarms,aswellastheoriginal
BlanchardlatheandmanyofJohnGarand'sprototypesfortheM1.Hours:WednesdaySunday,10A.M.to5P.M.Phone(413)7348551.Otherformerarmory
buildingstodayhouseSpringfieldTechnicalCommunityCollege.
FurtherReading
DavidA.Hounshell,FromtheAmericanSystemtoMassProduction,18001932(BaltimoreandLondon:TheJohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1984).
IA,TheJournaloftheSocietyforIndustrialArcheology,SpecialThemeIssue:SpringfieldArmory,vol.14,no.1(1988).
JacksonFerryShotTower
nearAustinville,Virginia
Erectedbetween1808and1812,theJacksonFerryShorTowerisoneofsixnineteenthcenturyleadshottowersthatsurviveintheUnitedStates.(Theothersareat
Baltimore,Boston,Dubuque,Philadelphia,andSpringGreen,Wisconsin.)ItshistoryisinextricablytiedwiththatoftheleadminesalongtheNewRiverin
southwesternVirginia,firstdevelopedbyColonelJohnChiswellinthemideighteenthcentury.Numeroussmallindustrialestablishmentssprunguparoundthem,and
theminesprovedimportantduringtheRevolutionaryWar,whenFortChiswellwasgarrisonedfortheirprotection.FollowingChiswell's
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TheJacksonFerryShotTowerisoneofonlysix
extantleadshottowersintheUnitedStates
deathin1776,Chiswell'sheirssidedwiththeCrown.TheCommonwealthofVirginiaconfiscatedthemines,andthestateassemblyempoweredthegovernorto
engage"slaves,servantsorother"toworkthemines"togreateradvantage."Later,theminespassedthroughseveralownersuntilThomasJackson,anEnglish
immigrantwhohadworkedattheminesasasmith,boughtthematpublicauctionin1806.Jackson,whoalreadyownedlandinthevicinityoftheNewRiverandhad
establishedaferrycrossing(whencethetower'sname),usedslavelabortobuildthetowerasmallcemeterynearbycontainingtheofsevenblacksistestamenttothe
fatalitiesthatoccurredduringconstruction.
Thedropmethodofproducingshot"solidthroughout,perfectlyglobularinform,andwithoutdimples,scratchesandimperfections"waspatentedinEnglandin
1782byWilliamWattsofBristol.Hismethodwassimple:moltenleadwaspouredthroughasieveatthetopofatower(theheightofthefallvaryinginsizeaccording
tothesizeofshotdesired),producingdroplets.Thedropletsassumedasphericalshapeandsolidifiedastheyfellthroughtheairtothebottomofthetower,wherethe
shotwasquenchedinapoolofwater.ThenewtechnologyspreadquicklyacrossEurope,thentotheUnitedStatesfollowingthebanofimportedshotin1808.
TheJacksonFerryShotTowerconsistsofa75foot(23m)toweroflocal
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limestone,witha75foot(23m)verticalshaftextendingbelowground.Thetoweris20feet(6.096mm)squareatthebase,taperingto15feet(4,572mm)squareat
thetop,withwalls2feet(762mm)thick.Asingledooratgroundlevelpermittedaccesstoawindingwoodenstairwayleadingtothetopofthetower.There,
anotherdooropenedontoasmallroofedporch,towhichladlesofmoltenleadwerehoistedbyrope.Arsenicwasusuallyaddedtotheleadtoincreasesurface
tensionandimprovesphericity.
Atunnelconnectedthebottomofthe150foot(46m)shaftwiththeriverbank,providingforeasyremovalofthecooledshotanddeliveryoffreshwaterfromthe
NewRiver.Afteritwasremovedfromthecoolingvessel,theshotwasbaggedfortransportbywagontocommercialmarketsintheSouth,whereitwassoldforuse
infowlingpiecesandothershotguns.
Jacksonproducedleadshotuntilhisdeathin1824.Hisnephew,RobertRaper,continuedoperationsuntil1839,whenproductionceased.Thetowerhasbeen
restoredtoitshistoricappearancebytheCommonwealthofVirginiaDivisionofStateParks.
Location/Access
TheshottowerpartofShotTower&NewRiverTrailStatePark,RouteI,Box81X,Austinville,VA24312islocatedonU.S.52attheNewRiver,2miles(3
km)northofthePoplarCampexitofInterstate77.Hikingtrailsandpicnicfacilities.Phone(540)6996778.
FurtherReading
WalterMinchinton,"TheShotTower,"AmericanHeritageofInvention&Technology,Spring/Summer1990,52.
WilkinsonMill
Pawtucket,RhodeIsland
TheWilkinsonMillonthewestbankoftheBlackstoneRiverinPawtucketwasbuiltbetween1810and1811bymachinistOzielWilkinson.Thethreestory,rubble
stonemillissignificantforitsassociationwithhisson,DavidWilkinson(17711852),whoplayedacriticalroleinthehistoryoftextiletechnology,insteampower
generation,andinthedevelopmentofthemachinetoolindustry.
OzielWilkinson,askilledblacksmith,migratedwithhisfamilytoPawtucketfromnearbySmithfield,RhodeIsland,about1783.Heopenedashoppoweredbywater
fromthePawtucketFallsand,aidedbyhisthreesons,manufacturedfarmtools,domesticutensils,andcutnails.Later,heforgedanchorsforthelocal
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shipbuildingtrade.TheemergingtextileindustryneededtheskilloftalentedmechanicssuchastheWilkinsons,andwhenSamuelSlater,amastermechanicwhohad
emigratedfromNottingham,builtthefirstsuccessfulwaterpoweredtextilemachineryinNorthAmerica,heturnedtotheWilkinsonsforhelp.From1788to1789,
DavidWilkinsonfurnishedtheironforgingsandcastingsforSlater'sfirstcardingandspinningmachinesSlater'ssuccessledtoconstructionoftheSlaterMillin1793
andtheintroductionofmassproductiontechnologytoaformerlyhandpoweredhomeindustry.
Withtheircreativeironwork,theWilkinsonscontributedtoPawtucket'sreputationasthemostimportantindustrialvillageinAmericaduringtheperiod1790to1820.
In1791Ozielbuiltareverberatoryairfurnace,withwhichhecastirongudgeons(journals)forSlater'swaterwheel,believedtobethefirstevermadeinthiscountry.
In1793DavidWilkinsonproducedoneofthefirststeamenginesforpropellingaboatandsuccessfullytesteditontheProvidenceRiverfourteenyearsbefore
RobertFulton'sfamousdemonstrationoftheClermont.
From1794to1795,OzielWilkinsonconstructedawaterpoweredrollingandslittingmill,justsouthoftheSlaterMill,toproduceironplateandnailrods.Hebegan
makingscrewsforclothiers'andoilpresses,sparkingDavidWilkinson'sinterestincuttingandfinishingscrewthread.By1796,DavidWilkinsonhaddeviseda
machineforcuttingscrewthreadsthatincorporatedasliderest.Thismachine,whichhepatentedin1798,featuredaheavycarriagesupportedonthreerollers.Later,
in1846,Wilkinsonwrotethathisscrewmachine
wasontheprincipleofthegaugeorslidinglathenowineveryworkshopalmostthroughouttheworldtheperfectionofwhichconsistsinthatmostfaithfulagentgravity,
makingthejoint,andthatalmightyperfectnumberthree,whichisharmonyitself.IwasyoungwhenIlearntthatprinciple.Ihadneverseemmygrandmotherputtingachipundera
threeleggedmilkingstoolbutthealwayshadtoputachipunderafourleggedtable,tokeepitsteady.Icutscrewsofalldimensionsbythismachine,anddidthemperfectly.*
Wilkinson'sindustriallathemarkedamajoradvanceandearnedhimdistinctionasthefounderoftheAmericanmachinetoolindustry.
From1810to1811,OzielbuilttheWilkinsonMill,originallydesignedforcottonspinning,justacrossfromhisrollingandslittingmill.Itwaspoweredbywaterand
(forbackup)steam.David,whowasresponsibleforrunningthemill,operatedamachineshoponthefirstfloorwherehemanufacturedandrepairedtextilemachinery.
WorkingwithhisbrotherDaniel,DavidWilkinsonachievedanationalreputationasamasterbuilderoftextilemachineryWilkinsonmachines
*From"DavidWilkinson'sReminiscences,"TransactionsoftheRhodeIslandSocietyfortheEncouragementofDomesticIndustryintheYear1861(Providence,1862),10011.
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AportionofthemachineshopatWilkinsonMill.
weresoldthroughoutNewEnglandandasfarsouthasGeorgia.Wilkinsonalsoperfectedamilltoborecannonsand,about1817,builtthefirstsuccessfulpower
loominRhodeIsland.
In1829,followingaseriousdepressioninthetextileindustry,WilkinsonlosthisbusinessandleftPawtucket.HeworkedatasuccessionofjobsinNewYork,New
Jersey,Ohio,andCanada.In1848hepetitionedCongressforremunerationforhisinventionofthesliderest,whichbythenhadbeenwidelyadoptedCongress
votedtopayWilkinson$10,000"forbenefitsaccruingtothepublicservicefortheuseoftheprincipleofthegaugeandslidinglathe,ofwhichhewastheinventor."
FollowingWilkinson'sdeparturefromPawtucket,theWilkinsonMillwasusedinthemanufactureofwoolengoodsandcottonbraidbutwasneveragainatthecenter
oftextileinnovationasithadbeenduringDavidWilkinson'stenure.
Today,theWilkinsonMillhousestheofficesoftheSlaterMillHistoricSite,amuseumdevotedtoAmericanindustrialandsocialhistory,whichincludestheoldSlater
Mill(1793)andtheSylvanusBrownHouse(1758),thehomeofaskilledartisan.TheWilkinsonMillcontainsaworkingmachineshoponthefirstfloorfeaturinga
nationallysignificantcollectionofnineteenthcenturymachinetoolsatributetotheinventivegeniusofDavidWilkinson.Archeologicalinvestigationsintheearly
1970srevealedtheexistenceoftheoldbreastwheelpitinthebasement,andbitsandpieceofDavidWilkinson'ssecondbreastwheelinstallation(ca.1826)helped
guidetheauthenticreconstructionoftheentirewaterpowersystem.TodaytheWilkinsonMillagainoperateswithpowersuppliedbytheBlackstoneRiver.
Location/Access
TheWilkinsonMill,RooseveltAvenueatMainStreet(P.O.Box696,Pawtucket,RI02862),demonstratestheoperationofanineteenthcenturymachineshoprun
bywaterpower.Phone(401)7258638.Hours:LaborDaythroughNovemberI,andMarchthroughMay:SaturdayandSunday,1to5P.M.JunethroughLabor
Day:TuesdaySaturday,10A.M.to5P.M.,andSunday,1to5P.M.Admissionfee.
Page153
FurtherReading
JosephWickhamRoe,EnglishandAmericanToolBuilders(NewYork:McGrawHillBookCompany,Inc.,1926).
RobertS.Woodbury,HistoryoftheLatheto1850,SocietyfortheHistoryofTechnologyMonographSeries,no.1(Boston:NimrodPress,Inc.,1961).
AmericanPrecisionMuseum/Robbins&LawrenceArmoryandMachineShop
Windsor,Vermont
Infulfillingacontractforthemanufactureof25,000riflesfortheU.S.Government,thefirmofRobbins&Lawrencewasthefirsttoachievetheinterchangeabilityof
machinemadepartsonapracticalbasis,layingthegroundworkformassproduction.ThenewmanufacturingtechnologysonovelthatBritishobserverscalleditthe
"Americansystem"laterspreadtotheproductionofanewconsumerdurable,thesewingmachine,andeventuallytosuchproductsasthebicycle,typewriter,and
automobile.
In1845theU.S.WarDepartmentawardedacontractfor10,000Model1841armyriflestoSamuelE.Robbins,NicanorKendall,andRichardS.Lawrence.
KendallandLawrencewerebothexperiencedcustomgunsmiths,andRobbinswasawealthyretireefromthelumberbusiness.Theybuiltathreestorybrickarmory
andmachineshopin1846and,thoughtheircontractcalledfordeliveryoftheriflesoveraperiodoffiveyearsattherateof2,000peryear,deliveredall10,000rifles
by1847.Mostimportant,thequalityoftheworksurpassedthatofanyotherarmory,includingthenationalarmories.
Aftercompletingthefirstcontract,RobbinsandLawrenceboughtoutKendall.In1848thenewpartnershipreceivedacontractfor15,000moreofthesame
Robbins&LawrenceArmoryandMachineShop.
CourtesyAmericanPrecisionMuseum.
Page154
rifles,tobedeliveredattherateof3,000ayearoverfiveyears.Bytheearly1850s,Robbins&Lawrencewasamongtheforemostmakersofarmsandarmsmaking
machineryintheworld.Thefirm'sfamegrewwhenitdisplayeditsinterchangeablefirearmsattheLondonCrystalPalaceExhibitionin1851.
FromRobbins&Lawrence,theBritishordered152riflemakingmachinesforuseattheEnfieldArmoury.FromtheAmesManufacturingCompanyinChicopee,
Massachusetts,theyorderedtwentythreewoodworkingmachinesforstockmakingthesewereimprovedmodelsofmachinesfirstdevelopedattheSpringfield
ArmorybyThomasBlanchardinthe1820s(see"SpringfieldArmory,"p.146).Amesalsofurnishednumeroussmalltoolssuchasgauges,jigs,andpatterns.These,
thecommittee'smajorpurchases,resultedintheexportofAmericanprecision,highproductionmachineryabroad.Athome,meanwhile,Robbins&Lawrence
mechanicsgraduallycarriedtheirprecisionmanufacturingknowhowtothesewingmachineindustrywhenfirearmsordercollapsedfollowingthecloseoftheCivil
War.
TheAmericanPrecisionMuseumtodayoccupiestheformerRobbins&Lawrencearmoryandmachineshop.Itcontainsthelargestcollectionofhistoricallysignificant
machinetoolsinthenation.Artifactsrangefromsmall,handmademachinetoolsalathe,planer,drillpress,andgearcuttingmachinetypicalofthoseusedbysmall
mechanics'shopsintheearlynineteenthcenturytotheearliestturretlatheknowntohavebeenmadeintheRobbins&Lawrenceshop(1861)andtheearliest
knownAmericanmadeverniercaliper(1846).Thelattertoolmadeitpossibletopreciselycontrolthedimensionsofmachinedparts.Inadditiontoitslargecollection
ofmachinetoolsofalltypes,themuseumalsocontainsvariousproductsofmachinetools,fromdynamostotypewriters.
AmericanPrecisionMuseum
Page155
In1987theAmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineersrecognizedthemuseum'sartifactsasaHistoricMechanicalEngineeringHeritageCollection,atthesametime
designatingtheformerarmoryandmachineshopasaMechanicalEngineeringHeritageSite.
Location/Access
TheAmericanPrecisionMuseumislocatedontheConnecticutRiverat196SouthMainStreet,Windsor,VT0508phone(802)6745781.Hours:May30
November1:MondayFriday,9A.M.to5P.M.Saturday,Sunday,andholidays,10A.M.to4P.M.Admissionfee.TheWindsorCornishBridge(1866),thelongest
coveredbridgeintheUnitedStates,isnearby.
FurtherReading
E.A.Battison,"TheEvolutionofInterchangeableManufactureandItsDissemination,"ASMEPaperNo.87WA/HH4(1987).
DavidA.Hounshell,FromtheAmericanSystemtoMassProduction:TheDevelopmentofManufacturingTechnologyintheUnitedStates(Baltimore:TheJohns
HopkinsUniversityPress,1984).
WestmorelandMalleableIronWorks
Westmoreland,NewYork
In1826SethBoyden(17881870)producedthefirst"blackheart"malleableironprincipallyironandcarbon,renderedtoughandductilebyacontrolledheat
conversionprocessinNewark,NewJersey.Inthenexttwodecades,malleableironfoundriessprangupinNewEnglandandNewYorkfortheproductionof
saddleryhardware,carriageandwagonparts,andagriculturalimplements.Thealloy'suniquemetallurgicalstructuregaveitgreatstrength,remarkableresistanceto
impactandcorrosion,andeasymachinability.
TheWestmorelandMalleableIronWorkswastheoldestmalleableironcompanyincontinuousoperationintheUnitedStates.In1833CalvinAdamsfoundedthe
OakHillMalleableIronCompanyinNewYork'sGreeneCounty.Withinafewyears,WilliamThorpeofAlbanyjoinedhimaspartnerandby1839tookfullcontrol
ofthecompany.FollowingThorpe'sdeathin1847,thebusinesspassedtoWilliamSmithandAbelBuell,whobroughtErastusW.Clarkintothecompany.In1850
BuellandClarkmovedpartofthefoundrytoWestmoreland.Buelllaterleftthebusiness,whichhasremainedintheClarkfamilyeversince.
Thebasicprocessofproducingmalleableironcastingshaschangedverylittleinthepastcentury,althoughthetechniquesofmanufacturehaveadvanced
tremendously.Smallcastingsofbrittlewhiteironaremademalleable
Page156
WestmorelandMalleableIronWorks.
byannealingthemapplyingredheat(1,600F/870C)forseveraldays,thenallowingthemtoslowlycool.Theironismeltedbyanelectricinductionfurnace
insteadofthecoalfiredcupolaofBoyden'sday.Charging,melting,casting,andcleaningoperationshaveallbeenmechanized,speedingupthefoundingprocessand
helpingtoassureuniformityincastings.Meanwhile,cores,whichwereoncehandrammedbygangsofboysseatedatlongtables,arenowformedbycoreblowing
machines,whichforcethecoremixtureinastreamofcompressedairintoventedcoreboxesthatallowtheairtoescapebutholdthesandinafirm,wellpacked
mass.
Intheearlyyears,theindustrywasshroudedinsecrecyasfounderszealouslyguardedtheirtechniqueslestacompetitordiscoverthem.Annealingwasamatterof
guessworkfurnacetemperaturewasjudgedbyeye.CooperativeresearchfollowedtheformationoftheAmericanMalleableCastingsAssociation(succeededbythe
MalleableFoundersSociety)in1897.(E.C.MetcalfoftheWestmorelandMalleableIronCompanywasamongthegroup'sfounders.)Today,independent
laboratoriesanalyzetheironforitscarbonandsiliconcontentthesand,forconsistency.
Between1890and1910,therailroadindustrycausedaspectaculardemandformalleableironforsuchcastingsasjournalboxesandlids,drawbars,brake
equipment,boxcardoorhangers,andmanyothers.After1910,automakersalsoturnedtomalleableironforrearaxlehousings,differentialcases,hubs,steeringgear
housings,andotherpartsrequiringatoughandductilemetalinacomplexformthatwouldbedifficulttoproducebyforging.Presentdayusesofmalleableiron
demonstrateitsversatilityandreliability.Inadditiontoagricultural,automotive,railroad,andconstructionequipment,malleableironisusedinoilfield
Page157
pumps,chainhoistassemblies,plumbingparts,valvehandwheels,fittingsforelectricdistributionsystems,andhandtools,tonameonlyafewapplications.
Location/Access
TheWestmorelandMalleableIronWorkswaslocatedatMainandFurnacestreets(Exit32oftheNewYorkStateThruway,intheCatskillregion).Itclosedits
doorsintheearly1990s,andthefamilycontributedthelandmark'splaqueandothersmementostothelocalhistoricalsociety.
FurtherReading
MalleableIronCastings(Cleveland:MalleableFoundersSociety,1960).
WatkinsWoolenMill
nearLawson,Missouri
TheWatkinsWoolenMillcontainsthefinestcollectionofnineteenthcenturytextilemachineryinsituinNorthAmerica.Builtfrom1860to1861byWaltusL.
Watkins(180684),themillproducedyarnandclothintermittentlyuntilabout1900,whenitwasshutdownintact.Allofthemill'scardingmachines,
ThirdflooroftheWatkinsWoolenMill,showingcardingandspinningmachines.
PhotographbyjetLowe,LibraryofCongressCollections.
Page158
spinningjacks,twisters,looms,dyeingvats,andnappingandfullingmachinesremaininplaceasusedandalteredovertimeofferinganunusuallycompletepicture
oftheoperationofamidnineteenthcenturywoolenmill.
Watkins,amachinistandmasterweaverfromFrankfort,Kentucky,gainedexperienceintextilesbyworkinginthecottonmillsofhisuncles.In1832hemovedto
Missouri,wherehebuiltandforseveralyearsoperatedasmallcottonmillbeforeconvertingittowool.Themillwasdestroyedbyfire,andWatkinstemporarily
turnedhisattentiontofarming.In1839WatkinspurchasedlandinClayCountry,innorthwesternMissouri,andtenyearslaterbuiltanoxdrivenflourandwoolenmill.
InMay1861hecompletedconstructionofathreeandonehalfstory,brick,steamdrivenwoolenmill.
WatkinsprosperedconsumptionofwoolengoodsmorethandoubledduringtheCivilWarandtheWatkinscomplexgrewtoincludeaflourmill,generalstore,
andbroomfactory.Millworkerslivedinsmallhousesonthegrounds.FollowingWatkins'sdeathin1884,histhreesonscarriedonthebusiness,turningfromclothto
yarnsalesin1886,whencheaperEasternwoolensusurpedthemarketforfinishedgoods.About1900,milloperativelefttheirstations.Halfusedsacksofdyedwool
remainedinplacesodidthejournals,pencils,desks,andchairsoftheforemen.Themillremaineduntouchedforthenexthalfcentury.
TheWatkinsfarmremainedintheWatkinsfamilyuntil1945,andthemillanditsmachinerywerepreservedintact.Itwasopenedtotouristsaseffortsweremadeto
interestthestateofMissouriinpurchasingthefarmandmaintainingitasamuseum.TheWatkinsMillAssociation,organizedbyasmallgroupofexecutivesofthe
AllisChalmersCompanyinnearbyIndependence,purchasedthemillbuildinganditscontents.In1963ClayCountyvotersapproveda$184,000bondissuefor
purchaseofalmost800acres(324ha)abouthalftheacreageoftheoriginalWatkinsfarmasastatepark.
TheWatkinsMillStateHistoricSite,whichincludesthewoolenmill,themillowner'shouse(1854),andthechurch(187176)andschool(1856)giventothe
communitybyWaltusWatkins,openedin1965.In1966theWatkinsWoolenMillwasdesignatedaNationalHistoricLandmark.
Location/Access
TheWatkinsMillStateHistoricSiteislocated4miles(6.4km)southwestofLawsoninClayCounty,at26600ParkRoadNorth,Lawson,MO64062phone(816)
2963357.Hours:daily,MaythroughOctoberhoursvaryNovemberthroughApril.Admissionfee.
FurtherReading
LaurenceF.Gross,''TheImportanceofResearchOutsidetheLibrary:WatkinsMill,ACaseStudy,"IA,TheJournaloftheSocietyforIndustrialArcheology7
(1981):1526.
Page159
CreusotSteamHammer
LeCreusot,Burgundy,France
JamesNasmythinventedthesteamhammerin183839toforgethe30inch(75cm)diameterpaddlewheelshaftsforI.K.Brunel'sGreatBritain(seep.216),
thoughBrunellaterrejectedpaddlewheelsinfavorofscrewpropulsion.Ingeniouslysimple,Nasmyth'sdeviceconsistedofananvilonwhichtoresttheforginga
blockofiron,constitutingthehammeritself,whichwoulddelivertheblowandaninvertedsteamcylinder,towhosepistonrodtheblockwasattached.Steam
admittedtothecylinderwouldraisethehammer,whichwouldthenfallofitsownweightupontheforgingontheanvil.Thehammer,withitswideropeningbetween
hammerandanvil,allowedmuchlargerforgingstobeworkedthanwaspossiblewiththetilthammerstheninuse.
FrenchironmasterEugeneSchneider(180575)andhischiefengineer,FrancoisBourdon,reputedlysawNasmyth'ssketchofthehammerduringavisittoNasmyth's
ironworkswestofManchesteratPatricroft.ThetwobuiltthefirststeamhammerattheirworksnearthesmalltownofLeCreusotabout1840.(Nasmyth,meanwhile,
builthisownhammerandpatentedthedevicein1842.)Bythe1850s,SchneiderBrothers&Company(laterknownasSchneider&Company)hadearneda
worldwidereputationasbuildersofthelargestclassesofengines,steamships,andordnancethenknown.Tokeeppacewiththegrowingsizeofcannon,armorplate,
andmarineengineshafts,in1877thefirmbeganbuildingahammerofcolossalproportionsthatwouldeclipseallothers.
TheCreusothammerconsistsoffourdistinctparts:thefoundation,orsubstructure,includingtheanvilthelegs,withtheirentablaturethesteam
EarlytwentiethcenturyviewoftheCreusot
steamhammer,attendedbytwoofthe
fourcranesthatservedit.
Page160
cylinder,withitsvalvesandlinkagesand,finally,theactivemassmadeupofthepiston,pistonrod,hammerhead,anddie.Thefoundationconsistsofsolidmasonry
restingonbedrock36feet(IIm)belowthesoil.Thehollowcastlegsareboltedtoplatesembeddedinthemasonryeachstands33feet(10m)highandisjoined
totheotherbywroughtironplates.Onelegsupportsthepulpit,oroperator'splatform.Atopthelegs,a30ton(27t)tablebindsthewholeintoarigidAframethat
bothguidedthepathofthehammerheadandabsorbedtheshocksofitsblows.
Thesteamcylinder(actuallyastackoftwocylinders)is19feet,8inches(5,890mm)high,withaninsidediameterof6feet,3inches(1,905mm).Steamaveraging71
psig(489.5kPa)wasdistributedandexhaustedthroughtwobalanced,singleactingslidevalvesthatadmittedsteamonlybeneaththepistontodriveitup,notabove
thepistontoforcethehammerdownthehammerusedgravitytodoitswork.Thepistonrod,measuring14inches(355mm)indiameter,wasitselfanimpressive
forging.Togetherwiththehammerhead,itdeliveredaformidablestrikingforceofbetween80and100tons(72and91t),dependingonthehammerandthelengthof
stroke.
Fourstationary,steampowered,swanneckcranesandfourheatingfurnacesservedtheCresothammer,providingsteelingotsweighingupto120tons(109t).The
Creusothammerwasusedtoworkmassiveironandsteelshafts,pistonrods,andotherforgingsthathelpedincreaseworldindustrialcapacity.Itstoodunchallenged
untilBethlehemIronCompanypurchasedthepatentrightsfromSchneider&Companyandbuiltoneofnearlyidenticaldesignin1891.Bethlehemdemolishedits
hammerin1902,whilethatatLeCreusotwasretiredin1930.Bothhammersultimatelyfellvictimtohydraulicandmechanicalpresses,whichcouldapplyforce
slowlyandevenlytoproducelargeforgingsofuniforminternalstructuresomethingnotalwayspossiblewithhammers,whichoftenalteredonlytheoutersurfaces,
leavinginternalstresses.
Thoughstrippedofitslifegivingsteam,theCreusothammercontinuedtoimpressvisitorstotheSchneiderworks.In1969itwasdisassembledandrebuiltinthe
publicsquare.TheCreusothammerisoneofonlyasmallhandfuloflargesteamhammersextantworldwide.
Location/Access
TheCreusotHammerstandsinthepublicsquare.Nearby,theMuseumofManandIndustry,ChateaudelaVerrerie(openbyappointment),interpretslocalhistory,
includingthemining,iron,andsteelindustries.
FurtherReading
T.S.Rowlandson,HistoryoftheSteamHammer,alecturedeliveredattheMechanics'Institution,Patricroft,onDecember14,1864(Eccles,Manchester:A.
Stationer,&C.,1864).
Page161
JoshuaHendyIronWorks
Sunnyvale,California
TheJoshuaHendyIronWorkspioneeredthemanufactureoflargemachineryintheAmericanWest,earningaworldwidereputationforitshydraulicmining
machinery,whichbecameanindustrystandard.ThefirmwasfoundedbyEnglishmachinistJoshuaHendy(182291),whoemigratedtotheUnitedStatesinthemid
nineteenthcentury,settlinginNewYorkandTexasbeforearrivinginSanFranciscoinSeptember1849,atthepeakoftheGoldRush.Withintwomonths,Hendy
startedCalifornia'sfirstredwoodlumbermill.MilledlumberwasanelementalcommodityexpensivetoimportfromtheEast,andHendy'sbusinessventurewasa
success.
Hendyexpandedhisinterestsintomining.Observingtheevolutionfrommanualplacerminingwithpanandpicktomoreefficientpowermachinery,in1856Hendy
foundedtheJoshuaHendyIronWorks.HendybecameoneoftheprincipalsuppliersofgoldandsilverminingmachineryintheAmericanWest,expandinghisSan
Franciscoworksfromoneshoptothree.HendyhydraulicminingequipmentincludingtheHydraulicGiant,theChallengeOreFeeder,andtheHendyOre
Concentratorbecametheworldstandard.
TheSanFranciscoearthquakeandfireof1906leveledtheHendyshops.Companydirectors(Hendyhaddiedin1891)decidedtorelocatetoSunnyvale,aquiet
ranchers'tradingcenter40miles(64km)tothesouth,wherepromotersoffered32acres(13ha)ontheSouthernPacificRailroadmainlineatnocost.Inthe
sprawlingnewplant,thecompanybranchedoutintogatevalvesfor
JoshuaHendyIronWorksmachineshop,1919.
Page162
floodcontrol,irrigation,andpowerprojectsworldwide.DuringtheFirstWorldWar,HendybuiltreciprocatingsteamenginesforcargoshipsduringtheDepression,
HendyproducedthemanyhugegatevalvesfortheBoulderandGrandCouleedams.OtherHendyproductsincludedornamentalstreetlamps,amongthemthe
distinctivelamppostsofSanFrancisco'sChinatowndistrict.
In1940theHendyIronWorkswasacquiredbyaconsortiumledby(amongothers)CharlesE.Moore,K.K.Bechtel,andHenryJ.Kaiser.Thisgroup,whichhad
teameduptobuildBoulderDam,sawthelatentpossibilitiesofthecompany.Withintwoyears,theyexpandedtheplantfrom65,000squarefeet(6,039m2)tonearly
amillion(92,903m2),andfrom60employeesto11,500.Productionwasexpandedtoincludeprecisionparts,propulsionsteamturbinesandreductiongears,
corvetteengines,andtorpedomounts.Hendymanufacturedmorethanaquarterofalltripleexpansionenginesforthe2,700Libertyships(cargovessels)built
between1941and1945,producing773EC2engines(astheyweredesignated)injustthreeandahalfyears.
In1947theWestinghouseElectricCorporationpurchasedthesprawlingSunnyvaleplanttoprovideawesternsourceofequipmentforelectricutilities.Theplantwas
soonproducingsteamturbinesforpowergeneration,transformers,switchgear,andmotors.Sincethe1950s,theplanthasbeenengagedinthedesign,development,
andmanufactureofmissilelaunchandhandlingsystemsfortheU.S.Navy.
Location/Access
SomeoriginalbuildingsoftheJoshuaHendyIronWorksarestillinuseaspartofNorthropGrumman.VisitorscancontacttheIronManMuseum,401EastHendy
Avenue,Sunnyvale,CA94086phone(408)7352020.
OwensARBottleMachine
Toledo,Ohio
In1900allbottlesandmanyjarsmanufacturedintheUnitedStateswerestillproducedbyhumanskillandlungpower.Assistedbyyounghelpers,glassblowersused
ablowpipeandhandtoolstocreateglasses,jars,bottles,bowls,andvases.Toproducerelativelyuniformcontainersforbeverages,food,anddrugs,glassworkers
gatheredagobofmoltenglassontheendofablowpipeandloweredtheglowingmassintoahinged,twopartmetalmoldintowhichtheglasswasblowntoforma
hollowvessel.Afterremovingtheglassfromthemold,theteamfinishedtheneckandshoulderofthecontainerbyhand.
Inthelatenineteenthcentury,theincreasingdemandforbottlesbypackagedgoodsmanufacturerswasastrongstimulustothedevelopmentofamechanical
Page163
TheOwensARautomaticbottlemachineof1914.
CourtesyWalbridge&BellgProductions.
meansofproducingglassware.AnumberofBritishandAmericaninventorspatentedsemiautomaticbottlemachines,butthesestillrequiredtheglassgobtobe
gatheredandfedbyhand.
TheOwensautomaticbottlemachine,thebrainchildofanunorthodoxinventorwithnotechnicaltraining,wasfirstplacedincommercialproductionin1903.Michael
JosephOwens(18591923),askilledglassblower,spenteighteenyearsworkinginglassfactoriesbeforejoiningEdwardDrummondLibbeyin1888attheNew
EnglandGlassCompany(laterToledoGlassCompany)inToledo,Ohio.WithLibbey'sfinancialbacking,Owensdevelopedsemiautomaticmachinestomanufacture
lightbulbs,drinkingglasses,andlampchimneys.
In1895Owensturnedhisattentiontodesigningafullyautomaticbottlemachine.Thegreatestobstaclewasfindingawaytomachinegathertheglassinprecise,
uniformquantities.Owens'singenioussolutionwasasuctiondeviceresemblingabicyclepumpinformandfunction.Withdrawingthepistonrodonthepumpcreated
avacuumthatsuckedupachargeofglassintoamold,formingtheneckofthebottle.Suspendedbytheneck,thegatherofglasswasnextplacedinabodymold,
wherethereturnstrokeofthepistonblewtheglassintothemold,takingitsshape.Thefirstattempttoblowabottlewiththepumpyieldeddistorted"freaks,"but
successivetriesproducedaperfect4ounce(118ml)petroleumjellyjar.Withtheprincipleproven,Owensturnedhisattentiontobuildingacompletebottlemaking
machine.
Owens'sfirstcommercialmodelhadsixarms,orseparateworkingunits,mountedonacircularrotatingframe.Eachcarriedablankmold,aneckmold,andaplunger
forformingtheneck.Thearmdippedtosuckupitsgatherofglass
Page164
asitpassedoverthepot.Owens'smachine,patentedin1904(Nos.766,768and774,690),notonlymadeasatisfactorybottle,itmadeanarrowneckedbottle(the
semiautomaticshadbeenconfinedtotheproductionofwidemouthedware)anditmadeitquickly,turningouttwelveIpint(0.47321)bottlesperminute,17,280
bottleseverytwentyfourhours.Themachinereducedmanuallabortoaminimum,requiringbutasingleoperator.
In1903theOwensBottleMachineCompanywasincorporatedtolicenseestablishedproducers.(TheKentMachineCompanyofToledosuppliedtheOwens
machines.)By1914,fourteendomesticlicenseshadbeenissuedintheUnitedStatescoveringnearlyeveryimportantkindofbottleandjar.TheEuropeanBottle
MachineCompanywasformedtohandleoperationsinEurope,andby1920,OwensbottlemakingmachineswereatworkinEngland,Germany,Holland,Austria,
Sweden,France,Denmark,Italy,Norway,Hungary,Scotland,andIreland.
Between1905and1926,317Owensbottlemakingmachines,comprisingninedifferentmodels,wereputintoproductionworldwide.Introducedabout1912,Model
AR,withtenarms,wasthemostversatile,manufacturingbottlesranginginsizefromprescriptionwaretobeerandcatsupbottlestogallonsizepackers,and
producing,onaverage,140bottlesperminute.
TheOwensbottlemachinerevolutionizedanindustry.In1905themajorityofbottlesandcontainerswerestillproducedbythehandsandlungsofskilledcraftsmen
by192223,80percentofproductionwasmachinemade.By1929,Americanbottleproductionhadbeenwhollytransformedfromahandicrafttoamachine
process,andtheoncedominanthandindustryhadbeenrelegatedtoanarrowandquantitativelyunimportantfield.Uniformcontainersproducedatlowercostmeant
thatglasscontainerswerenowreadilyavailableforpackagingandpreservingfoodandbeverages,pharmaceuticals,householdcleaners,andotherproducts,while
standardheightandcapacitymadehighspeedpackingandfillinglinespossible.Finally,theautomaticbottlemachineputanendtotheindustry'snotoriousexploitation
ofchildren.(In1880childrenbetweentheagesoftenandfifteenconstitutedaquarterofthetotalworkforce,workingtenhourdaysforaslittleasthirtycentsaday.)
InalettertotheOwensCompanyin1913,theNationalChildLaborCommitteeofNewYorkwrotethattheautomaticmachinehaddonemoretoeliminatechild
laborthanthecommitteehadbeenabletoaccomplishthroughlegislation.
TheARbottlemachineisnolongerextant.
FurtherReading
PearceDavis,TheDevelopmentoftheAmericanGlassIndustry(Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress,1949).
WarrenC.Scoville,RevolutioninGlassmaking:EntrepreneurshipandTechnologicalChangeintheAmericanIndustry,18801920(Cambridge,Mass.:Harvard
UniversityPress,1948).
Page165
A.O.SmithAutomaticFramePlant
Milwaukee,Wisconsin
"Anautomaticframeplantthatwouldrunwithoutmen."ThatwasthegoalofLloydR.Smith,presidentoftheA.O.SmithCorporationofMilwaukee,in1916,when
heenvisionedtheautomaticproductionofautomobileframesasawaytocorneralargermarketshareandboostrevenues.Thenationthenproduced1.5million
automobilesannually,withseveralmakersdividingtheexistingmarketforframes.Smithgavetheordertohislargestaffofskilledengineers,andgroundwasbroken
twoyearslater.FollowingdelaysduetoWorldWar1,whenthecompanyproducedwheelhubflanges,casingsforbombs,andotherwarmateriel,Smithengineers
completedplansforaplantperforming552separatemechanicaloperationsoneveryframe.
TheautomaticframeplantrepresentedthefulfillmentofLloydSmith'sdream.Hisgrandfather,CharlesJeremiahSmith,hademigratedfromEnglandandstarteda
smallmachineshopin1874inMilwaukee,wherehebuiltbabybuggies,theninthe1890s,graduatedtobicycles.By1898,C.J.Smith&Sonswasthelargest
producerofbicyclepartsintheworld.In1904ArthurO.Smith,C.J.'syoungestson,organizedtheA.O.SmithCompanyfortheproductionofautomobilestructural
parts.Twoyearslater,thecompanyproducedthefirstpressedsteelautomobileframeinthenationforCleveland'sPeerlessMotorCarCompany.Orderscamein
fromCadillac,Packard,Elmore,andothers.
A.O.Smithautomaticframeplant.Shownis
aspecialmachineforfinishingspringhangers.
Page166
WiththestartupofitsautomaticframeassemblyplantonMay23,1921,A.O.Smithbecametheworld'slargestmanufacturerofautomobileframes.Theplantdid
not,asLloydSmithfirstidealizedit,run"withoutmen,"butrequiredastaffof180atsupervisory,visualinspection,andcontrolstations.Theproductionline,nearly
twocityblockslong,consistedofnineunits,eachunitcomprisingseveralstationsperformingthesameoperation:
UnitNo.1:Pickeduptherawsteelstripsandexaminedthemfordefects,throwingoutthosethatdidnotmeettherequiredstandardsoflength,breadth,andthickness.
No.2:Dousedthestripsinbathsofacidpickletocleanthem.
No.3:Fabricatedthelongerstripsintorightandleftsidemembers,bendingthem,turninguptheiredges,andpunchingholesforrivets.
No.4:Fabricatedtheshorterstripsintocrossmembers.
No.5:Assembledthesidemembers.
No.6:Assembledthewholeframe,inserting,drivinghome,andheadingtherivets.
No.7:Inspectedtheassembledframe,apartlyhumanjob.
No.8:Washed,painted,anddriedtheframe.
No.9:Transmittedthefinishedframetooverheadstorage,whereithungwithothersincarloadlotsuntilaworker,usingasmallcrane,delivereditintoawaitingfreightcar.
Anhourandahalfelapsedfromrawsteeltofinishedframe.Everyeightsecondsaframewascompletedandswungintostorage420anhour,10,000adayfor
eventualdeliverytoPontiac,Chrysler,Chevrolet,andBuick.
Asautomobiles,includingframes,wereredesigned,A.O.Smithmadecorrespondingchangesintheproductionline.Eventually,however,automobiledesignersbegan
tochangethemodelsofeachmakeofcareachyear,requiringcostlyandtimeconsumingchangesintheframeproductionline.That,plusthefactthatrivetinghad
givenwaytoweldinginthemanufactureofautomobileframes,causedtheA.O.Smithframeplanttoclose.ThelastframecameofftheassemblylineonJune24,
1958.
Location/Access
TheA.O.Smithautomobileframeassemblyplantisnolongerextant.
FurtherReading
StuartChase,"DangerattheA.O.SmithCorporation,"Fortune,November1930,6267.
"MakingAutomobileFramesAutomatically,"IronTradeReview83(23August1928):44143.
Page167
CorningRibbonMachine
Dearborn,Michigan
Followinghisinventionofasuccessfulincandescentlampin1879,ThomasEdisonchosetheCorningGlassWorkstomanufacturetheglassbulbsforhisfirstlamps.
Thebulbshadtobeindividuallyblownbyskilledglassblowers.Workingattopspeedintheredorangeglowofaglassmeltingtank,agaffer(asthismastercraftsman
wascalled)andanassistantcouldproduceuptotwobulbsperminute.
Aselectriclightbulbsbegantoassumecommercialimportance,afaster,cheapermethodofproducingthembecameimperative.In1915theEmpireMachine
Company,aCorningsubsidiary,broughtoutasemiautomaticbulbmachineoperatedbyelectricity.Althoughitstillrequiredthemoltenglasstobegatheredandfedby
hand,theEmpiresemiautomaticmorethandoubledworkerproductivityandreducedlaborcostsby70percent.Theracefortheproductionofafullyautomaticbulb
machinebeganinearnest,pittingCorning'sEmpireagainstLibbey'sWestlakeMachineCompany.
Inthespringof1921,CorningengineerWilliamJ."Will"Woods(18791937),whohadhelpeddeveloptheEmpiresemiautomatic,conceivedthesimplebut
revolutionaryideaofblowingbulbblanksthroughaholeinametalplate.Histheorywasthatifagatherofmoltenglasswereflattenedandthenplacedonaplatewith
aholeofthepropersize,theglasswouldsag,byitsownweight,throughtheholetoformaglobularbag.Aircouldthenbeforcedintothisbagtoformtheshapeof
thebulbblanktoperfecttheshape,amoldcouldbeclosedaroundit,andtheairpressurecontinued.Ifaseriesofsuchplateswerehingedtoformanendlesschain,
andaflatstreamor"ribbon"ofmoltenglasslaidonthebeltwhileinmotion,perfectbulbsmightbemadeincontinuousandrapidsuccession.
This3.9inchCorningribbonmachine(here,missingitsbulbremovalwheelandmolds)
sawserviceattheCorningplantinWellsboro,Pennsylvania.Photograph
fromtheCollectionsofHenryFordMuseum&GreenfieldVillage.
Page168
Woodsbegantoexperimentwithasingleplateandaplunger,orblowhead,bywhichhecouldintroduceairintothebag.Hethendesignedamechanismthatwould
firstformthedesiredblanks,thenconductthemwithproperlymaintainedtemperaturesandpredeterminedspeedthroughtheelongatingandblowingoperations.
WorkingwithCorningchiefengineerDavidE.Gray,Woodsdevelopedthefirstsuccessfulribbonmachinein1926.Aglassmeltingtanksataboveoneendofthe
machine,feedingastreamofmoltenglassdownbetweentworollers.Therollerssqueezedthehotglassintoathick,glowingribbon,whichnextmetupwithanendless
beltmadeupofflatsectionsanddriven,likeabicyclechain,bysprockets.Eachsectioncontainedaholeapproximately1inch(25.4mm)indiameter.
Astheglasssaggedthroughtheholes,takingonabulbousshape,aseriesofblowheadsdescendedonthehotribbon,blowingairintothepartiallyformedbulbs.
Meanwhile,athirdchainbelowandinsidethefirstthrustupaseriesofsplitmolds,thelattersnappingtogetheraroundtheglasstogivefinalshapetothebulb.The
entireprocesslastedonlytenortwelveseconds,resultinginashoweroffinishedbulbsalmost300eachminute,400,000perdayastheywerecutoffbya
rotatingknifeanddepositedontoaconveyorforthetriptotheannealinglehr.
By1927,theautomaticproductionofincandescentbulbswasfirmlyestablished,withtwomachines,theEmpireandtheWestlake,accountingfor95percentofU.S.
production.By1930,theperfectedCorningribbonmachinereachedaproductionrateof600to800bulbsperminuteupto1millionperday.Bydecade'sendit
hadeclipseditscompetition.
Morethansixtyyearslater,theCorningribbonmachineremainsthestateoftheart.Withtheexceptionofsomehandmadespecialtybulbs,fewerthanfifteenCorning
ribbonmachinessupplyworlddemandforincandescentbulbs.Today,CorningEngineering,asubsidiaryofCorningGlass,licensesitsribbonmachineworldwide.
Location/Access
A1928CorningribbonmachineisexhibitedattheHenryFordMuseum,20900OakwoodBoulevard,Dearborn,MIphone(313)2711620.Hours:daily,9A.M.
to5P.M.Admissionfee.
FurtherReading
PearceDavis,TheDevelopmentoftheAmericanGlassIndustry(Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress,1949).
Page169
FusionweldedTestBoilerDrum
Chattanooga,Tennessee
WhentheCharlesL.EdgarStationoftheEdisonElectricIlluminatingCompany(seep.90)wentonlineinWeymouth,Massachusetts,in1925,itusedsteam
generatedattheunprecedentedpressureof1,200psig(8,274kPa).Thiswasaboutdoublethehighestpressurethenusedingeneratingstations.Owingtouncertainty
aboutthesafetyofusingastandardboilerdrumofrivetedconstruction,theEdgarStationdrum32feet(9.8m)longby4feet(1,219mm)indiameter,withwalls4
inches(102mm)thickwasforgedfromasinglesteelplate.Theproductionofsuchaforgingwasaremarkabledemonstrationoftheblacksmith'sart,butitwasalso
extremelycostly.
ForgeweldingofhighpressureboilerdrumshadbeentriedinGermanyasearlyas1913.Thesteelplatewasrolledintoacylinder,thenthelongitudinalseamwas
weldedbyhammeringitwhileheatingthemetallocallywithgasflames.Asimpler,lessexpensivemethodappearedwiththeadventofelectricarcweldingonalarge
scalecommercialbasisinthe1920s.
Inthelate1920s,theHedgesWalshWeidnerCompanyofChattanooga,Tennessee,alongwithotherboilermanufacturers,beganweldingandtestingboilerplate.As
itdevelopedandperfectedcoatedelectrodesforelectricarcfusionweldingaprocessofweldingmetalsinthemoltenstatewithoutapplyingmechanicalpressureor
blowsthecompanybegananexperimentalprogramtohydrostaticallytestweldedboilerdrums.OnMay2,1930,ittestedaweldedboilerdrumtodestruction,with
significantresults.
Thedrumhadbeenfabricatedfromrolledshellplateoneinch(25.4mm)thick,manufacturedtoAmericanSocietyforTestingandMaterials(ASTM)
Fusionweldedtestboilerdrumwithtestinstrumentation
installedtomeasuredeformation.
Page170
standardsof55,000psig(379,170KPa)tensilestrengthforfireboxboilerplate.Thedrumwas98inches(2,489mm)long,withaninsidediameterof34inches(863
mm).Asinglelongitudinalseamweldjoinedtheedgesoftherolledshell.Twogirthseamweldsjoinedthedishedheadstotheshell.Oneheadwasblanktheother
waspiercedbya12inchby16inch(304mmby406mm)ovalmanholecover.Therewasadistanceof72inches(1,829mm)betweentheheadseamwelds.The
testdrumwasassembledbythroughweldingusingthefluxcoatedelectrodesdevelopedbyHedgesWalshWeidner.
Thevesselwasmountedonalaboratoryteststand.Dialindicatorsmeasuredtheextentoftwodimensionalstrainsashydrostaticpressurewasappliedin250psig
(1,724kPa)increments.Basedontentativedesigncalculations,thesafeworkingpressureforthedrumwasestimatedtobe517psig(3,565kPa).Asmallgroupof
engineerswatched,butnonecouldhavepredictedthatthetestpressurewouldreach3,250psig(22,408kPa)!Asthevesselexpandedunderhydraulicpressure,the
flangedmanholefinallybulged,causingaleakthatpreventedfurthertesting.Nevertheless,thetestwasasuccess,provingconclusivelythattheweldedjointswere
100percentefficientandcouldwithstandstressesmorethansixtimesthoseconsideredsafe.
Followingthefirstsuccessfultest,thecompany'sexperimentswithweldedboilerdrumscontinuedinearnest.InJune1930,plantsuperintendentA.J.Moses
presentedthetestresultstotheannualmeetingoftheNationalBoardofBoilerandPressureVesselInspectors.Laterthatyear,Moseswroteapaperdescribingthe
detailsofthetestwork,concluding:''TheprocessofmetallicarcweldingdevelopedbytheHedgesWalshWeidnerCompanyissafelyapplicabletopowerboilers
andpressurevessels."
Fusionweldingrapidlygainedrecognition.By1931,theentireboilerindustrywasengagedinthedevelopmentofweldingprocessesforpressurevessels.Thatyear,
theBoilerCodeCommitteeoftheAmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineersadoptedrulesforthefusionweldedconstructionofboilersandpressurevessels,and
establishedrequirementsforXrayexaminationofweldedseamsforstress,apractical,nondestructivetestthatprovedtobeevenmorerigorousthanphysicaltesting.
Inreplacingrivetedconstruction,fusionweldingresultedinincreasedworkingefficienciesfor
steampowerplantsbyallowinghigherworkingpressuresandtemperatures,andthefabricationoflargerunitsofimprovedsafety.Italsostimulatednewinterestinthe
weldingart.
Location/Access
ThepioneerfusionweldedtestboilerdrumisdisplayedoutsidethemetallurgicalandmaterialslaboratoryofABBCombustionEngineering,Inc.,911WestMain,
Chattanooga,TN37402phone(423)7522100.
Page171
FurtherReading
W.Cross,TheCode:AnAuthorizedHistoryoftheASMEBoilerandPressureVesselCode(NewYork:AmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers,1990).
A.J.Moses,"XrayExaminationofWeldedPressureVesselSeams,"Combustion3(September1931):1720,35.
"PracticalApplicationoftheA.S.M.E.WeldingCode,"JournaloftheAmericanWeldingSociety11(February1932):1315.
"ResultsofTestsonWeldedDrums,"Power72(15July1930):112.
Alcoa50,000tonHydraulicForgingPress
Cleveland,Ohio
OnMay5,1955,U.S.AirForceSecretaryHaroldE.Talbottputintoproductionthelargestmachinetoolsintheworld:towering35,000and50,000ton(31,751
and45,350t)hydraulicdieforgingpresses.The$40millioninstallation,atAluminumCompanyofAmerica'sClevelandplant,markedthehalfwaypointintheAir
Force's$179millionheavypressprogramtobuildtenpressesthreeforgingandsixextrusionpressestoturnoutstructuralmembersforhighspeedmilitary
aircraft.
TheAirForceheavypressprogramgrewoutoftheColdWarandadesiretostrengthenAirForcecapabilitiesinsupersonicaviationbybuildingstrongerandlighter
aircraftoffewercomponents.Theprogramwasspurredbythediscovery,earlyinWorldWarII,thattheGermanswereusinglargeforgingandextru
MestabuiltAlcoa50,000tonhydraulicforgingpress,Cleveland,Ohio,
inraisedposition.PhotographbyJetLowe,LibraryofCongressCollections.
Page172
sionpresseslargerthananythenknowntofabricateaircraftpartsinasinglepiece.Largerpresseswouldgreatlyreduceexpensiveandtimeconsumingmachining
andsubassemblyoperationsinsteadofbolting,riveting,andweldingmanysmallunitstoformastructuralmember,largeforgingswouldbepressedoutbetween
closeddies.Theresultingonepiecesectionswouldbestrongerandlighter,withsuperioraerodynamicsurfaces.
The50,000tonforgingpress,builtbytheMestaMachineCompany,is87feet(26m)high,extending36feet(11m)belowgroundand51feet(15m)above.It
weighsabout8,000tons(7,000t).SixteenhugesteelcastingspouredintheMestafoundriesatWestHomestead,Pennsylvania,comprisethemajorelementsofthe
press.
Amoveabledietable,orplaten,holdsthelowerforgingdietheupperdieisclampedtotheupperplaten,whichinturnisattachedtothelowermovingcrosshead.
Theentiremovingcrossheadassembly,theupper"jaw"ofthepress,consistsofeightsteelcastingstotalingalmost1,150tons(1,043t).Amanipulatormovingonrails
insertsingotsbetweenthediesandremovestheforgedparts.
Thepressforceisgeneratedbyahydropneumaticpressuresystemconsistingoffourprefillerbottles,twohorizontalreciprocatingpumpsdrivenby1,500
horsepower(1,118kW)motors,andfourforgedalloysteel,pressureaccumulatorbottles.Apressureof4,500psig(31,027kPa)isbuiltupineachaccumulator
andreleasedtotheeightpressurecylindershousedinthestationarycrossheadsatthetopofthepress.Thecombinedeffortofthesecylindersproducesthe50,000
tonforgingcapacity.
Fluidflowsarestaggering,rangingfrom11,750gallons(44,4781)perminutehighpressureto26,4380gallons(100,0781)perminuteprefillpressure
enoughtofillagoodsizedhousetotheraftersinlessthansixtyseconds.Attheendofthepresscycle,thehydraulicforceisreversedanddirectedtoeightpullback
andbalancingcylinders,whichliftthemovingcrossheadassemblytoitsraisedposition.
Aluminumdieforgingsareusedatkeystructuralpointsinallmodernaircraft.Dieforgedmembersprovidestrengthandcanbeshapedincomplexformswith
relativelylittlemachining.Traditionalmethodsoffabricatingpartsofthistyperequiredcostlymachiningfrombiggerpiecesofmetalorelsebuildingupfromsmaller
components.
Location/Access
The50,000tonhydraulicpressislocatedatAluminumCompanyofAmerica,ForgingDivision,1600HarvardAvenue,Cleveland,OH44105.Itisnotopentothe
public.
FurtherReading
"PressPlantSpeciallyBuiltforLargeAircraftForgings,"SteelProcessing41(June1955):35060.
Page173
WymanGordon50,000tonHydraulicForgingPress
NorthGrafton,Massachusetts
In1944theWarProductionBoardselectedtheWymanGordonCompanytooperateaMestabuilt18,000ton(16,329t)hydraulicforgingpress,thenthelargestin
theUnitedStates,atanewgovernmentbuiltplantinNorthGrafton,Massachusetts.Sixyearslater,WymanGordonwasagainselected,alongwiththeAluminum
CorporationofAmerica(see"Alcoa50,000tonHydraulicForgingPress,"p.171),tooperatetwoevenlargerpressesaspartoftheU.S.AirForceheavypress
program.
TwohydraulicforgingpresseswerebuiltatNorthGrafton:oneof50,000tons(45,350t),dubbedbyitsbuilder,LoewyConstructionCompany,"Major"theotherof
35,000tons(31,751t),called"Minor."AlongwithasimilarpressinCleveland,WymanGordon's50,000tonpresswasthelargestmachinetoolintheworld.These
statisticssuggestitssize:itweighedapproximately10,000tons(9,000t)itsfoundationswent100feet(30m)intobedrockaboveground,itsoaredtenstorieshigh
andtheproductionfloorcoveredsixcityblocks.
BothWymanGordonpresseswereofthe"pulldown"typei.e.,thecylinderswerelocatedbelowthelowerpressbed,andtheupperentablatureandupperplaten
werepulleddownagainsttheworkinthediesbetweenthetwoplatens.The50,000tonpressconsistedofninehydrauliccylindersandsixcolumns.The
LoewybuiltWymanGordon50,000tonhydraulic
forgingpress,NorthGrafton,Massachusetts,in
raisedposition.PhotographybyJetLowe,
Page174
columnsweresolargeeachweighedcloseto300tons(272t)thattheyhadtobebuiltupofthreerectangularlaminationsandsecuredwithtierods.
Thehydrauliccylindersweredesignedtoputthestructuralmembersofthepressinnearlypurecompression.Asingleoperatorcommandedoveramillionpoundsof
pressure,whileautomaticsafetycontrolsmonitoredstrainandguardedagainstdamagefromeccentricloads.The50,000tonLoewypressturnedoutitsfirstforgings
inOctober1955.
TheAirForceheavypressprogramrevolutionizedplanemaking,justasitschampion,Lt.Gen.K.B.Wolfe,hadpredictedin1951.Adramaticexamplewasthe
developmentoftheBoeing747inthe1960s,whenWymanGordonproducedthemassivesupportbeamforthemainlandinggear.Twentyfeet(6,096mm)longby
4feet(1,219mm)wide,andweighing4,000pounds(1,814kg),thiswasthelargestcloseddietitaniumforgingintheworld.
Today,the50,000tonpressforgesavarietyofalloys,stainlesssteels,refractorymetals,andtitanium,turningoutairframeandstructuralcomponentsinavarietyof
shapesandsizes,includingfuselagebulkheads,wingspars,androtorhubsforhelicopters.WymanGordonpurchasedtheNorthGraftonplant,includingthethree
heavypresses,fromthefederalgovernmentin1982.
Location/Access
OpenbyapplicationtoWymanGordonCompany,105MadisonStreet,Worcester,MA01615phone(617)7565111.
FurtherReading
F.T.MorrisonandR.G.Sturm,"World'sLargestForgingPress,"MechanicalEngineering75(March1953):19193.
H.C.Hood,"SomeProblemsintheDevelopmentofa50,000TonPress,"SteelProcessing39(December1953):64246.
FirstHotIsostaticProcessingVessels
Columbus,Ohio
Inonlytwentyfiveyears,hotisostaticprocessing(HIP)hasgrownfromalaboratorycuriositytoamanufacturingtechniquehavingbroadcommercialapplication.
Initiallyconceivedasarelativelylowvolumeprocessforcladdingnuclearfuelelements,HIPtodayiswidelyusedtofabricatepartsmadefromhightemperature
superalloys,ceramics,andcompositematerials.
In1955theAtomicEnergyCommissionaskedresearchersattheBattelleMemorialInstitute'sColumbusLaboratoriestodevelopaprocesstobondcomponentsof
smallZircaloyclad,pintypenuclearfuelelementsfortheShippingport,
Page175
HIPvessel.
Pennsylvania,pressurizedwaterreactor(see"ShippingportAtomicPowerStation,"p.103).FourscientistsRussellDayton,EdwinHodge,StanPaprocki,and
HenrySallerdecidedtotryanoveldiffusionbondingtechnique.Atelevatedtemperatures,theywouldapplyisostaticgaspressurethatis,equalpressurefromall
directionstothematerial.
Theresearchersfabricatedapressurevesselusinga3footlong(914mm)stainlesssteeltubebypluggingoneendandweldingitclosed,andthreadingtheotherend
toacceptahighpressurevalve.Theyinsertedasamplepin,thenattachedthevalve,whichinturnwasattachedtoafeederlineconnectedtoaheliumcylinder.The
researcherspressurizedthevesseltoapproximately2,000psig(13,788kPa)andinsertedtheclosedendintoaheattreatfurnaceatatemperatureofabout1,500F
(815C).
Thoughtheprocesswastooslow,takinguptothirtysixhours,thehotwallexperimentsachievedexcellentZircaloybonding,aswellasZircaloytocorebonding,
withthedesireddimensionalcontrol.Thuswasbornthetechniqueofgaspressurebonding,orhotisostaticprocessing(HIP)asitisknowntoday.Withtheprinciple
proven,theresearchersreplacedthetubevesselwithlargehotwalllaboratoryvesselsandconductedsimilarexperimentsathigherpressures.
Page176
Limitationsinsize,temperature,andpressurecapabilitieseventuallyledtotheuseofaresistancefurnacelocatedinsideawatercooledpressurevessel.The
Battelleteamdemonstratedthatbyapplyingpressuretheycouldimprovethepropertiesofmostmaterialsandproducecomplexshapesunattainablebyothermethods.
Inthe1960s,theapplicationofHIPtotheproductionofhighspeedtoolsteelfrompowderedmetalshelpedproveitscommercialviability.UsingHIPtoconsolidate
powderedmetalswasanaturaloutgrowthofthefabricationofnuclearmaterials.Battelle'sdemonstrationthatHIPprocessedpowdersenjoyedpropertiesequivalent
toforgedmetalssetoffaflurryofgovernmentandindustryfundedresearch.Manufacturersofaircraftcomponents,especiallyturbinebucketsandblades,began
replacingforgingswithHIPcastparts,resultinginsubstantialcostsavingsandimprovedtensileandfatiguestrength.HIPproductionequipment,meanwhile,evolved
fromsmall,slow,andunreliablefurnacestothe4footdiameter(1,219mm)autoclave(aheatedpressurevessel)installedatBattellebeginningin1972.
Today,HIPisusedtoperformsixdistinctlydifferentprocesses:(1)powderedmetalconsolidation,calledhotisostaticprocessing,whichisparticularlyusefulfor
formatingpartswithcomplexshapes(forexample,toolsteelformachinetoolsandsuperallorypartsforjetengines)(2)diffusionbonding,calledgaspressure
bonding,isostaticdiffusionbonding,orHIPwelding,usedforformingcomplexnuclearelementsandcomplexshapesfromwroughtmaterialsthatcannotbefabricated
byconventionalmeans(3)densificationofcementedcarbides,toimprovethepropertiesoftoolbitsandremoveflawsfromsteelmakingrolls(4)healingdefectsin
castingstoimprovetheirpropertiesandenhancetheirresistancetofatigue(5)healingcreepdamageinusedparts(forexample,extendingthelifeofturbinebladesin
jetengines)and(6)pressureinfiltrationofmoltenmaterialsintoporoussolidstoobtainthecombinedpropertiesofbothmaterials.
TherearenowmorethanthreehundredresearchandproductionHIPsystemsintheUnitedStatesandothersthroughouttheworld.HIPdevelopmentcontinuesat
Battelleandelsewhere,anditsapplicationscontinuetoexpand.
Location/Access
TheearlyHIPvessel,oncedisplayedinthelobbyatBattelle,hasbeengiventotheSmithsonianInstitutioninWashington,D.C.,buttheplaqueremainsatBattelle
MemorialInstituteCommunicationsDepartment,505KingAvenue,Columbus,OH432012693.
FurtherReading
H.D.Hanes,D.A.Seifert,andC.R.Watts,HotProcessing(Columbus,Ohio:BattellePress,1979).
"HIPMakesStronger,CheaperTurbineParts,"AmericanMachinist119(November1975):12627.
Page177
FOODPROCESSING
Introduction
Mechanicalengineeringplays,andhasplayed,animportantbutprobablyunrecognizedroleinbringingfoodtothetable.Thishasbeentruefromearlytimes,butasthe
scaleoffoodhandlinghasincreasedwithurbanization,manyfoodpreparationprocessesthatwereoriginallyconfinedtothefamilyarenowcarriedoutonaverylarge
scaleinanindustrialsetting,whichhasledtothegrowinginvolvementofthemechanicalengineerinthisvitalsocialtask.Thestorystartswiththemillingofgrainby
mechanicalmeans,whichdatesfromantiquity.Originally,theproductionofflourwasdonebyonepersongrindingthegrainsbetweentwostones(quern).The
mechanizationofthisprocess,sothatthestonesweremovedbywaterpower,resultedinaverysimplewatermillnowknownastheGreekorNorsemill.A
horizontalcircularstonewasrotatedbyahorizontalwaterwheelthatwasturnedbyajetofwaterobtainedfromadammedupstream.Thegraintobegroundwas
placedbetweentherotatingstoneandastationarystone,withaholepiercedinthelatterthatallowedthedrivingshaftfromthemillwheeltobeconnectedtothe
upper,rotatingstone.Thisextremelysimpledevice,inventedbyanearlybutanonymousmechanicalengineer,involvestheelementsofmechanicalengineeringinthe
conversionofenergyandthetransmissionofpower.
Theverticalwaterwheel,whichreplacedthehorizontalwheel,isthoughttohavebeeninventedbytheRomans.Becausethewheelrotatedintheverticalplaneandthe
millstonesrotatedinthehorizontalplane,bevelgearwheelswereusedtoconnectthewaterwheelshaftandthemillstoneshaft.Foodprocessingtherebyledtothe
introductionofanothermechanicaldevice,thegearwheel,whichsubsequentlyhasbeenappliedinavastrangeofsituations,andwhichhasbeendevelopedintoa
deviceoftheveryhighesttechnicalsophistication.
Thewaterdrivenmillrepresentstheoriginsofmechanicalengineering,anditalsorepresentsitsearlyhistory,upuntilabouttheeighteenthcentury,whenthe
introductionofthesteamenginechangedthisbranchofengineering.However,
Page178
thewatermillusingawaterwheelwasonlyslightlyaffectedbytheadvanceoftechnology,chieflybytheintroductionofironintotheconstructionofwheels,gears,and
shafts.Amill,suchasthelandmarkGraueMillwouldberecognizabletoevenaRomanmillereventhoughitwasnotbuiltuntilthenineteenthcentury.
Justascerealgrainsmustbecrushedtoproducetheflour,theorangemustbesqueezedtoextractitsjuice.Weallknowthisisatiresomechore,despitethepleasure
ofconsumingtheendresult.Thelargescalemarketingoforangejuicehadtoeliminatethelaborintensivesqueezingprocesstobecommerciallysuccessful.The
mechanicalengineer'stalentsareasapplicabletothisprocessasweretheskillsofthatprotomechanicalengineerwhodevisedtheGreekorNorsemillinthedim
recessesofantiquity.Today,theengineerhasavailablematerials,sourcesofpower,andabodyofknowledgeundreamedofbytheearlymillengineer.Nevertheless,
thereisaclearlinkencompassingthewholeofmechanicalengineeringhistorythatjoinstheGrauemillandthelandmarkFMCCitrusJuiceExtractor.
Animals,bacteria,fungi,insects,andplantsallcanextractnutritionfromfoodthatisintendedforhumanconsumption.Todiscouragethisloss,variouspreservation
methodshavebeendevised.Methodssuchasdrying,smoking,pickling,andsaltingaresooldthattheiroriginsareunknown.Newermethodsinvolvehigh
temperatureheating,vacuumpacking,refrigeration,andfreezing.Mechanicalengineershavebeenparticularlyinvolvedintheselatterpreservationmethods.Canning,
whichcombineshightemperatureheatingandvacuumpacking,datesfromthecloseoftheeighteenthcentury.Itispracticedtodayinthehome,butthatexperience
demonstratestheneedforanautomatedprocessifamassmarketistobeservedwithcannedfoodstuffs.Considerableingenuityisrequiredtodothis,butitwas
accomplishedintheFMCRotaryPressureSterilizerinthefirsttwodecadesofthiscentury.IthasbeenrecognizedasaHistoricMechanicalEngineeringLandmark
becauseitinvolvesbasicelementsofmechanicalengineering,intheautomatichandlingofthecansandinthecontroloftheheatingprocess.
Thelandmarksinfoodprocessingservetoillustratetheextentofthemechanicalengineer'scontributiontosociety.Thesearenotonlyintheobviousareasof,say,
manufacturingandpowerproductionbutinvolveeventhefoodweeat.
Page179
GraueMill
OakBrook,Illinois
BuiltbyGermanimmigrantFrederickGraue(181981)in1852,theGraueMillwasoperatedbythreegenerationsofGrauesuntil1920.Inthemidnineteenth
century,thousandsofsuchwaterpoweredgristmillsdottedtheAmericanlandscape,grindinggrainforlocalfarmersandservingastheeconomicmainstayoftheir
communities.Today,theyareavanishingbreed.
In1849FrederickGraue,thenthirtyoneyearsold,togetherwithWilliamAsche,purchasedasiteonSaltCreekanderectedasawmill.Threeyearslater,Graue
boughtouthispartner'sinterestanderectedathreestorybrickgristmill,45by28feet(13.7by8.5m)insize.ANewYorkmillwrightinstalledthemillmachinery,
whichisbelievedtohaveincludedanundershotwaterwheeland"tworunsofbuhrs"(twopairsofmillstones).Themillgroundwheat,corn,oats,andbuckwheatfor
thefarmersofBrushHill(today'scommunitiesofHinsdaleandOakBrook).
PlansofthestructuredrawnbytheHistoricAmericanBuildingsSurveyin1934recordthemillasitthenstood.(Nooriginalplanssurvive.)Themillrace,diverting
waterfromSaltCreek,ledeastfromthesouthsideofthemillpondtoanundershotwheelandemptiedunderanarchedopeningatthelowerendoftherace,rejoining
thestreamwellbelowthedam.
RecordsshowthatamoreefficientverticalshaftLeffelturbinereplacedtheundershotwheelin1868.Asteampowerplantwasaddedsometimebefore1874itwas
destroyedbyanexplosionin1880andrebuiltin1884.(Therearenodataforeitherengine.)
After1916themilloperatedonlyoccasionally.In1931thepropertywas
GraueMill.
Page180
addedtotheDuPageCountyForestPreserveDistrict.Beginninginthe1930s,theGraueMillwasreconstructeditsundershotwaterwheel,woodengearing,belt
powertransmissionsystem,andstonemillracewererebuilttoreflectitspresumedappearanceandoperationduringtheperiod185268.Today,anelectricmotor
powersasinglepairofstonesproducingcornmeal,whileanothermotorturnsthegearinginthecellar.Thereconstructedwaterwheel,meanwhile,isnotinuse.
Location/Access
GraueMillandMuseum,YorkandSpringroads,P.O.Box4533,OakBrook,IL60521phone(708)6552090.Hours:daily,midApriltomidNovember,10A.
M.to5P.M.Admissionfee.Stonegroundcornmealandrecipesforsale.
FurtherReading
OliverEvans,TheYoungMillWrightandMiller'sGuide(Philadelphia:BlanchardandLea,1860).
AndersonBarngroverContinuousRotaryPressureSterilizer
SantaClara,California
StimulatedbytheofferofaprizeoftwelvethousandfrancsfromtheFrenchgovernmentforbettermethodsofpreservingfoodforNapoleon'sarmyandnavy,Parisian
confectionerNicolasAppertbeganhisstudiesoffoodpreservationin1795.In1809hesucceededinpreservingfoodinspeciallymadeglassbottlesthathekeptin
boilingwaterforvaryingperiodsoftime.Hepublishedhisresultsinabook,TheArtofPreservingFoods,thefollowingyear.ButwhileAppertisconsideredthe
''father"ofcanningthepreservationoffoodsinhermeticallysealedcontainersbysterilizationbyheatnotuntilahalfcenturylater,asaresultofPasteur'swork,
werethecausesoffoodspoilageunderstood.
Microorganismsarepresentinallnaturalfoods,whichmustbeprocessedathightemperatures212F(100C)to240F(116C)orhigher,dependingontheir
aciditytodestroythem.In1874A.L.ShriverofBaltimorewasgrantedapatentonasteampressureretort(similartoalargedomesticpressurecooker)thatwas
subsequentlywidelyadoptedbythecanningindustryforsterilizingcannedfoods.Thefilledandsealedcanswereloadedbyhandintomeshbasketsandloweredinto
theretortthecannedproductwascookedunderpressuretoresistthesteampressurebuildupwithinthecans,cooled,andthebasketswereremoved.Thestartand
stopofbatchoperationwasslowandlaborintensive.Italsotookalongtimefortheheattopenetratetothecenteroftheimmobilecans.
Thecontinuousrotarypressuresterilizer,developedbetween1913and1920,
Page181
AlbertR.Thompson'scontinuousrotarypressuresterilizerbrought
automationanduniformitytotheprocessingofcannedgoods.
broughtautomationandproductuniformitytotheprocessingofcannedgoods,andvastlaborandenergysavingstothecanningindustry.Itsolvedaproblemthathad
baffledengineersforyears:howtointroducefilled,sealedcansintoapressurizedchamberfullofsteam,heatandcookthecontentsuniformly,removethecans
withoutaffectingthesteampressure,thencoolthem,allinacontinuousstream.
AlbertR.Thompson(18791947),chiefengineeroftheAndersonBarngroverManufacturingCompany(laterFMCCorporation)ofSanJose,California,supplied
thesolution.TheAndersonBarngrovercontinuousrotarypressuresterilizerintroducedin1920wasamassivecylinderofrivetedboilerplate,about20feet(6,000
mm)longand5feet(1,524mm)indiameter.Withprecisesynchronization,arotatingpocketvalveadmittedcansatoneendandpropelledthem,graduallyand
continuously,throughthetankonareelandspiralrunningthelengthofthecooker.Asthereelturned,thecansrodeagainstthespiral,graduallymovingforwardin
theirchannels.Theconstantagitationofthecans'contentsallowedrapidheatpenetrationandreducedprocessingtime.Atthedischargeend,apressurecooler
employingthesamemechanicalhandlingsystemwasjoinedtothecooker.Anotherpocketvalvetransferredthecansfromthecookertothecooler.
TheAndersonBarngrovercontinuousrotarypressuresterilizerwasanimmediatesuccess.Itwascontinuousandautomatic,itcookedcansoffoodquicklyandevenly
andimmediatelycooledthem,anditwasfastprocessinguptofourhundredcansperminute.Themachinereducedcookroomlaborasmuchas15
Page182
to1andreducedsteamconsumptionby50percentwhileturningoutcannedgoodswithbettercolor,flavor,andtexture.
Thecontinuousrotarypressuresterilizerwasrefinedovertheyears.Weldingreplacedrivetingthedrivepulleygavewaytoanelectricmotorandgearreducerinthe
1940s,theAmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers'pressuretankstandardswereadoptedfortheshells,andworkingpressuresrosefrom20psig(137kPa)to
33psig(227kPa)andbeyond.Today'sunitscanprocesstwothousandormorecansperminute.Butaftermorethanseventyyearsthebasicmachineremains
unchanged,testimonytothequalityofitsengineering.
AndersonBarngroverandtheJohnBeanSprayCompany,alsoofSanJose,mergedin1928toformtheFoodMachineryCorporation(laterFMCCorporation).
FMCanditspredecessorshavebuiltmorethanfifteenhundredcontinuousrotarypressuresterilizersandcoolers,whichareusedtoprocessabouthalfoftheworld's
cannedfood.
Location/Access
Thislandmarkservedasalaboratorymachineuntil1989,whenitwasreplacedwithasimulator.AdisplayatFMCdemonstratestheprincipleofoperation.The
plaqueismountedatFMCCorporateTechnologyCenter,1205ColemanAvenue,SantaClara,CA95052.
FurtherReading
W.V.Cruess,CommercialFruitandVegetableProducts(NewYork:McGrawHillBookCompany,Inc.,1924).
FMCCitrusJuiceExtractor
Lakeland,Florida
FMCCorporationintroducedthefirstrotarywholefruitjuiceextractorin1946,operatingitexperimentallyongrapefruitattheSunkistExchangePlantinTempe,
Arizona.Model402X,with24heads,operatedatarateof20strokes/480fruitperminute.Despitesomeproblems,themachine'soverallperformance
wasencouraging.ThecompanymanufacturedthreemoremachinesandoperatedthemcommerciallyonorangesattheSunkistplantinOntario,California,the
followingyear.Bythe194748season,FMCextractorswerealsoatworkinFloridaandTexas.
Earlycitrusjuiceextractorssufferedfrommaintenanceproblems.Theyalsomixedcore,membrane,pulp,andseedswiththejuicestream.Withthesedificienciesin
mind,FMCdesignedtheInlineextractorinlate1947andtesteda
Page183
TheFMCcitrusjuiceextractorsolvedtheproblemof
separating"undesirables"themembrane,pulp,
andseedsfromthejuicestream.
prototype,Model659,inFloridathefollowingyear.Inadditiontousingthewholefruitextractionprinciple(seesidebar),thenewmachineincorporatedaunique
prefinishingsystemtoremoveundesirablesfromthejuiceduringtheextractionprocess.Thejuicestreamnowcontainedonlyjuiceandjuicesacs,makingitpossibleto
employacompletelyenclosedjuicehandlingsystem.Thisfeatureallowedimprovedsanitationandmoreefficientcleanup.
Twoadditionalunitsjoinedtheoriginalprototypeintestsduringthe194849season.Basedontheseresults,FMCdesignedlimitedtoolingforthemanufactureand
installationofthirtyunitsduringthe194950season.Fullscalecommercialproductionfollowed.Morethanfourhundredunitsweremanufacturedandinstalledin
citrusplantsforthe195051season.
Sincethen,theInlineextractorhasundergoneseveralmajormodelchanges.Thelatestmodel,withanimprovedfeedhopperandapeeloilrecoverysystemthat
reduceswaterrequirementsandwaste,operatesataspeedof100strokes/500fruitperminute.Whileitbearsonlyadistantresemblancetotheprototypemodel
402X,inprincipleitisadirectdescendantoftherevolutionary

teachers
Page184
machinethatbroughtorangeandgrapefruitjuicetobreakfasttablesaroundtheworld.Today,FMCcitrusfruitjuiceextractorssqueezeandprefinish70percentofthe
world'scitrusjuice.
Location/Access
Theearliestextractors,Model402X,weredestroyedfollowingintroductionofsubsequentmodels.SomeModel718extractors,builtintheearly1950s,remainin
service.OneisdisplayedatFMCCorporation,CitrusMachineryDivision,FairwayAvenue,Lakeland,FL33801phone(941)6835411.Itmaybeviewedby
appointment.
WholeCitrusFruitJuiceExtraction:HowItWorks
Sources:TheFMCWholeCitrusJuiceExtractor:TheStoryofItsConceptionandEvolution,commemorativebrochure
(Lakeland,Fla.:FMCCorporation,n.d.).
Page185
MATERIALSHANDLINGANDEXCAVATION
Introduction
byRobertM.Vogel
Nosinglerealmofthemechanicalengineertouchesmoreareasoftechnology,industry,andcommercethanthatofmaterialshandling.Manufacturing,transportation,
mining,logging,construction,andonandonallinvolveatonepointoranother,continuallyoroccasionally,theconveying,lifting,digging,orotherwisehandlingof
materials,eitherinbulkorbytheunit.
Closelyparallelingtheotherbranchesofmechanicalengineering,thedesignofmaterialshandlingandexcavatingmachineryhasgonethroughanevolutionary
developmentthatsawconstructionchangefromtimbertoirontosteel,andpropulsionsystemschangefrommuscletosteamtodieselandelectricity.Eachchangewas
accompaniedbyimprovementsinrefinementofcontrolandmechanicaldetailaswellascapacityandoperatingefficiency.
Untilnearlythenineteenthcentury,mostsuchequipmentwasdirectedtothesinkingofmineshaftsandsubsequenthoistingofthemineraloritsoretotheerectionof
buildings,structures,andpublicworksandtothehandlingofthegoodsofcommerceatwharfsideandinthewarehouse.Minehoistsweresimpleaffairsoftimber,
poweredbymenoranimalsoratthedeepestpitsbywaterwheels.Inerectingeventhelargeststructuresthegreatcathedralsstoneblocks,timbers,andother
massivecomponentswereraisedintoplacebyrelativelysimplemachinery,invariablymusclepowered.Shipsandwarehouseswereloadedandunloadedsimilarly.
Theequipmentusedwasrootedinantiquity,basedontheclassical"simplemachines"knowntotheRomans:thepulley(intheformofmultiplyingtackle),theinclined
plane,thelever,thescrew,andthewheelandaxle.
Therangeoftimeandtechnologycoveredbythelandmarksinthiscategoryissurprisinglybroad,reachingfromthewaterpowered,timberbuiltmanengineatthe
GrubeSamsontothegreathoistingengineattheQuincyMine,whichcanbeconsideredtorepresentthehighestexpressionofsteampoweredstationary
Page186
machinery,tothePACECOcontainercrane,prototypeofthesinglemachinethattodayhandlesthevastbulkofoceanfreight.
AsexemplifiedbythePACECOcrane,electricityhastotallydisplacedsteaminallfixedmaterialshandlingequipment,atrendevidentasearlyas1905intheformof
the"Pitcast"jibcraneandtypicalaswellinthefactorytravelingcranesoftheperiod.Inmobilemachineryforhandlingmaterialsandexcavating,thedieselenginehas
supersededthesteamengine,and,exceptintheverylightestservice,musclepowerhasallbutdisappearedassmallgasolineengineshavereachedapointofnearly
absolutereliability.
Page187
SamsonMineReversibleWaterwheelandManEngine
St.Andreasberg,Germany
MiningisoneofGermany'soldestindustrialactivities.TheSamsonSilverMine,openedin1521andproductiveby1533,wasoneofthefirstintheHarz,aregion
blessedbyabundantwaterpower.There,tworemarkablesurvivalsofearlynineteenthcenturytechnologyarepreserved:areversibleovershotwheel,usedfor
hoistingoreoutofthemineandbelievedtobetheonlysurvivorofitskindandamanengine,poweredbyanevenlargerovershotwheel,usedtotransportminersto
andfromthemine'slowerlevels.
ThereversiblewaterwheelfirstappearedinthesixteenthcenturyintheErzegebirge,whereitwasusedfordewateringminesbyhoistinglargebucketsofwater.
FloodingpresentednoproblemintheSamsonshaft,wherewaterwaseasilydrainedthroughadits,orhorizontalshafts.ThefirstreversiblewaterwheelatSamsonwas
installedin1556tohoistorefromadepthof200feet(60m).Thepresentwheel,30feet(9m)indiameter,wasinstalledin1824andinitiallyhoistedfromadepthof
2,300feet(700m).
Asminesbecamedeeper,theproblemofgettingminerstothelowerlevelsbecameacute.Imaginedescendingtothe600foot(180m)levelequivalenttotheheight
ofasixtystorybuildingbyladder.Evenworse,imagineclimbingoutattheendofagruelingday'swork.AminewardennamedDoerelliscreditedwithhaving
installedthefirstmanengine,atZellerfeld,in1833.Thedeviceallowedminerstodescendandascendthedeepestshaftswithaminimumofeffort.
Themanenginehasbeendescribedasanadaptationofanordinarypumptopumpmeninsteadofwater.ThemanengineatSamsonconsistedoftworeciprocating
rodsequippedatintervalsof10feet(3.2m)withsmallplatformsfortheminertostandon.Asonerodmovedup,theothermoveddown.Betweenstrokes,when
theplatformsofthetworodswereatthesamelevelandmomentarilyatrest,theminersteppedfromoneplatformtotheotherfortheridetothenextstation(upor
down)ontheadjacentrod.
Anovershotwaterwheel40feet(12m)indiameter,whichwasattachedtoa75foot(23m)connectingrod,poweredtheSamsonmanengine.Thehorizontal
reciprocatingmotionwasturnedintoverticalmotionbytwointerconnectedbellcranks180degreesoutofphasethus,onemanenginerodascendedwhiletheother
descendedafterthecommonrest,duringwhichtheminersteppedfromoneplatformtotheother.
TheSamsonmanenginewasinstalledin1837,whenthemine1,970feet(600m)deep.Whereasformerlyithadtakenaminer90minutestoclimbdownandan
exhausting150minutestoclimbout,withthemanenginetheminerrode,relativelywithouteffort,for45minuteseachway.Themanengineincreasedthelife
expectancyoftheaverageminerand,atthesametime,increasedproductivitybyincreasingtheamountoftimetheminerspentatworkbelowground.
Page188
A)SamsonMineReversibleWaterwheelandB)ManEngine.
By1845,tenmanengines,orfahrkunsten,wereatworkintheClausthalminingarea(theninPrussia),raisingandloweringmenatspeedsbetween49and72feet
(15and22m)perminute.TheideaspreadtoBelgium,France,andAustria,thentoCornwallandtheIsleofMan.Theirreignwasshortonlyaboutfiftyyearsfor
theyweresoonsucceededbyelevators,whichofferedgreatersafety,comfort,capacity,andspeed.
TheSamsonMinewasclosedin1910,havingattainedanultimatedepthof2,656feet(810m).Theaxleanddrivingcrankofthemanengineareoriginal,butthe
waterwheelwasrebuiltin1954.Themanenginewasfittedwithelectricdrivein1922andtodayisusedonlybyservicepersonneltoreachthe623foot(190m)level
andtheloweroftwoelectricalgeneratingplantsthatcontinuetousewaterpoweratthesite.
Location/Access
Inadditiontothesilvermineandmanengine,GrubeSamson,3424St.Andreasberg,Niedarsachsen,Germany,alsofeaturesamuseumoflocalhistoryandthe
historyofsilverminingintheUpperHarz.
FurtherReading
DavidH.Tew,"TheContinentalOriginsoftheManEngineandItsDevelopmentinCornwallandtheIsleofMan,"TransactionsoftheNewcomenSociety30
(195556):4962.
Page189
BuckeyeSteamTractionDitcher
Findlay,Ohio
ThenorthwestcornerofOhio,whichtodayyieldsbumpercropsofcornandtomatoes,wasonceknownastheBlackSwamp.Thepearshapedwasteland,120miles
(193km)longand20to40miles(32to64km)wide,wasthicklyforestedandcoveredbymalarialbogsandpoolsofwater.Beginninginthemidnineteenthcentury,
however,thelandwasextensivelyclearedandreclaimed.Today,theonlyremindersoftheformerswamparetheparallelrowsoftilelineddrainageditchesthatcross
thefieldslikestringsonaharp.
Topipewaterawayfromcroplands,farmersdugopenditchesalonggradientsfollowingthefalloftheland.Later,theylaidunderdrainagetiles,atechniqueintroduced
inAmericain1821byJohnJohnstonofGeneva,NewYork,anativeofScotland,andcarriedwestwardbysettlers.Underdrainageloweredthewatertableand
loosenedthesoil,allowingitto"breathe."Togetherwithcroprotationandtheplantingofdeeprootedlegumessuchasclover,underdrainageunlockedthefertilityof
theBlackSwampsoils.By1920,Ohiohadsome25,000miles(40,000km)ofdrainageditches,ofwhich15,000miles(24,000km)werelocatedintheLakeErie
drainagebasinofnorthwestOhio.
Ditchesinitiallyweredugbyhand,thenbyhorseandplow.Butin1893,JamesB.Hill(18561945),workinginaBowlingGreen,Ohio,machineshop,builtasteam
drivenmechanicalditcher.Hewasgrantedapatentforhistractionditchingmachine(No.523,790)thefollowingyear.Hill'ssteamand(after1908)gasolinepowered
ditchersenabledanyfarmer,regardlessofskill,todigditchesquicklyandaccurately.
Buckeyesteamtractionditcher.
Page190
First,surveyorsengineerslaidoutthedirection,depth,andgradeoftheditch.TheBuckeyeditcherwasproperlyaligned,andtheadjustablediggingwheel,attachedto
awoodframe,wasengagedtorotate.Asthemachinemovedforward,thediggingwheelwasgraduallyloweredtothedesireddepth.Asupportshoewassetand
lockedinplacebehindthediggingwheel,andthecablessupportingthebackendofthewheelframewereslackened.Theoperator,standingorsittingonaplatform,
sightedoveraguidetothegradestakes,makingsuretokeepthediggingwheelonthepropergrade.
Bucketsonthediggingwheelscoopedthedirt,carriedittothetopofthewheel,anddumpeditontoatransversebeltconveyor,whichdepositedittoonesideofthe
trench.Thediggingwheelhadneitherspokesnoraxle,allowingittodigtoadepthnearlyequaltoitsdiameterthewidthoftheditchcouldbealteredbychangingthe
sizeofthediggingbuckets.Theditcherexcavatedthefulldepthofthetrenchinasinglepass,digging3linealfeet(914mm)toadepthof3feet(914mm)perminute
inordinarysoil,or1,800feet(550m)onanaverageworkingday.
TheBuckeyeditcherrevolutionizedunderdrainageditching.Eventually,themachinescouldbefoundinalmosteveryfarmcommunityinnorthwestOhioandsouthern
Ontario.TheBuckeyeTractionDitcherCompany(Hillsoldthecompanyin1902)becametheworld'slargestbuilderofditchingandtrenchingmachinery.By1910,
somesevenhundredBuckeyetractionditchershadbeenshippedultimately,morethantwothousandweresoldinnorthwesternOhioandsouthernOntarioalone.
Althoughdesignedtodigditchesforagriculturaldrainagetile,theBuckeyetractionditchercoulddigtrenchesforpipelinesorforopendrainageditchesaswell.
BuckeyeditchershelpeddigthelaceworkofcanalsthatdrainedtheFloridaEvergladesstartingattheturnofthecenturyanddugthousandsofmilesofditchesforoil
pipelinesaroundtheworld.
In1936theBuckeyeCompanybeganlookingforanearlyditchertouseinitsadvertising.Theyfoundone,No.88,inOklahomaandrefurbishedit.Buckeye
displayedtheditcheratcountyfairsandinparades,thenexhibiteditinfrontofitsplant.Thesteampoweredditcher,builtin1902,hasasinglecylinderengine,witha
piston5inches(140mm)indiameterwitha7inch(180mm)stroke.Theverticalboileris5feet(1,524mm)talland3feet(914mm)indiameter.Theditcher's
drivewheelis4feet(1,219mm)indiameterandtheditchingwheelis7feet(2,286mm)indiameter.
Hill'suniquelaborsavingdevicewastheforerunneroftractionditchersusedworldwide.AmodifiedversionofhismachineisstillmanufacturedbytheOhio
LocomotiveCraneCompanyinBucyrus,Ohio.
Location/Access
TheBuckeyesteamtractionditcherisunassembledandinstorageattheHancockHistoricalMuseum,422WestSanduskyStreet,Findlay,OH45840phone(419)
4234433.
Page191
FurtherReading
FrankC.Perkins,''TheBuckeyeTractionDitcher,"ScientificAmerican,September10,1904,17778.
PeterW.Wilhelm,"DrainingtheBlackSwamp:HenryandWoodCounties,Ohio,18701920,"NorthwestOhioQuarterly56(Summer1984):7995.
"Pitcast"JibCrane
Birmingham,Alabama
ThisistheonlysurvivorofsixjibcranesfabricatedfortheAmericanCastIronPipeCompanyin1905forthemanufactureofcastironpipebythepitcastmethod.
ThefirstrecordeduseofcastironpipewasthesystemthatdeliveredwaterfromtheRiverSeinetothePalaceofVersaillesnearParisin1664.IntheUnitedStates,
byasearlyas1817,theWateringCommitteeinPhiladelphialaid9foot(2.7m)lengthsofcastironpipeimportedfromEngland.Castironrapidlybecamethe
standardforbothwaterandgaspipe,anditssuccessspurredagrowingdemandforpipemanufactureddomestically.In1819thefirstcastironpipewasmadeatthe
WeymouthFurnaceontheGreatEggHarborRiverinNewJersey,whilein1834thefirstfoundrydevotedexclusivelytomakingcastironpipewasbuiltinMillville,
NewJersey.
Initially,castironpipewasmadeinhorizontalmoldsinlengthsof4or5feet(1.2or1.5m).Twohalfmoldswereclosedaroundareinforcedcoreofbakedsand
whosediameterwasthatthepipebore.Pipelengthwaslimitedtothe
Partialdrawingofthe"pitcast"jibcrane.
Page192
TheManufactureofPitcastPipe
Thecastingfloorofthepitcastdepartmentofapipefoundryisaseriesofpitsinwhichthemoldsarerammedandpoured.Themoldsaremadein
cylindricalcontainers,calledflasks.Thebarrelpatternisametalcylinderwithhandlingringsatoneend.
Emptyflasksandmoldingsandarebroughttothepitstoberammed.Dampsandisthrowninatthetopbetweenthepatternandtheflaskandrammed,
orcompacted,toformaseparatingwall.Forpipetobemadewithbellup,abellpatternisthenplacedoverthebarrelpatternandmoresandrammed
aroundituntilthemoldisfull.Thebarrelpatterniswithdrawnbythecrane,andthecompletemoldiscarriedtoadryingoven.Hotgasesbakethemold
untilitisthoroughlydry.
Meanwhile,coresarebeingpreparedinanotherdepartment.Bothbarrelandheadcoresaremadeofamixtureofsandandclay,andafterbeingformed,
arebaked.Whenmoldandcoresaredrytheyarereadyforassembly.Thebarrelcoreisloweredthroughthemoldandseated,andthebellcoreis
placedoverit.Whenagroupofmoldsandcoresareassembled,moltenironisbroughtfromthecupolainaladleandpouredintothemolds.Theiron
solidifiesthecorebariswithdrawntheflaskisliftedoutofthepitandsuspendedhorizontallyoverarailrunwayleadingtothecleaningfloorclamps
areknockedoff,andthepipesrollout.Aftercleaning,inspection,andcoating,eachpipeissubjectedtothefinalhydrostatictest.Inthetesting
process,thepipeisfilledwithwaterandmustwithstandapressureconsiderablyinexcessofwhatitwillencounterinactualservice.
Source:HandbookofCastIronPipe,2ded.(Chicago:CastIronPipeResearchAssociation,1952),2526.
lengthatwhichthecorewouldsupportitselfwithoutsagging.After1850,theverticalorpitcastmethodgainedfavor.Thisverticalcastingmethod,importedfrom
England,gavegreaterstrength,uniformity,andaccuracy.Themolds,upto16feet(4.9m)long,werestoodonendinapit.Duringpouring,impuritiesrosetothetop
andcouldbecroppedoncethecastingcooled.
In1905theAmericanCastIronPipeCompany(ACIPCO)wasincorporatedfortheproductionofpitcastpipe.ItequippeditsoriginalplantatBirminghamwithsix
jibcranespurchasedfromtwoOhiocompanies:theAllianceMachineCompanyandtheClevelandCrane&CarCompany.Thecraneswerepoweredbyelectric
motors,anoveltyin1906.Eachhadthreemotors,whichseparatelypoweredthecrane'shoisting,booming(inoutmotion),andslewing(turningorswinging)motions.
Initially,thebrakesforeachfunctionweremechanicalairbrakesand,subsequently,electricbrakeswereaddedlater.
ACIPCO'ssixcranesoperatedbacktoback,eachcommandinga25foot
Page193
deep(7.5m)pit.Verticalpipemolds,linedwithsandandfittedwithacoretoformthehollowinteriorofthepipe,stoodinthepits.Thejibcranesupportedtheladle
fromwhichmoltenironwaspouredintothemoldsfollowingsolidification,themoldwasopenedandthejibcraneextractedandremovedthepipe.Thecraneitselfis
madeofstructuralsteel.Thelarge,bracedboxgirderjibisabout36inches(914mm)deep.
Inthe1920s,thepitcastmethodformakingpipegavewaytocentrifugalcastinginwhichmoltenironispouredintohorizontalmetalorsandlinedmoldsthatare
rotatedathighspeed.Themetalisflungagainstthemoldbycentrifugalforce,eliminatingtheneedforacore.Theresultingpipeisdenser,stronger,andofmore
uniformwallthicknessthanpitcastpipe.FollowingtheintroductionofcentrifugalcastingatACIPCO,theoldpitswerefilledinandthejibcranesremoved.Onlyone
crane,stillusedforgenerallifting,survives.
Location/Access
ThejibcraneisnowunassembledandinstorageattheSlossFurnaceMuseum,1stAvenueNorthand32ndStreet,Birmingham,Alabama35202phone(205)324
1911.Hours:TuesdaySaturday,10A.M.to4P.M.,andSunday,noonto4P.M.
FurtherReading
HandbookofCastIronPipe,2ded.(Chicago:CastIronPipeResearchAssociation,1952).
QuincyMiningCompanyNo.2MineHoist
Hancock,Michigan
Michigan'sKeweenawPeninsulaonthesouthernshoreofLakeSuperiorwasarepositoryofabundantnativecopper.Thedistrictwasequallyfavoredbyitslocation
onlyafewmilesfromtheGreatLakeswaterwaytotheeast.By1940,Keweenawhadyieldedmorethan8billionpounds(3.6billionkg)ofcopper.Twomining
companiesdominatedthatoutput:Quincy,formedin1846,andCalumet&Hecla,formedin1864.
HighonahillaboveHancock,shelteredbythe150foot(47m)tallQuincyNo.2shaftrockhouse,standsagiantamongminehoists,nowsilentbutjudged"a
magnificentpieceofmachinery"byPowerinitsday.BuiltbytheNordbergManufacturingCompanyofMilwaukee,thecompoundcondensinghoistingengine,with
twohighpressurecylindersandtwolowpressurecylinders,32and60by66inches(810and1,520by1,680mm),hadanultimatewindingcapacityof13,300feet
(4,054m)of15/8inch(41.2mm)wireropeinasingle
Page194
QuincyMiningCompanyNo.2minehoist,
ca.1925.CourtesyL.G.Koepel,
layer,thegreatestonrecord.Quincylookedtothegianthoist,builtatacostof$371,000,toraiselargerloadsfasterandtoconsumelessfuel,therebyhelpingensure
thecompany'seconomicsurvival.
Thehoistoperatedinbalanceoneskipcarroseastheotherdescendedraisingaloadof20,000pounds(9,072kg)ofrockpertripataropespeedof3,200feet
(975m)perminute,or36milesperhour(58km/hr).Itisenormoustogetherwithcondensingequipment,theunitweighs1,765,000pounds(800,586kg),coversa
floorspaceof60by40feet(18by12m),andstands60feet(18m)high.Containingmorethan3,000cubicyards(2,294m3)ofconcrete,thefoundationforthe
hoistanditscondensingequipmentwasthelargesteverpouredforanengine.
Thecrosscompoundhoistingengineisreallyfourenginesinone.ArrangedonaninvertedVframe,theengine'stwohighpressurecylindersareinclinedata45
degreeangleandconnectedtoacommoncrankpinturningthedrumshaftattheapexofthetriangle.Thetwolowpressurecylindersaresimilarlyplacedatthe
oppositeendofthedrum.
Thehoist'sgrooved,cylindroconicaldrum,30feet(9m)longand30feet(9m)indiameteratthemiddle,wasdesignedasatrussbridgeof48castironsectionsand
drawntogetherbysteeltensionrods.Theconicalendshelpedequalizetorqueontheenginebywindingonasmallerdrumdiameterwhentheskipwasatthebottom
andtheentireweightofthehoistingcablewasbeingraised.
ThenewhoistgreatlyimprovedtheQuincyMine'shoistingefficiency,out
Page195
performingtheduplexnoncondensinghoistitreplaced.During1921,itsfirstyearofoperation,thenewhoistconsumed2,400fewertons(2,177t)ofcoalthanthe
hoistitreplacedtoperformthesameamountofwork.
Unfortunately,bythetimethehoistwasinstalled,decliningcopperpricesandtheriseofthegreatWesterncopperregionsalreadyhadreducedMichigan'sroleasa
copperproducer,andQuincysufferedoneunprofitableyearafteranother.TheDepressiondashedanyhopeofanupturninthecoppermarket,andthenation's
deepestcoppermineclosedin1931.
Location/Access
TheQuincyNo.2shaftrockhouseislocatedonRoute41northofHancockonMichigan'sKeweenawPeninsula.TheQuincyMineHoistAssociation,Inc.,201
RoyceReedRoad,Hancock,MI49930,hasrestoredtheNordberghoistandopensitfortoursduringthesummermonths.Forinformation,contact:phone(906)
4823101.
FurtherReading
CharlesK.HydeandLarryD.Lankton,OldReliable:AnIllustratedHistoryoftheQuincyMiningCompany(Hancock,Mich.:TheQuincyMineHoist
Association,Inc.,1982).
ThomasWilson,"QuincyHoistLargestinWorld,"Power53(18January1921):9095.
PACECOContainerCrane
Alameda,California,andNanjing,China
By1950,thehandlingofshipcargohadnotchangedmarkedlyfromthemethodsusedinantiquity.Evenmechanizedliftingfacilities,capableofliftinglarge,heavy
cargoandswingingitbetweenshipandshore,haddonelittletoimprovedockefficiency.Vessels,meanwhile,haddramaticallyincreasedinsize,andsohad
turnaroundtime(thetimerequiredtounloadandloadcargo),resultingincostlydelaystoshipandcargoowners.
Inthemid1950s,MalcolmMcLean,founderofSeaLandService,Inc.,pioneeredtheconceptofshippinggoodsinintermodalcontainerscontainersthatdetach
fromthetruckchassisforloadingonshipsorrailroadcarsandviceversa.Containerizationdrasticallyreducedlaborcostsandturnaroundtime.Butmostportswere
notequippedtohandletheheavycontainersexceptbymobiletyperevolvingcranes,whichwerecumbersomeandlackinginstability.
In1956theMatsonNavigationCompanyembarkedonatwoyear,multimilliondollarstudyofcontainerization.Amongotherthings,Matsonsetouttodeterminethe
mostefficientcraneforloadingcontainersbetweenshipandshore.
Page196
PACECOcontainercraneatEncinalTerminals,Alameda,
California,thesiteofitsoriginalinstallation.
Thecompanyconcludedthatanoreunloadingtype,havingahorizontalboomandthroughlegtrolley,cameclosest.Earlyin1958,Matsonfinalizedperformance
specificationsforanewcraneandputtheprojectoutforbid.PacificCoastEngineeringCompany,Inc.(PACECO),ofAlameda,California,wonthecontract.
PACECOengineers,ledbyPACECOpresidentDeanRamsden,chiefengineerChuckZweifel,andassistantchiefengineerMurrayMontgomery,analyzedeach
componentofthe"hookcycle"thatis,thestepsintheprocessofloadingorunloading,from"hookon"to''unhook".Followingthephilosophythatthebestdesign
hasthefewestnumberofpiece,PACECOdesignedasimpleAframecraneof260tons(236t)deadweight,replacingtheusualtrussedconstructionwithallwelded
boxgirderswhereverpossible.Controlledbyswitches,thetravelingcranecouldhandle25ton(23t)loadswithease.Multiplecablerigging,meanwhile,gave
excellentloadstability.
OnJanuary7,1959,Matsonputtheworld'sfirsthighspeedcontainercraneintoserviceaspartofitsWestCoastHawaiitradeatEncinalTerminalsinAlameda.
ThePACECOcontainercranerevolutionizedthehandlingofcargo,cuttingturnaroundtimefromasmuchasthreeweekstoaslittleaseighteenhours.
Page197
Whereasalongshoregangusingaship'sburtoninggearcouldhandleapproximately9tons(8.2t)ofcargoperhour,acontainercraneoperator,workingonathree
minutehookcycleper20ton(18t)container,couldhandle400tons(363t)ofcargoperhour.Containerizationalsoreduceddamageandpilferageafterloadingat
thewarehouse,thecontainerremainedsealeduntilarrivalattheconsignee'swarehouseandallowedacloserandmoreefficientallianceamongrail,road,andwater
transport.
MatsoninstalledtwomorePACECOcranes,atLosAngelesandHonolulu,in1960.Inthe1960s,theInternationalStandardsOrganizationadoptedauniformcorner
fittingandguidelinesforcontainerdimensions.Meanwhile,shippingcompaniesworldwide,increasinglyawareoftheadvantagesofcontainerization,commissioned
newvesselsspeciallydesignedtohandlecontainers.
ThePACECOcontainercraneatEncinalTerminals,modifiedtoenableittoservelargerships,remainedinregularuseuntil1984.In1988itwasdismantledand
shippedtothePortofNanjing,China.Today'sshiptoshorecontainercranesaredirectdescendantsofthefirstone,andtheirbasicdesignremainsunchanged.
Location/Access
TheoriginalPACECOcraneisnowlocatedatthePortofNanjing,China,agovernmentoperatedportnearShanghai.
FurtherReading
"SystemsApproachPutsMatsonCargoinContainers,"ModernMaterialsHandling14(April1959):9396.
Page198
ENVIRONMENTALCONTROL
Introduction
byRobertB.Gaither
Amongthemanydifferencesthatdistinguishpeoplefromotheranimalsisonethatmanyregardasamongthemostprominent,namely,thefactthatpeoplehave
controlledmuchoftheirownevolution.Wedidnotsurvivebyadaptingtochangesintheenvironment.Wemadeadjustmentstoourimmediatesurroundingstoan
extentthatwecouldnotonlysurvivebutcouldliveandworkincomfortwhilesurroundedbythemostsevereclimaticconditionsonearth.
Theconditioningofairtomatchpeople'sdesiretobecomfortablehasitsbeginningsinprehistory,whenourearliestancestorsdevisedschemesforkeepingwarm
whentheweatherbecamecold.Therearenumerousaccountsofpeopleinearlycivilizationsusingnaturalice,runningwater,andheatedstonestoalterthe
temperatureandhumidityofspaces.However,theexistenceofsystematiceffortstoheatorcoolandcontrolthehumidityofairisnotknowntousbeforetheearly
nineteenthcentury.Duringthefirstmillennium,theRomansheatedanumberofstructuresusingheatedstonesandcleverlyarrangedstoneductstocarryfluegases
fromfiresundertheroomsofthesestructures.Nevertheless,thefieldofenvironmentalcontrolsawnomajoradvancesuntil1740to1745,whenBenjaminFranklin
inventedthePennsylvaniaFireplace,whichprobablywasthefirsttrueheatingsystem.Thissystemtookincooloutsideairand,bynaturalconvection,passeditover
platesthatwerebeingheatedontheirothersidesbyfire.Thenwithcarefullyarrangedducts,theairwasdistributedintotheroomsofahouse.ThesocalledFranklin
StovewasonlyapartofthePennsylvaniaFireplace.
Priortotheadventofprimemovers,airmovementorventilationcouldbeaccomplishedonlybynaturalconvectionorbyhumanoranimalpower.Intheyearsafter
1800,thebeginningsoftheIndustrialRevolutionandtheattendantinterestinthedevelopmentofnovelmechanicalsystemsdrivenbyenginesweremakingtheir
appearance.In1815,theMarquisdeChabanneswasgranteda
Page199
Britishpatentfor"amethodforconductingairandregulatingthetemperatureinhousesandbuildings."Themethodusedforcoolingtheairinvolvedtheuseofafan
topassitthroughanevaporativecoolingtower.Otherschemesdevelopedshortlythereaftercalledforpassingairovermetalplatesthatcouldeitherbeheatedor
cooledwithrunningwaterorice.
JacobPerkinsiscreditedwithbeingthefirstpersontodesignaclosedvaporcompressionrefrigerationsystemin1834(BritishpatentNo.6,662).Althoughhebuilta
workingmodelofthesystem,itreceivedlittleattention.Ittookanothertwentyyearsbeforeothersbuiltmechanicalrefrigerationmachinesthatwereusedinindustry.
Inthe1850s,vaporcompressionmachinesweredevelopedintheUnitedStatesandothercountries.Atthissametime,FerdinandCarr,inFrance,developedthe
ammoniaabsorptionrefrigerationsystem.
Forthenexttwentyyears,experimentationcontinuedalongsideearlyeffortstomanufacturecommercialsystemsthatwouldwash,heat,andrefrigerateair.InJuly
1869,BenjaminF.SturtevanttookoutaU.S.patentonasystemcomprisedofafan,ductwork,andaheatexchangerthatcouldbeusedtoheatorrefrigerateair.
Withthatpatentandtheknowhow,Sturtevantbeganaprosperousbusiness.In1873,aFrenchman,A.Jouglet,wroteadetailedaccountofvariousmethodsfor
coolingairusingice,undergroundtunnels,andrefrigerationmachines.In1894,HermanRietschel,aprofessorattheBerlinInstituteofTechnology,begandescribing
theheating,cooling,andhumiditycontrolofairasarecognizedscienceinaseriesofpublicationsentitled"GuidetoCalculatingandDesignofVentilatingandHeating
Installations."
Rietschel'sscientificapproachtothedesignofsystemstoconditionairwasfirstintroducedtotheUnitedStatesbyAlfredWolff,aconsultingengineerwhodesigned
severalheatingandcoolingsystemsformedicalcollegesandhospitals.Wolffcrownedhiscareerin1901byusingwasteheattooperateacoolingsystemtoair
conditiontheNewYorkStockExchange.Otherengineersfollowedwithaseriesofinnovationsandsetthestageforavisionarywhopossessedasharpunderstanding
ofbusinessandwhatittakestomoldaninfantenterpriseintoastrongandprosperousindustry.ThepersonwhoaccomplishedthiswasWillisH.Carrier.
In1901,CarriergraduatedfromCornellUniversitywithadegreeinelectricalengineeringandimmediatelytookapositionwiththeBuffaloForgeCompany.After
successfullycompletingthedesignofseveralairhandlingsystems,Carrierbeganaseriesofexperimentstobetterunderstandthecomplexmechanismstakingplace
whenloweringthehumidityinanairstream.Duringthefirstdecadeofthetwentiethcentury,Carrierestablishedthefundamentalprinciplesofpsychrometryandwrote
ahandbookcontainingalloftheformulaeneededtodesignsystemsthatcouldconditionair.In1907,hepersuadedBuffaloForgetoestablishasubsidiarycompany
withhimselfatthehelmandproceededtotakestepsinthedevelopmentoftheairconditioningindustry.AttheWinterAnnual
Page200
MeetingoftheAmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineersinDecember1911,Carrierpresentedapaperthathasbecomethesinglemostfundamentaldocumentin
theairconditioningindustry.Inthispaper,heclearlyexplainedthebasicpreceptsofpsychrometryandofferedapsychrometricchartformakingcalculations.The
formulaeandchartcontainedinCarrier'spaperhavesincebeenreproducedinvirtuallyeverytextbookonventilationandairconditioninginusetoday.
In1915,CarrierleftBuffaloForgeandestablishedhisowncompany.Inthe1920s,heintroducedsmallandreliableairconditioningunits,andin1930placedair
conditionersonrailroadcarsandintheatersthroughoutthenation.Laterinthatdecade,heinstalledairconditionersinthechambersoftheSenateandHouseof
RepresentativesintheU.S.Capitol.
Sincethattime,mechanicalengineershavedesignedairconditioningsystemsofincrediblesizeandimpressivesophistication.Today,theairconditioningindustryholds
astrongpositionintheeconomyofmanynationsandisgivencreditfortheconversionoftropicalareasintoareasofindustrialproductivityaswellaslocationsfor
comfortableliving.
Page201
HollySystemofDistrictHeating
Lockport,NewYork
WhileBirdsillHolly(182294)isbestknownforhiswaterworksmachinery(see"HollySystemofFireProtectionandWaterSupply,"p.10),thelastyearsofhislife
weredevotedlargelytothedevelopmentofdistrictsteamheating.In1876Hollyimprovisedaboilerinthebasementofhishomeandlaida700foot(213m)steam
linearoundhisyardandanadjoiningproperty.Thesmallscaleinstallationfunctionedperfectly,convincingHollythatbuildingsoverawideareacouldbeheatedby
steamfromacentralplant.
In1877HollyorganizedtheHollySteamCombinationCompanyandservedasitschiefengineer.Thecompanylaidsteampipesthatsuppliedresidences,churches,
hotels,andotherbuildingsinLockport,NewYork,withheat.Holly'ssystemwasdesignedtoovercometheinefficiencyofheatingbuildingswithsmall,individual
boilers.Fromalargecentralboilerplant,Hollyfurnishedsteamundermoderatepressuretoagroupofcloselylocatedbuildingsthroughaloopofinsulatedsupplyand
returnmains.Eachcustomerwaschargedforthesteamconsumed,measuredbyameterofHolly'sowndesign.
Followingthesystem'ssuccessfuldemonstrationinLockportduringthewinterof1878,Hollywashiredtoinstallsimilarsystemsinothercities.Thesizeofthe
installationsrangedfrom1to16miles(2to26km)ofundergroundpipe.ThecompanywasreorganizedastheAmericanDistrictSteamCompanyin1880.Holly
continuedtoserveasengineeruntilhisretirementin1888,thencontinuedasconsultingengineeruntilhisdeathsixyearslater.
Holly'sfirstdistrictheatingplant,atElmandSouthstreets,operatedcontinuouslyfrom1877until1970,whentheboilerhousewasshutdownanddemolished.Holly's
ideashaveprovedmoredurable:districtheatingtodayisenjoyingarebirthasapracticalandeconomicalwaytoheatbuildingsincompacturbandistricts.(See
"DetroitEdisonDistrictHeatingSystem,"
In1987theAmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineersdesignatedtheHollySystemofFireProtectionandWaterSupplyandtheHollySystemofDistrictHeatingas
MechanicalEngineeringHeritageSites.Thedesignations,thefirstoftheirkind,recognizeimportantdevelopmentsinthehistoryofmechanicalengineeringeventhough
astructureorobjectmaynolongerbeextant.
Location/Access
TheAmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineersplaqueislocatedattheErieCanalMuseum,NewYorkStateCanalCorporation,80RichmondAvenue,Lockport,
NY14094phone(716)4343140.
FurtherReading
MorrisA.Pierce,"TheIntroductionofDirectPressureWaterSupply,Cogeneration,andDistrictHeatinginUrbanandInstitutionalCommunities,1863
1882"(Ph.D.diss.,UniversityofRochester,1993).
Page202
StirlingWatertubeBoilers
Dalton,Georgia
WhentheywereinstalledintheElkCottonMillsin1906,theStirlingwatertubeboilersrepresentedthestateoftheartinsteamboilerdesign.Todaythecoalfired,
handfedboilers,whichsuppliedsteamtopowermillmachineryuntil1975,areamongtheoldestextantsteamboilersinacottonmill.
Asdemandforgreateramountsofpowergrewinthelatenineteenthcentury,itwasnecessarytobuildeverlargerboilersoperatingathigherpressures.Firetube
boilerstheninuse,builtofsmallplatesrivetedtogether,werelimitedincapacityandpressure,andexplosionswerecommonplace.
Thewatertubeboilerwasdevelopedgradually,withdozensofengineerstacklingtheproblem.StephenWilcox(18441927)areamongthosecreditedwithits
substantivedevelopment.TheStirlingwatertubeboiler,withitsbenttubes(Stirlinghimselfpatentedamachineforbendingsteelandwroughtirontubesin1893)was
asuperiordesign.
Inthewatertubeboiler,thewaterandsteamarecontainedinsidethetubes,whilethehotgasesareincontactwiththeoutertubesurfaces.Thewatertubeboiler
offeredquickersteaming,greatereaseofcleaning,improvedfuelefficiency,andmoreefficientuseofspaceitwasalsoabletooperateathighersteampressuresthan
firetubeboilers.Butperhapsitsgreatestcontributionwasimprovedsafety.Rapidcirculationreducedtemperaturestressesandtheunequalexpansionandcontraction
thatwerethecommoncauseoffatalexplosions,whilethesmallerdrumsofthewatertubeboilercouldbemadeofthinnermetalrolleduniformly,whichwaslesslikely
torupture.Infact,thehighesttemperatureswereinthetubeswerearupturetooccur,thedamagewouldbelocalized.
TheStirlingwatertubeboilerwasbuiltinanumberofdifferentclassestomeetvaryingconditionsoffloorspaceandheadroom.Itconsistsofthreesteamandwater
drums,36to54inches(914to1,371mm)indiameter,setparallelandeachconnectedbyabankofcurvedwatertubestoalowermuddrum.Shortertubes
CrosssectiondrawingofaStirlingwatertubeboiler
showingitscharacteristicbenttubeconstruction.
Page203
connectthesteamspacesoftheupperdrumsandthewaterspacesoffrontandmiddledrums.Theboilerissupportedonastructuralsteelframeworkandsurrounded
byabrickhousingtocontainthecombustionandminimizeheatloss.
TheStirlingwatertubeboilerwasfirstmanufacturedcommerciallybytheInternationalBoilerCompanyofNewYorkin1889.In1890theStirlingBoilerCompany
wasestablishedandpurchasedtheassetsoftheInternationalBoilerCompany.In1906theBabcock&WilcoxCompanyacquiredtheStirlingConsolidatedBoiler
Companywithits65acre(26ha)plantinBarberton,Ohio.Bythisdate,theStirlingwatertubeboilerwasinwidespreaduse.Itstillformsthebasisofmostmodern
boilers,particularlyinships.
TheStirlingboilersattheElk(laterCrown)CottonMillssuppliedsteamat180psig(1,241kPa)and2,500horsepower(1,864kW)tooperateaHamilton
compoundenginepoweringthemill'slineshafting,aFleminghighspeedenginedrivingagenerator,andafirepump.Theyremainedincontinuoususeuntil1975,when
thecompanyswitchedtocommercialelectricpower.Theboilerscontinuedtoheatthemilluntil1986,whentheywererelegatedtostandbystatus.
Location/Access
TheStirlingboilersareopenuponapplicationtoCrownAmerica,Inc.,714ChattanoogaAvenue,Dalton,GA30720phone(706)2781422.
FurtherReading
GlennR.Fryling,ed.,CombustionEngineering:AReferenceBookonFuelBurningandSteamGeneration,rev.ed.(NewYork:CombustionEngineering,Inc.,
1966).
Steam:ItsGenerationandUse(NewYork:TheBabcock&WilcoxCo.,variouseditions).
AllanStirling,"ShellandWaterTubeBoilers,"TransactionsoftheAmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers6(November1884andMay1885):566618.
TheStirlingCompany,Stirling:ABookonSteamforEngineers(NewYork:TheStirlingCompany,1905).
DetroitEdisonDistrictHeatingSystem,BeaconStreetPlant
Detroit,Michigan
Inanefforttocutenergycostsandattractbusinessbackdowntown,manycitiestodayarereturningtoanoldmethodofenergydistribution:districtheating.Indistrict
heating,steamturbineexhaustfromelectricalgeneratingplantsorsteamfromdedicatedboilersisdistributedthroughundergroundpipestohomesandbusiness
locatedindenselybuiltdowntowndistricts.Districtheatingdoesawaywiththeneedforboilersinindividualbuildings,savingspaceandreducingbothstartupand
operatingcosts.
Page204
DetroitEdisonBeaconStreetPlantin
1926,shortlyafteritscompletion.
BirdsillHollyintroduceddistrictheatingatLockport,NewYork,asearlyas1877,demonstratinghowasingle,largesteamplantcouldoperateathigheroverall
thermalefficiencythanaseriesofsmall,isolatedboilers,especiallyinthecommercialdistrictsofcities(see"HollySystemofDistrictHeating,"p.201).Butuntilthe
earlytwentiethcentury,engineersdoubtedthecommercialpracticabilityofdistrictheatinginconjunctionwithelectriclighting.
Bythebasiclawsofthermodynamics,electricpowerplantswastethermalenergy,sincetheirmaximumthermalefficiencythedifferencebetweenthethermalcontent
ofthefossilfueltheyuseandthethermalenergycontainedintheelectricitygeneratedcanneverexceedabout35percent.Theremainingenergyistransferredtothe
environment,mostlyinthecondensercoolingwaterandstackgasses.Littlebylittle,experienceshowedthatdistrictheatingcouldbeaprofitableservicewhereverthe
powerplantwaslocatednearacloselybuiltpartofthecity,wherelargeloadscouldbeservedwithaminimuminvestmentindistributionmains.By1928,twentysix
U.S.companieswereprovidingdistrictheatingtojustmorethanninetythreehundredcustomers.OneofthelargestofthesewastheDetroitEdisonCompany.
In1903theCentralHeatingCompanywasorganizedtodistributesurplusexhauststeamfromDetroitEdison'sWillisAvenuestationtobuildingsinwhatwasthenan
affluentresidentialdistrictofDetroit.There,thepeakoftheheatingloadearlymorning,whenresidentswantedtowarmuphousesthathadbeenallowedtocool
downduringthenightneatlycorrespondedwiththepeakelectricaldemandoftheDetroitUnitedRailwayCompany.Byburningsofter,cheapercoalunderthe
station'sboilersthanwouldbeburnedbyprivatehomeowners,CentralHeatingcouldenjoyaprofitablerateforsupplyingheat.
Detroit'sdistrictheatingsystemwassoonexpandedwiththeadditionoftwonewplantsFarmerStreetin1904andParkPlacein1912andthepurchase,in1914,
ofMurphyPowerCompany,whichhadbeensupplyingsteamheatinthe
Page205
southendofthecentralbusinessdistrict.DetroitEdisonpurchasedalloftheassetsofCentralHeatingin1915.
Tomeetincreaseddemandforheatingservice,from1925to1926DetroitEdisonerectedtheBeaconStreetplant,equippedwithtwo4,155horsepower(3,098
kW)boilers.Athird,4,237horsepower(3,159kW)boilerwasaddedthefollowingyear,andafourth,of4,155horsepower(3,098kW),in1929.Asingleturbine,
installedtoactasapressurereducingvalveonthemostheavilyloadedfeeder,producedbyproductelectricity,whichwasdeliveredtoDetroitEdison'selectrical
system.
DetroitEdisonprovidedheatingservicebythefeedermethod,distributingsteamthroughhighpressuremainsthatconnectedtheheatingplantwithstreetmainsthat
distributedittoindividualcustomers.Thestreetmainscarriedanominalpressureof35psig(241kPa),fromwhichindividualservicewasofferedataguaranteed
pressureof10psig(69kPa).Soldonameteredbasis,districtheatingwasespeciallypopularforofficeandothercommercialbuildings.Asnewbuildingsroseinthe
districtservedbyDetroitEdison,theyinvariablywereconnectedtothedistrictheatingsystem,precudingtheneedforchimneysorspacedevotedtoboilers,fuel,and
auxiliarydevices.
In1959DetroitEdisoninstalledanewboilerandturbinegeneratoratBeaconStreet,alongwithanew24inch(609mm)mainsteamline.Theboileristhelargestin
DetroitEdison'scentralheatingsystem,producingupto500,000pounds(226,000kg)ofsteamperhourat900psig(6,205kPa)and700F(371C).Thesteam
producesupto19.5megawattsofelectricitythroughthenewturbinegeneratorbeforebeingexhaustedintothesteammainsforcustomeruse.This"cogeneration"
resultsinhighthermalefficiency.
Nowgasfired,theBeaconStreetplantstillservessouthernDetroit.DetroitEdison'sthreedistrictheatingplants(Beacon,Willis,andBoulevard)supplysteamthrough
53.6miles(86km)ofmainscarryingfrom30to135psigpressure(207to931kPa),dependingoncustomerdemand.Sincelessthan5percentofthesteamis
returnedtotheplantintheformofcondensate,thesystemrequiresapproximately240,000gallons(908,4001)ofwaterperhourtoproducesteam.
Location/Access
ContacttheDetroitEdisonCompany,GeneralOffice,20002ndStreet,Detroit,MI48226phone(313)2378000.
FurtherReading
ThomasC.Elliott,"DistrictHeatingandCooling:RenewedInterestinOldConcept,"Power131(February1987):1522.
E.E.Dubry,"CentralHeatinginDetroit,"HeatingandVentilatingMagazine26(April1929):6770(May1929):7375
J.H.WalkerandA.R.Mumford,"PresentStatusofDistrictHeating,"PowerPlantEngineering34(1September1930):99496.
Page206
HollandTunnelVentilationSystem
JerseyCity,NewJersey,andNewYorkCity,NewYork
The1.6milelong(2.6km)HollandTunnel,connectingJerseyCitywithlowerManhattan,wasthefirsttunnelundertheHudsonRiverdesignedformotorvehicles
and,uponitscompletionin1927,thelongestsubaqueoustunnelintheworld.Itwasalsothefirstmechanicallyventilatedvehiculartunnelintheworld.(London's
BlackwallandRotherhithetunnelswereventilatedbythenaturalmovementofairthroughtheshaftsandportals.)BuiltbythestatesofNewJerseyandNewYork,the
HollandTunnelpioneeredsolutionstonovelcivilandmechanicalengineeringproblems,especiallytheproblemofventilation,andservedasamodelforthesubsequent
constructionoftheLincoln,QueensMidtown,BrooklynBattery,andothervehiculartunnelsthroughouttheworld.
Since1906,bothNewJerseyandNewYorkStatehadsoughtsomewaytosupplementtheferriesplyingbetweenJerseyCityandManhattanandrelievetraffic
congestion.In1919thebridgeandtunnelcommissionsofthetwostates,formedtodeviseasolutiontotheproblem,receivedauthorizationtobuildatunnel.A
triumverateofengineersplannedandsupervisedtheproject:chiefengineerCliffordMilburnHolland(18831924),whodiedduringconstructionandforwhomthe
tunnelisnamedMiltonH.Freeman(18711925),whosucceededHollandbutdiedfivemonthslaterandOleSingstad(18821969),whosupervisedcompletionof
thetunnel.
Hollandevaluatednumeroustunnelcrosssectionsandroadwaywidthsbeforedecidingontwintubeseach9,250feet(2,819m)longand29.5feet(8,991mm)in
diameter,withatwolaneroadway20feet(6,096mm)wide.Heconsideredtrench,caisson,andshieldmethodsofconstruction.Thegreatvolumeofrivertrafficand
thesoft,siltyriverbottomweredecisivefactorsinselectingtheshieldmethod,inventedandfirstemployedbyMarcIsambardBrunelforexcavatingatunnelunderthe
ThamesinLondonin1825.
Themoderntunnelshieldisasteelcylinderwhoseforwardedgeactsasacuttingedgeandwhoserearendoverlapsthetunnelliningandprovidesprotectionforthe
work.Ashydraulicjackspushtheshieldforward,sandhogs(laborersworkingundercompressedairintheworkingareacounterbalancesthepressureofthewater
andpreventsitfromenteringthetunnel.
Aparamountchallengewastodesignaventilationsystemtoclearthetunnelofnoxiousautomobileandtruckexhaustfumes.Followingphysiologicalandmechanical
testsconductedatYaleUniversity,theUniversityofIllinois,andbytheUnitedStatesBureauofMines,engineersdevisedatransverseflowsystemofventilationthat
servedasamodelforallsubsequentvehiculartunnels.
Theairismovedby84giantfansof6,000totalhorsepower(4,474kW)42
Page207
OneofeightyfourfansattheHollandTunnel.
CourtesyPortofNewYorkAuthority.
blowerunitsand42exhaustunits,the''lungs"ofthetunnelarrangedinfourventilatingbuildings(twooneachsideoftheriver).Freshairisdrawnintotheventilation
buildingsandblownbyfansintoafreshairductrunningthelengthofthetunnelbeneaththeroadwaythefreshairentersthetunnelthroughnarrowflues,spaced15
feet(4,572mm)apart,intheroadwaycurb.Meanwhile,exhaustfanspullthevitiatedairthroughportsintheceilingintoexhaustductsrunningthelengthofthetunnel
anddischargeitintotheatmospherethroughstacksintheventilationbuildings.Atunneloperatoratacentralcontrolboardmonitorsthecarbonmonoxidegenerated
bytunneltrafficandchangestherateofventilationasneeded.Theventilationsystem,manufacturedandinstalledbytheB.F.SturtevantCompany,iscapableof
completelychangingthetunnelaireveryninetyseconds.
ConstructionoftheHollandTunnelbeganonOctober12,1920.ItwasopenedtotrafficonNovember13,1927,eliminatingthetimeconsumingtripbyferryand
strengtheningtheeconomyoftheNewYorkNewJerseymetropolitanregion.
In1984thetunnelwasjointlyrecognizedbytheAmericanSocietyofCivilEngineersandtheAmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineersasahistoricciviland
mechanicalengineeringlandmark.
Location/Access
TheHollandTunnellinks12thand14thstreetsinJerseyCitywithCanalandSpringstreetsinlowerManhattan.ItisoperatedbythePortAuthorityofNewYork&
NewJersey.Thereisatollforeastboundvehicles.
FurtherReading
B.F.SturtevantCompany,TheEighthWonder(Boston:B.F.SturtevantCompany,1927).
Page208
MagmaCopperMineAirConditioningSystem
Superior,Arizona
In1937theMagmaCopperCompanyinstalledanundergroundrefrigerationplanttoairconditionthe3,400and3,600foot(1,036and1,097m)levelsofthe
MagmaMineatSuperior,Arizona.Dr.WillisH.Carrier(18761950),celebratedairconditioningpioneerandchairmanoftheCarrierCorporationofSyracuse,
NewYork,personallydesignedtheMagmaMineinstallationandsupervisedthemanufactureoftheequipmentforwhatbecamethefirstmineinNorthAmericatobe
cooledbymechanicalrefrigeration.(CarrierpreviouslyhaddesignedtheairconditioninginstallationsattheMorroVelhoMineinBrazilabout1914andatthe
RobinsonDeepMinenearJohannesburg,SouthAfrica,in1934.)
Thesulfidesincopperoxidizewhentheorecomesintocontactwithair,generatingheat.Rocktemperaturesashighas140F(60C)ontheMagma's4,000foot
(1,219m)level,combinedwithhumiditycausedbygroundwaterinsidethemine,madeaircoolingnecessary.Thecompany'susualpracticewastoopenupalevel
andletitstandforseveralyearstodryoutandcooloffthroughtheuseofventilatingfansevenafterthelevelhadbeenventilated,productionefficiencywashampered
bytheheatandhumidity.Byinstallingundergroundairconditioning,Magmahopedtohastenitsminingoperationsandimproveminers'efficiency.
TocooltheMagmaMine,Carrierfurnishedtwocentrifugalrefrigerationunits,eachpoweredbya200horsepower(149kW)inductionmotor,onthe3,600foot
(1,097m)level.(Thesizeoftheairconditioningequipmentwaslimitedbythesizeoftheshaftcompartments40inchesby60inches(1,016mmby
Dr.WillisH.Carrier(secondfromtheright)inspects
therotorofacentrifugalrefrigerationunitofthetypeinstalled
atthe3,600foot(1,097m)leveloftheMagmaCopperMine.
Page209
1,520mm).Forthisreason,Magmainstalledtwounits,ratherthanasingle,largerone.)Chilledwaterwaspumpedtofincoilsonthe3,400and3,600foot(1,036
and1,097m)levels.Fanspoweredby50horsepower(37kW)motorsdrewairoverthecoilsattherateofabout30,000cubicfeet(850m3)perminute.Inpassing
overthecoils,theairwascooledbelowitsdewpoint,resultingindehumidificationaswellascooling.TheMagmaengineeringdepartmentworkedouttheproblemof
watersupply,transportinggroundwaterfromthe2,500foot(762m)levelinopenditchesandpipestoasumponthe3,600foot(1,097m)levelfromthere,pumps
deliveredittotherefrigerationunits.
ThedaybeforetheMagmaairconditioningplantstartedup,temperaturesonthe3,600foot(1,097m)levelaveraged101F(38C)drybulband93F(34C)wet
bulbafterfourmonthsofairconditionedventilation,theaverageofallworkingplacesonbothlevelshadbeenloweredto80F(27C)drybulband72F(22C)
wetbulb.Airconditioningnotonlyimprovedthecomfortandefficiencyoftheminersbutalsoaccelerateditsdevelopment.
By1941,Magmahadextendedcoolingtofouradditionallevelsofthemine.Thatyear,CarrierengineerJ.F.Kooistrasuccinctlydescribedthesignificanceofthe
Magmainstallation.Theairconditioningofdeepshaftgoldandcoppermines,hewroteinTheMiningJournal,"maybeconsideredasoneofthegreateststeps
beingtakenbymankindinthesearchfornewmethodstoincreaseproduction,safeguardinvestments,andimprovetheworkingconditionsofhumanbeings."
Location/Access
TheMagma'spioneerrefrigerationunitswerecannibalizedandabandonedinplaceaftertheorewasremoved.
FurtherReading
WilliamKoerner,C.B.Foraker,andJ.F.Kooistra,"AirConditioningMines,"TheMiningCongressJournal23(November1937):2125.
J.F.Kooistra,"AirConditioningofMagmaMine,"TheMiningJournal20(15May1937):34.
,"DoublingofMagma'sAirConditioningPlant,"TheMiningJournal25(15December1941):35.
EquitableBuildingHeatPump
Portland,Oregon
Consideredabenchmarkofmodernarchitecturebecauseofitspioneeringuseofathinglassandmetalcurtainwall,thetwelvestoryEquitableBuilding,designedby
PortlandarchitectPietroBelluschiandcompletedin1948,enjoysaseconddistinction:itwasthefirstlargecommercialbuildinginthenationtoincorporateaheat
pumpsystemforheatingandcooling.
Page210
Thetheoreticalconceptionoftheheatpumpwasdescribedasearlyas1824byFrenchphysicistNicolasLonardSadiCarnot(17961832)inhisclassicRflexions
surlapuissancemotricedufeu(ReflectionsontheMotivePowerofHeat).In1854SirWilliamThomson(LordKelvin),apioneerofmechanicalrefrigeration,
calledit"tomorrow'smethodofheating."Butthepotentialoftheheatpump(alsoknownasreversecyclerefrigeration)remainedunrealizeduntilthe1940s,whenthe
furtherdevelopmentofairconditioningandcommercialandindustrialrefrigerationsuggestedthepracticalityofheatingapplications.Electricutilitiessawtheheatpump
asawaytoboosttheconsumptionofkilowatthoursandencouragedfurtherresearchanddevelopment.By1947,thereweremorethan150commercialand
residentialheatpumpinstallationsnationwide,themajorityinCalifornia.
FollowingWorldWarII,consultingengineerJ.DonaldKroekercollaboratedwithBelluschiinplanninganew212,000squarefoot(19,695m2)headquarters
buildingfortheEquitableSavings&LoanAssociation.Determinedtobuildthemostmodernofficebuildingpossible,EquitableofficialsgaveBelluschithegreenlight
todesignasleekglassandaluminumsheathedbuildingwithyearroundairconditioning.TheEquitableBuildingbecameaprototypefornewofficebuildings
nationwide.
Portland'smoderatewintersandwarm,humidsummersmadeuseoftheheatpumpattractiveairconditioningwouldrequirecoolingcapacitygreaterthanheating
capacitywhiletheavailabilityofcheaphydroelectricpowermadeiteconomicallyfeasible.Theheatpumpoperatesasdoesahouseholdrefrigerator,withessentially
thesameelementsandwithexactlythesamecycle.However,insteadofmaintainingabuildingatalowertemperaturethanthesurroundings,itsuppliesheat.The
conceptcanbedemonstratedbytouchingthecondensercoilsatthebackofrefrigeratortheyarewarm.Thisheatisequaltothesumofthe
Basicheatpumpsysteminheatingmode.
Page211
heatremovedfromthefoodcompartmentandtheheatequivalentoftheenergysuppliedtotheelectricmotordrivingtherefrigerator'scompressor.
TheheatpumpintheEquitableBuildinghasfourdifferentmodesofoperation,eachautomaticallycontrolled,dependingontheoutsideairtemperature.Whenitis
below50F(10C),theheatpumptransfersenergyfromwarm(about63F,17C)wellwatertothecoldairenteringthebuilding,therebyraisingitstemperature.
Thesysteminthisinstanceisoperatingasaheatpumpbecause,incontrasttothehouseholdrefrigerator,theobjectistoincreasethetemperatureoftheincomingair,
notdecreasethetemperatureofthewarmwellwater.
Whentheoutsideairtemperatureisequalto50F(10C),noenergyisneededfromthewarmwellwaterbecausetheenergygeneratedbythebuilding'soccupants,
officeequipment,lights,etc.,issufficienttobalancethatlosttotheoutsideairthroughairleakage.Foroutsideairtemperaturesbetween50F(10C)and75F(24
C),itisnecessarytodehumidifytheincomingairbyloweringitstemperatureuntilthemoistureintheaircondenses.Theenergythatmustbeextractedistransferredby
theheatpump,eithertowaterbeingpumpedfromthecold(57F,14C)welltothetwowarmwells,ortothedehumidifiedincomingair.Thesystemisnowoperating
asarefrigerator,ratherthanasaheatpump,becausetheobjectistocooltheincomingair(fordehumidification)ratherthantoraisethetemperatureofeitherthe
warmwellwaterorthedehumidifiedincomingair.Oncetheoutsideairtemperaturerisesabove75F(24C),itisnolongernecessarytoraisethetemperatureofthe
dehumidifiedair,andalltheenergyremovedfromtheincomingairinthedehumidifieristransferredbytheheatpump(refrigerator)tothewellwaterthatisbeing
pumpedfromthecoldtothehotwells.
Theheatpumpsystemincorporatesanadditional,ingeniousfeaturethatconservesenergywhentheairtemperatureisbelow50F(10C).Afterleavingthe
evaporatoroftheheatpumpatatemperaturebetween50F(10C)and53F(12C),thewaterfromthewarmwellpassesthroughaheatexchangerlocatedinthe
ductcarryingwarmairleavingthebuilding.Thewaterleavestheheatexchangeratabout53.7F(12C),then,beforebeingdischargedtothecoldwell,passesto
anotherheatexchangerplacedintheductthatcarriesthecoldairleavingthebuilding.Thewateriscolderthantheleavingwarmairandwarmerthantheincomingcold
air,therebytransferringenergyfromtheleavingairtotheenteringair.Thissavesabout30percentoftheenergythatwouldotherwisehavetobesuppliedtothe
buildingand,furthermore,avoidstheneedforauxiliaryheat.
Therefrigerationsystem,whichformsthecoreoftheheatpump,consistsoffourunitstwoof200ton(700kW)capacityusingFreonIIasrefrigerant,andtwoof
70ton(250kW)capacityusingFreon113asrefrigerant.Thelatterunitsareusedwhenthesystemisoperatingasaheatpumpwithanoutsideairtemperatureof
10F(12C),theheatpumpcoolsthewarmwellwater,whichisbeingpumpedat600gallonsperminute(2,2711/m)tothecoldwell,from58.7F
Page212
(15C)to50F(10C).The200ton(700kW)unitsareusedwhenthesystemisoperatingasaconventionalairconditioningsystem,coolinganddehumidifyingthe
incomingairthesecoolthewaterthatissuppliedtotheheattransferunits(coils)intheairconditioningsystemto40F(4.4C).
Inmorethanfortyyearsofoperation,somechangeshavebeennecessaryallwaterchillers,forexample,havesincebeenreplacedbuttheheatpumpsystem
continuestoprovideeconomicalheatingandcooling.In1953calculationsofcomparativecostsshowedthatdistrictsteamheatwouldhavecostsixtimesasmuchas
theheatpumpoil,fourtimesasmuch.
Location/Access
TheEquitable(nowCommonwealth)Buildingislocatedat421,S.W.SixthAvenueindowntownPortland.
FurtherReading
"EquitableBuildsaLeader,"ArchitecturalForum89(September1948):98106.
J.DonaldKroekerandRayC.Chewning,"AHeatPumpinanofficeBuilding,"Heating,Piping&AirConditioning20(March1948):12128.
Page213
WATERTRANSPORTATION
Introduction
RobertH.Thurston,thedistinguishedengineerandengineeringhistorian,wrotein1878:"Therealizationofthehopes,theprophecies,andtheaspirationsofearlier
times,inthemodernmarinesteamengine,maybejustlyregardedasthegreatestofalltriumphsofmechanicalengineering."(AHistoryoftheGrowthoftheSteam
Engine,2ded.[Ithaca,N.Y.:CornellUniversityPress,1939],221).Whilewemight,insomerespects,temperthatjudgmenttodaywhenweconsider,forexample,
thedevelopmentoftheaircraftturbojetengine,neverthelessitcontainssubstantialtruthwhenwelookatmarinepropulsiondevelopmentssubsequenttoThurston's
day,namely,thesteamturbine,thegasturbine,andtheturbocharged,twostrokecompressionignition(diesel)engine(themostefficientprimemovercurrentlyin
use).ThelandmarksassociatedwithwatertransportationstartwiththeSSGreatBritain,whichwaslaunchedin1843.Althoughnowlackingherengine,since
replacedbyawoodenreplica,thisshipisremarkablebecauseitwasfirstvesseltoembodyalltheelementsofthemodernship:metalconstruction,steamdriven
screwpropeller,andalargesizeintendedtoensurethatitcouldbeoperatedprofitablyonlongvoyages.
Intheearlydaysoftheapplicationofmarinesteamengines,thoseusedfornavalpurposesandthoseappliedinmerchantshipsfollowedadifferentdesignphilosophy.
Typically,theenginesofnavalvesselswereoflowoverallheightbecauseitwasconsideredessentialforasmuchoftheengineaspossibletobebelowthewaterlinein
ordertoprotectitfromenemyfire.ThelandmarkenginesoftheTVEmeryRice,asocalledbackactingengine,aretypicalofthe"folded"arrangementsassociated
withthefirstapplication(upuntilthelate1880s)ofsteaminnavalvessels.Fromabout1890onward,theconstructionoflargeshipswithsubstantialdraughtforthe
navyallowedtheuseofverticalengines,drivingthepropellerdirectlywithoutanyinterveninggears,chains,orlevers.Thiswasa
Page214
typethathadbeenusedsinceabout1860inmerchantvessels.TheUSSOlympia,oneofthelandmarksdescribedinthischapter,wasanearlyexampleoftheuseof
thistypeofengineinnavalvessels.
Twoofthemostsignificantadvancesinmarinesteampowerplantdesignweretheinventionofthesurfacecondenserandtheadoption,inabout1850,ofthe
compoundengine,whichgreatlyimprovedtheefficiencyofthemarinesteampowerplant.A6percentimprovementinefficiency,whichwastypical,representeda
savingof100tonsofcoalinonetransatlanticvoyage.Besidessavingincoalcosts,itallowed100tonsmorecargotobecarriedbyamerchantshipandrepresented
anincreaseinthesteamingrangeofanavalship.
Withfurtheradvancesinsteampressure,asallowedbyimprovementsinboilerdesign,tripleexpansionengineswereintroducedin1874.Inthese,thesteamwas
expandedsuccessivelyinthreecylindersofincreasingdiameter.TheenginesoftheUSSOlympia,USSTexas,andtheSSJeremiahO'Brien,describedinthis
chapter,areallofthetripleexpansiontype.
ThoseoftheTexasweretheultimateinthedesignofnavalreciprocatingengines.Nevertheless,theywereananachronism.Thenextdevelopmentinmarinepropulsion
power,thesteamturbine,wasalreadyinusebytheU.S.Navy,but,asthearticleinthischapterontheTexasexplains,theearlyapplicationofthesteamturbineto
navalvesselswasavictimofprematureenthusiasm.
Initially,itwasthedemandforincreasingpower,withoutthelargebulkofthereciprocatingsteamengine,thatinterestedshipownersandnaviesinthesteamturbine.
Ultimately,itwasthepossibilityofemployingasignificantlymoreefficientpowerplantthatledtotheturbinesupersedingthereciprocatingengine.Although,inthecase
ofthetransatlantic"greyhounds"thefeasibilityofproducingthenecessarypowerfromasteamturbineofmuchsmallerdimensionsthanthecomparablereciprocating
steamenginemustalsohavebeenanimportantconsideration.CharlesParsons(18541931),theinventoranddeveloperoftheturbinethatbearshisname,
demonstratedthecapabilitiesofthesteamturbineinmarineapplicationsbybuildingtheTurbinia,whichisdescribedinthischapter.
Itwasinevitablethatthenuclearreactorshouldbeconsideredasapowersourceformarineapplications.Inthoseearly,headydaysfollowingthedemonstrationof
controllednuclearfissionintheatomicpilebuiltinChicagoin1942,whenelectricpowerproducedbyatomicfissionwasgoingtobe"toocheaptometer,"theatomic
reactormusthaveseemedtobeanidealsourceofmarinepower.Thisappearstohavebeentruefornavalapplications,buttheoutcomehasnotbeensohappyfor
commercialvessels.TheNSSavannah,oneofthelandmarksdescribedinthischapter,wasacargoshipthatusedanatomicreactor.Aswithlandbasednuclear
powerplants,thepracticehasnotreachedtheexpectationsofthedreams.Giventhecontroversythatsurroundstheuseofnuclearenergyforelectricpower
generation,itisdifficulttoenvisionarevivaloftheideaembodiedintheSavannah.Itis,perhaps,aninterestinglandmarktotheoptimismofengineers.
Page215
TheEvinrudeoutboardmotorisincludedamongthelandmarksinthischapter,anditis,atfirstsight,difficulttoreconcilethissmalldevicetheprototypeweighed62
pounds,or28kg,anddeveloped1.5horsepower(1.1kW)withthetwoenginesoftheUSSTexaseachofwhichdeveloped14,050horsepower(10,477
kW)butthelinkbetweensuchdisparateenginetypesisthere,nevertheless.Today,thelargestvessels,upto401,554tons(408,000t)arepoweredbytwostroke
dieselenginesadmittedlyofveryhighpoweroutput,typically4,700horsepower(3,500kW)percylinder.Sothetwostrokeengineisseenatboththehighestand
lowestendsoftherangeofpowersusedinmarinetransportation.Inbothcases,thehighratioofthepowertotheweightareimportant.Thetwostrokeengine
probablyisalsoattractiveinoutboardmotorboatenginesbecauseofitsmechanicalsimplicity,sinceitavoidstheuseofpoppetinletandexhaustvalvesandtheir
associatedvalvegear.
HavingopenedthisessaywiththewordsofRobertH.Thurston,itisappropriatetoclosebyparaphrasingsomeothersofhisfromthesamepublication:"The
landmarksinthischapterexemplifythehistoryofthedevelopmentofthemarinepowerplant,ifnotfromtheearliestdays,atleastfromthetime(c.1840)whensteam
poweredoceanvoyagesbecameaneverydayoccurrence."
Page216
SSGreatBritain
Bristol,England
Launchedin1843,theSSGreatBritainwasthefirstvesseltoembodyalltheelementsofthemodernship:metalconstruction,steamdrivenscrewpropeller,and
largesizeaimedatgoodeconomy.ThispioneervesselwasthecreationofIsambardKingdomBrunel(180659),anengineerofcourageandforesightwhodesigned
andequippedthreegreatships(theothersaretheSSGreatWesternof1837andtheSSGreatEasternof1859).BythetimetheironkeelplateswerelaidinJuly
1839,BrunelhadmadefivedesignstudiesfortheMammoth(asthevesseloriginallywastobenamed).Thefifthshowedapaddlepropelled,ironhulledvesselofan
unprecedented3,270grosstons(2,966t)thelargestintheworld.In1840Brunelmadethemomentousdecisiontoabandonpaddlepropulsioninfavorofthe
screwpropeller.
TheGreatBritain,322feet(98m)longoverallwithabeamof51feet(15.5m),hadnocentralkeelinthemannerofawoodenship.Instead,theriveteddouble
bottomwascomposedoftenlongitudinalgirdersrunningalongthebottomoftheshipforitsentirelengthandangleironframesorribs.Ironplatesoverthelongitudinal
formedthelowestdeck,whileoverlapping,doublerivetedplatesmeasuringabout3by6feet(910by1,820mm)formedtheouterbottom,orskin,oftheship.Five
transverse,watertightbulkheadsrunningacrossthehulladdedstrength.
TheenginewasaninvertedVtype,withtwopairsofcylinderseachof88inch(2,235mm)boreand72inch(1,828mm)stroke.TheMerseyIronWorks
fabricatedthemassiveoverheadcrankshaft,17feet(5,181mm)longandsome28
SSGreatBritaininitshomeportatBristol
(Avon),England.CourtesySouthWest
PictureAgencyLtd.
Page217
inches(711mm)indiameter,whichattractedmuchattentioninitsday.Suppliedwithsteamat15psig(103kPa),theenginehadanindicatedhorsepowerof1,800
(1,342kW)at18rpm.Thepropellershaftwasdrivenataboutthreetimesenginespeedbysprocketsandchain.
Bysummer1843,thegreatshipwasready.InseatrialsthefollowingDecember,thevesselturned12knots,exceedingexpectations.(Later,itwouldturnnearly14
knots.)Followingfivemonthsofexhibition,muchofitinLondon,theGreatBritainwenttoLiverpooltoembarkpassengersandcargoforitsmaidenvoyage.Inthe
faceofwesterlygalesandfog,thevesselmadepassagetoNewYorkin14daysand21hoursatanaveragespeedof9knots.Thetripwasaconspicuoussuccess,
withsome21,000visitorsinspectingthevesselduringits19daylayover.
TheGreatBritainmadeseveraltransatlanticcrossingsbeforerunningagroundinDundrumBayonthewestcoastofIreland,adisasterthattaxedtheresourcesof
Brunel'sGreatWesternSteamshipCompanybeyonditslimits.In1850theGreatBritainwassoldandfittedoutfortheAustraliantrade.Itwaslatersoldagainand
rebuiltasasailingvessel.In1886,carryingcoalforPanama,theshipmetheavyweatherandcametorestintheFalklandIslands,whereitwasconvertedtoahulkfor
thestorageofwoolandcoal.Fiftyyearslater,itwasscuttledinSparrowCoveanddeclaredacrownwreck.
In1967Dr.EwanCorlettwrotetotheLondonTimesabouttheship'splight,instigatinganambitiousrescueeffort.In1970itwastowedhomeonabargetothe
samedrydockinwhichithadbeenbuilt127yearsearlier.There,theSSGreatBritainProjectCommitteehasrestored(and,insomecases,reconstructed)what
Corletthascalled''thegreatgreatgreatgreatgrandmother"oftoday'soceangoingvessels.
TheGreatBritain'sinnovativeironhullisoriginal.Theengine,unfortunately,vanishedlongago,butareplicaisbeingconstructedbasedonthefewpublished
drawingsthatsurvive.
Location/Access
Brunel'sgreatironshiprestsinthedrydockwhereitwasbuilt,GreatWesternDock,GasFerryRoad(offCumberlandRoad)inBristol,AvonBS16TVGreat
Britainphone(117)9260680.Onthedockisasmallmuseumillustratingitshistory.Admissionfee.
FurtherReading
EwanCorlett,TheIronShip:TheHistoryandSignificanceofBrunel'sGreatBritain(NewYork:ArcoPublishingCompany,Inc.,1975).
L.T.C.Rolt,IsambardKingdomBrunel:ABiography(London:Longmans,GreenandCo.,1957).
K.T.Rowland,TheGreatBritain(NewtonAbbot,Devon:David&Charles,1971).
Page218
TVEmeryRiceEngine
KingsPoint,NewYork
ThebackactingscrewengineofthetrainingvesselEmeryRicerepresentsaperiodofmomentouschangeinU.S.navalhistory.Sailwasgivingwaytosteampower,
ironhullswerereplacingwood,andtheverycharacterofnavalengagementwastransformedbynewgunsandarmorplate.Thankstoforesight,thistypicalnineteenth
centurymarineenginewassavedwhenthevesselitpoweredwassenttothebreakersin1958.
Constructedin1873andcommissionedin1876,theEmeryRicebeganitslongcareerastheUSSRanger,anirongunboatriggedasathreemastedbarkentine.One
ofthelastfourironshipstobebuilt(allsubsequentnavalshipsweresteel),theRangerwaspoweredbyabackacting("returnconnectingrod"inEngland)screw
enginehavingallthepartsofaconventionalreciprocatingengineadroitly"foldedback"toformashort,compacthorizontalcompoundengine.Thenovelconfiguration
enabledittolieathwartthekeel,protectedbelowthewaterline,outofsightofenemyguns.
TheenginewasdesignedandconstructedbytheBureauofSteamEngineeringoftheU.S.Navy.ThearrangementofitspartsderivedfromBritishnavalpractice
beginninginthe1840s.Insteadofbeingbeyondthecrossheads,thecrankswerelocatedbetweenthemandtheircylinders.Theconnectingrodsreachedback,or
"returned,"fromthecrossheadstocoupletothecrankpins.Toallowthis,theusualsinglepistonrodswerereplacedbytwopistonrodsunderandoverthecrankshaft
onthelowpressurecylinderandbyayokedpistonrodonthe
DrawingofthebackactingenginedesignedbytheU.S.
NavyforthetrainingvesselEmeryRice.Allthepartsofa
conventionalreciprocatingengineareneatly"folded
back"toformacompacthorizontalcompoundengine.
Page219
highpressurecylinder.Althoughsomewhatcramped,thearrangementallowedconnectingrodsofreasonablelengthtokeepthelateralthrustonthecrossheadguides
withinbounds.Themaindisadvantagewastheneedfortwostuffingboxesthesealsinthecylinderheadthroughwhichthepistonrodpassescomponentsthat
wereliabletowearand,hence,toleaksteam,becauseofthecontinualreciprocatingmotionofthepistonrod.
TheRangerledaneventfullife,servingwiththeAtlanticandPacificfleets,performingmagneticsurveydutyalongthewesterncoastsandcrossingtheequator
countlesstimes.In1909thevesselwastransferredtotheMassachusettsNauticalTrainingSchoolandwassuccessivelyknownastheUSSRockport,Nantucket,
andBayState.In1942shewastransferredtotheU.S.MerchantMarineAcademyatKingsPoint,NewYork,andrenamedtohonorCaptainEmeryRice,a
distinguishedveteranoftheSpanishAmericanWarandWorldWarI.Thevesselwasretiredfromseadutyin1944andscrappedin1958.Thankstotheeffortsof
KarlKortum,curatoroftheSanFrancisco(nowNational)MaritimeMuseum,theenginewasputintostorage.RearAdmiralThomasJ.Patterson,Jr.,whoearlier
hadintercededonbehalfoftheLibertyshipJeremiahO'Brien(seep.229),succeededinhavingtheenginereturnedtoKingsPointfordisplayintheacademy
museum.
Backactingmarineenginesdisappearedtowardtheendofthenineteenthcenturyasadvancesinarmorplatingofships'hullsgaveprotectiontoconventional
multicylinderverticalenginesofferingvastlygreaterpower.
Location/Access
TheengineoftheEmeryRiceisondisplayattheAmericanMerchantMarineMuseum,U.S.MerchantMarineAcademy,60CuttermillRoad,GreatNeck,NY
11021phone(516)4828200,ext.304.Hours:SaturdayandSunday,14:30P.M.,andWednesday,byappointmentclosedduringJuly.
FurtherReading
EmoryEdwards,ModernAmericanMarineEngines,BoilersandScrewPropellers(Philadelphia:HenryCareyBaird&Co.,1881).
Turbinia
NewcastleuponTyne,TyneandWear,England
By1880,thereciprocatingsteamenginewasfastapproachingthepracticallimitsofitsdevelopment.In1884,inoneofthelandmarkeventsinthehistoryof
mechanicalengineering,CharlesA.Parsons(18541931)introducedthesteamturbineasapracticalprimemover.Thesteamturbine,whichderivedenergyfromthe
velocityofexpandingsteamratherthanfromitspressure,did
Page220
"Lowinthewater,longandnarrowinthebody,sharpasaknifeat
thebow,speedineveryline":thusdidonecontemporaryobserver
describeCharlesParson'sexperimentallaunchTurbinia.
awaywiththelimitationsimposedbythemechanicsofthepistonengine,allowingthepowerthatcouldbedevelopedwithagivenweightofmachineryinagivenspace
tobesubstantiallymultiplied.
TheexperimentallaunchTurbinia,designedbyParsonsin1894,representsthefirstapplicationofthesteamturbinetomarinepropulsion.Parsonshimselfconducted
extensivemodeltestsatRyton,thenhishome,andatHeaton,homeoftheC.A.Parsons&Co.turbineworks,todeterminehullcharacteristicsandpower
requirements.Theexperimentallaunchwas100feet(30.4m)long,withabeamof9feet(2.7m)andatotaldisplacementof44tons(40t).Thehull,ofsteelplate,
featuredawedgeshapedbowandroundedbody(todecreasedrag).
Theoriginalturbineenginefittedinthevesselwasdesignedtodevelopupwardsof1,500horsepower(1,118kW)ataspeedof2,500rpm,withdirectdrivetoa
singletwobladedpropeller.Butearlytrialsproveddisappointingpropellerslipwasnearly50percentandspeedswerelow.Parsonspersevered,however,trying
differentpropellerarrangements.Todothis,hedevisedtheworld'sfirstpropellertestingtank,makingitpossibletophotographthe"vacuouscavities"thatseemedto
behinderingspeed.
Theanswerappearedtolieinusingmultiplepropellerswithlargebladeareas.Parsonsreplacedthesinglepropellerwiththreepropellershafts,eachdrivenbyitsown
compoundturbineandhavingacombinedhorsepowerof2,100(1,566kW).Eachshafthadthreescrews(propellers)placedatintervalsofseveralfeet.Thedivision
oftheturbines,whichappliedonethirdofthetotalpowertoeachshaft,greatlyincreasedpropellerefficiencyandspeed.ByDecember1896,the
Page221
TheCompoundSteamTurbine
Inthesimplestformofsteamturbine,ahighspeedjetofsteamisdirectedbyanozzleintoarowofbuckets,blades,orvanesattachedtothe
peripheryofawheel.Bythismeans,partofthethermalenergyofthesteamisconvertedintokineticenergy,thenintomechanicalenergyatthe
revolvingshaftthatcarriestheturbinewheel.Thismechanicalenergyisthenavailabletodoworkdriveanelectricalgenerator,forexample,or
turnthepropellerofaboat.
Butthissimplesteamturbinehasamajordrawback:theturbinewheelrotatestoofastfrom10,000to30,000rpm.Apracticalsteamturbinemust
rotateatmuchlowerspeeds.Thekeytoreducingturbinespeedistopassthesteamthroughasuccessionofnozzlesandwheels,calledstages,with
onlyasmalldropinpressureoccurringineachstage.
Aturbinehavingmultiplestages,calledacompoundturbine,offerednumerousadvantagesoverreciprocatingengines.CharlesParsons
enumeratedthemin1897:
1.Increasedspeed.
2.Increasedeconomyofsteam.
3.Increasedcarryingpowerofvessel.
4.Increasedfacilitiesfornavigatingshallowwaters.
5.Increasedstabilityofvessel.
6.Increasedsafetytomachineryforwarpurposes.
7.Reducedweightofmachinery.
8.Reducedspaceoccupiedbymachinery.
9.Reducedinitialcost.
10.Reducedcostofattendanceonmachinery.
11.Diminishedcostofupkeepofmachinery.
12.Largelyreducedvibration.
13.Reducedsizeandweightofscrewpropellersandshafting.
Source:JournaloftheAmericanSocietyofNavalEngineers,May1897.
Turbiniahadreachedanaveragespeedof29.6knots.Fittedwithnewpropellersofincreasedpitchratio,theTurbiniaattainedarecordspeedof34.5knotsand
was,briefly,thefastestvesselintheworld.
WiththeTurbinia,Parsonsdemonstratedtheadvantagesofthecompoundsteamturbineoverthereciprocatingengineamongthem,increasedspeedandeconomy
ofsteamconsumption(seesidebar)andprovedtheturbine'sworthformarinepropulsion.Inlessthanadecade,steamturbineswouldbepropellingtransatlantic
linersandbattleships.
TheTurbiniasettledintolifeasahighspeeddemonstrationvessel.In1902
Page222
thelastchangewasmadeinitsbasicform:singlepropellersof28inch(711mm)diameterandpitchreplacedthetriplescrewsoneachshaft.Fiveyearslater,the
Turbiniasteamedforwhatprovedtobethelasttime.Anaccidentcutitintwo.In1961thetwohalveswerereunitedwithareconstructedcentersectionandputon
publicdisplay.
Location/Access
TheTurbinia,housedatExhibitionPark,GreatNorthRoad,isopenbyappointmentonly.ContactTyneandWearMuseumsService,BlandfordHouse,Blandford
Square,NewcastleuponTyneNE14JA,Englandphone(091)2326789.
FurtherReading
S.V.Goodall,"SirCharlesParsonsandtheRoyalNavy,"TransactionsoftheInstitutionofNavalArchitects84(1942):116.
ClevelandMoffett,"TheFastestVesselAfloat:The'Turbinia,'andtheNewEraShePromisesinOceanTravel,"McClure'sMagazine,July1898,24352.
CharlesParsons,"TheApplicationoftheCompoundSteamTurbinetothePurposeofMarinePropulsion,"JournaloftheAmericanSocietyofNavalEngineers9
(May1897):37484.
R.H.Parsons,TheDevelopmentoftheParsonsSteamTurbine(London:ConstableandCompanyLtd,1936).
VerticalReciprocatingSteamEngines,USSOlympia
Philadelphia,Pennsylvania
TheUSSOlympiaisbestknownastheflagshipofCommodoreGeorgeDewey,thenavalcommanderwhodefeatedtheSpanishfleetattheBattleofManilaBayin
thePhilippinesinthefirstactionoftheSpanishAmericanWar.Thedate,May1,1898,markedthebeginningoftheUnitedStates'reignasaworldpower.Butthe
protectedcruiser,namedafterthecapitalofWashingtonState,isotherwisedistinguishedasoneofthefirstnavalvesselstobefittedwithverticalreciprocatingsteam
engines,markingadeparturefromtheusualhorizontalcylindersdesignedtogivealowprofileand,hence,reducethevulnerabilitytogunfire.(See"TVEmeryRice
Engine,"p.218.Merchantvesselsalreadyhadadoptedverticalenginesasthepropellershipdisplacedthesidepaddlesteamer.)
BuiltaspartofaprogramtomodernizetheU.S.Navy,theOlympiawasoneofthecountry'sfirststeelships.Constructionwasauthorizedin1888,andthecontract
wasawardedtotheUnionIronWorksofSanFrancisco.LaunchedonNovember5,1892,andcommissionedinFebruary1895,theOlympiawasclassi
Page223
VerticalreciprocatingsteamengineoftheUSSOlympia.
fiedasaprotectedcruiserofmoderatesize,withalargenumberofmediumcaliber,rapidfiregunsandacurvedprotectiveplateofarmorovertheship'svitalsjust
abovethewaterline.
TheOlympiahadtwinscrews14.75feet(4,495mm)indiameter,eachdrivenbyathreecylinder,tripleexpansionengineof8,425horsepower(6,283kW)at139
rpm,withsteamat160psig(1,102kPa)foramaximumspeedof21.6knots.Astrokeof42inches(1,067mm)wascommontoallcylinders,theboresbeing42,
59,and92inches(1,0671,499and2,337mm).FourdoubleendedandtwosingleendedScotchboilerswithatotaloffortyfurnacesunderforceddraftinaclosed
stokeholdsystemsuppliedthesteam.Trustinsteamwasnotabsolute,howevertheshipalsocarriedtheauxiliarysailrigofatwomastedschooner.
Originallytheflagshipofthenavy'sAsiaticSquadron,theOlympiabecametheflagshipofthesmallCaribbeanDivisionintheearlytwentiethcentury.InWorldWarI,
theshippatrolledtheNorthAtlanticfromNewYorktoNovaScotia.Afterthewar,theOlympiaservedasflagshipintheeasternMediterranean.Herlastmission,in
1921,wastobringhomethebodyofAmerica's"unknownsoldier"fromFranceforburialinArlingtonNationalCemeteryinWashington,D.C.
TheOlympiawasdecommissionedinPhiladelphiain1922andberthedatthenavyyardforthenexttwentyyears.FollowingPresidentialintervention,thevesselwas
designatedanavalrelicoftheSpanishAmericanWarin1942butreceivednomaintenance.In1954thenavytriedtodisposeofallitshistoricalrelics(exceptthe
USSConstitution),spurringtheformationoftheCruiserOlympiaAssociationin1957toraisefundsforrestoration.Acommercialshipyardmadesomerepairs,but
theworkwasslovenly,alargeportionoftheportenginedisap
Page224
peared,andtheyardwentbankrupt.Anewassociationwasformed,andrestorationisproceedingasmoneybecomesavailable.
Location/Access
TheUSSOlympiaandthesubmarineUSSBecunaaredockedatPenn'sLanding,DelawareAvenueandSpruceStreet,Philadelphia,Pennsylvaniaphone(215)
9221898.Hours:daily,10A.M.to4:30P.M.,anduntil6P.M.insummerclosedChristmasandNewYear'sDay.Admissioncharge.
FurtherReading
GeorgeDewey,AutobiographyofGeorgeDewey,AdmiraloftheNavy(NewYork:CharlesScribner'sSons,1913).
KennethJ.Hagan,ThisPeople'sNavy:TheMakingofAmericanSeaPower(NewYork:TheFreePress,1991).
EvinrudeOutboardMotor
Milwaukee,Wisconsin
MeltedicecreamreputedlyledNorwegianbornOleEvinrude(18771934)ofMilwaukeetodesignthefirstcommerciallysuccessfuloutboardmotor.Evinrude,so
thestorygoes,waspicnickingwithhisgirlfriend,BessCary,onLakeOkauchee.Bessexpressedadesireforicecream,andOlerowed2miles(3km)acrossthe
laketogetsome.Butbythetimehehadrowedback,theicecreamhadturnedtosoupinthesummerheat,inspiringhimtodesignaportablepowerplantthatwould
eliminaterowing.
TheEvinrudeoutboardmotorwasquicklyacceptedbytheboatingpublic.Itrevolutionizedrecreationalboatingandstimulatedanewindustry.Between1910and
1920,thirtyeightnewcompanieswentintothebusinessofmanufacturingoutboardmotors,withthirteenmorefollowinginthenextdecade.Bythe1950s,annual
salestoppedthehalfmillionmark.
Outboard"motors"topropelboatsinpushformsasfootpoweredpaddlewheelsandscrewpropellers,andaselectricpropellerspoweredbybulkystorage
batterieshadbeenaroundformorethanfortyyearswhenOleEvinrudedesignedandbuilthisfirstprototypein1907.Apracticaloutboardmotorawaitedthe
inventionoftheinternalcombustionengine.
TheAmericanMotorsCompanyproducedaforerunneroftheoutboardmotorin1896whenitbeganbuildingits"portableboatmotorwithreversiblepropeller."
After1900,thefieldbecamemorecrowdedassevenAmericanmadeoutboardscompeted.WorkingwithOliverE.Barthel,CameronB.WatermanofDetroit
developedthefirstU.S.productionmodelin1906.TheWatermanPorto
Page225
"outboard"Watermaniscreditedwithcoiningthetermwasanaircooled,singlecylindermotorwiththeflywheelenclosedinthecrankcase.
Evinrude'sfirstproductionmotor,developedin1909,waseverythingotheroutboardswerenot:lightweight,easytouse,dependable,andrelativelypowerful.The
twostrokemotordeveloped1.5horsepower(1.1kW)at1,000rpmandweighedjust62pounds(28kg).Itusedadesignthathasremainedthestandardfor
outboardmotorseversince,withahorizontalcylinder,verticalcrankshaft,andrightanglegearsandpropellershafthousedinanunderwaterunit.
FirstproductionEvinrudemotor,
developedin1909.
EvinrudeandBessCary,nowhiswifeandbusinesspartner,formedtheEvinrudeMotorCompanyin1909andbeganproduction.Oleoversawmanufacturing
operations,whileBessmanagedtheofficeandwrotetheadvertisementsthatappearedfirstintheMilwaukeepapers,thennationally:"Don'tRow.UsetheEvinrude
DetachableRowBoatMotor."
By1913,morethanthreehundredemployeeswereatworkintheEvinrudefactorytomeetdemandintheUnitedStatesandEurope.Latethatyear,owingtoBess's
poorhealth,Evinrudesoldhisshareofthebusinessandretired,agreeingnottoentertheoutboardmotorbusinessforfiveyears.TheEvinrudestouredthecountryby
autowiththeiryoungson,butby1921,bothwerebackinbusiness,thistimeastheElto(for"EvinrudeLightTwinOutboard")OutboardMotorCompany,
manufacturinga3horsepower(2.2kW)motormadeofaluminumandweighingjust46pounds(21kg).Innovationfollowedinnovation:Eltointroducedthefirst
exhaustthroughtheunderwaterpropellerhub(forquieteroperation),thefirstwaterproofignition,andthefirstremotesteering.
In1929theEvinrudeMotorCompanymergedwithEltoandanotherfirmtoformtheOutboardMotorsCorporation.In1934,ontheSilverJubileeoftheEvinrude
outboardmotor,OMCintroduced"hoodedpower"apowerheadenclosedbyastreamlinedmetalhood,nowstandard.
ByWorldWarII,outboardmotorswerepoweringnativecraftallovertheworld,wideningtheopportunitiesforbothrecreationalandoccupationalpursuits.The
EvinrudeoutboardmotoristhefirstconsumerproducttobedesignatedaHistoricMechanicalEngineeringLandmark.
Page226
Location/Access
ThefirstproductionmodelEvinrudeoutboardmotorisondisplayatOMCMilwaukee,6101N.64thStreet,Milwaukee,WI53218phone(414)4385097.
FurtherReading
W.J.WebbandRobertW.Carrick,ThePictorialHistoryofOutboardMotors(NewYork:RenaissanceEditions,Inc.,1967).
SanJacintoBattlegroundStatePark,Texas
Thereciprocatingsteamenginewasborn,lived,anddiedinthespanoftwocenturies,butasamotivepowerforwarships,itslifewasmuchbriefer.Notuntilthe
1880sdidsteampowerreplacesailonnewbattleships.Then,marinepowerevolvedrapidly.Bythetimeconstructionofthefirst14inch(355mm)gunU.S.
dreadnoughtstheUSSTexasandhersister,theUSSNewYorkwasauthorizedbyCongressin1910,theU.S.Navyalreadyhadfiveturbinepowered
battleships.Why,then,didthenavyreverttoreciprocatingengines?
Poorfueleconomyatcruisingspeedswastheprincipaldefectofearlyturbines.Further,mostrepairstoreciprocatingenginescouldbemadeatseausingtheship's
ownfacilities,whereasturbineproblemswerelikelytobemorecomplexnozzleerosion,strippedblades,orrotorcorrosion,forexamplerequiringspecial
dockyardfacilitiesorevenreturntotheturbinemaker'sworks.Theseconsiderationsseemedcompellingin1910,whenbattleshipsmightcruiseformanymonthsata
timethousandsofmilesfromhomeport.Finally,thedecisiontousereciprocatingenginesfollowedaprotractednavydisputewithcontractorsoverturbinestandards.
ThetwoenginesoftheTexasfollowedthestandarddesignforexpressliners,highspeedchannelsteamers,andwarships:fourcylinder,tripleexpansionwithfour
cranks(at90degrees)andtwolowpressurecylinders.(Itwasnecessarytosplitthelowpressurestagetoavoidcylindersofexcessivediameter.)Aswithmostfour
cylinder,tripleexpansionengines,thetwolowpressurecylinderswereplacedattheendsoftheenginetobalancethereciprocatingforcesandreducevibration,a
commonproblem.
TheTexaswasatwinscrewshipwithacombinedindicatedhorsepowerof28,100(20,954kW).Theshiphadanaveragespeedatfullpowerof21.05knots,with
theshaftsturningat125rpm,appreciablyhigherthanthe80rpmthatwasabouttopsformerchantshipsofthetime.SteamwassuppliedbyfourteenBabcock&
Wilcoxcoalfired,watertubeboilers.TheTexaswasbuiltbytheNewportNews(Virginia)Shipbuilding&DryDockCompanyatabidpriceof$5,830,000.
Page227
USSTexas,followingmodernizationin1925.Theprotectedcruisersportsnewtripod
mastsandhullarmorfortorpedoprotection.Launchedin1912,theTexaswas
amongthelastU.S.dreadnoughtstobepoweredbyreciprocatingengines.
ThekeelwaslaiddownonApril17,1911,andtheshipwaslaunchedonMay18,1912.TheTexasleftNewportNewsandwascommissionedinMarch1914.
Carryingacrewof1,300,theshipis573feet(175m)long,withabeamof95feet,2.5inches(29m)andadesigndisplacementof27,000tons(24,494t).Fittedon
eachshaftisathreeblademanganesebronzepropellerwithadiameterof18feet,7.75inches(5.68m)andapitchof20feet(6.1m).
Majorreconditioningfrom1925to1926radicallychangedtheappearanceoftheTexas.Thevessel'slatticemastswerereplacedwithasingletripodforemastanda
shorttripodmainmast,blisterswereaddedtothehullfortorpedoprotection,newoilburningboilerswereinstalled,andthemaindeckwasstrengthenedwith
additionalsteelplating.
TheTexassawserviceintwoworldwars.DuringWorldWarII,thevesseldefendedconvoysintheNorthAtlanticandsupportedtheinvasionsofNorthAfrica,
Normandy,southernFrance,IwoJima,andOkinawa.Decommissionedin1948,theTexaswasturnedovertothestateofTexastoserveasamemorialandgivena
permanentberthaspartoftheSanJacintoBattlegroundStatePark.(Itssibling,NewYork,wasexposedtotheatomicbombsatBikiniin1946andsunkoffPearl
Harborbyconventionalweaponstwoyearslater.)
AlthoughthereciprocatingenginesoftheTexasarethelargestextant,themostpowerfulmarinereciprocatingenginesbelongedtotwoshipsoftheNorth
Page228
Specifications
Boilers,191425:
Description:
FourteenBabcock&Wilcoxstraighttube,sectionalheader,coalburning,manually
stokedsomewithsuperheaters
Pressure:285psig(1,965kPa)*
Temperature:417F(214C)*
Fuel:coal,withsupplementaloil
Totalheatingsurface:65,480feet2(6,083m2)
1925topresent:
Description:
Sixnavydesigned,threedrum,Expresstype,eachwithtwosuperheaters(removed
after1931)
Pressure:285psig(1,965kPa)
Temperature:417F(214C)
Fuel:oil
Totalheatingsurface:40,410feet2(3,754m2)
*assumedsameas1925Expressboilers
Engines
Description:
Twovertical,doubleacting,fourcylinder,tripleexpansion,directdriveeach
enginedroveonepropellerstarboardengine,righthandrotationportengine,left
handrotation.
Builder/Date:
NewportNewsShipbuilding&DryDockCompany,
NewportNews,Virginia,1914
Highpressurecylinder,diameter:39inches(991mm)
Intermediatepressurecylinder,diameter:63inches(1,600mm)
Lowpressurecylinders(2),diameter:83inches(2,108mm)
Lengthofstroke,allcylinders:48inches(1,219mm)
Valvegear:Stevensonopenlink,steamdrivenreversinggear
Indicatedhorsepower,eachengine:14,050(10,477kW)
Steaminletconditions(assumedsameasboilerconditions):
Pressure:285psig(1,965kPa)
Temperature:417F(214C)
Page229
GermanLloydLine.One,theKaiserWilhelmII,settheAtlanticspeedrecordin1903ataclipof23knots.Eachofitstwinscrewswasdrivenbytwoengines
coupledinlineforatotalofeightcylindersandsixcranks.Theengineswerequadrupleexpansion,withthehighpressurecylindersovertheintermediatepressure
cylinders,thetandempistonsdrivingthemiddlecranks.Eachenginedeveloped21,500horsepower(16,033kW)at80rpm.TheGermanshipswereseizedbythe
UnitedStatesin1917andsoldforscrapin1940.TheKaiserWilhelmIIwasbeenrenamedAgamemnon.Regrettably,noneoftheseuniqueengineswassaved.
Steamturbines,meanwhile,graduallyimprovedinefficiencyandreliability,andreciprocatingengineswereabandonedforbattleshippropulsion.TheUSSOklahoma,
launchedin1914,wasthelastwarshipbuiltwithreciprocatingengines.
Location/Access
TheUSSTexasismoored22miles(35km)eastofdowntownHoustonviaTexas225attheedgeofSanJacintoBattlegroundStatePark,3523Highway134,La
Porte,TX77571phone(713)4792431.Itisopenfortoursdailyfrom10A.M.to5P.M.yearround.Admissionfee.
FurtherReading
JohnKennedyBarton,NavalReciprocatingEnginesandAuxiliaryMachinery:TextbookfortheInstructionofMidshipmenattheU.S.NavalAcademy,3ded.,rev.
andrewrittenbyH.O.Stickney(Annapolis,Md.:UnitedStatesNavalInstitute,1914).
NormanFriedman,U.S.Battleships:AnIllustratedDesignHistory(Annapolis,Md.:NavalInstitutePress,1985).
''TheLatestUnitedStatesBattleship,"InternationalMarineEngineering19(January1914):14.
SSJeremiahO'Brien
SanFrancisco,California
PresidentFranklinD.Rooseveltcalledthem"uglyducklings."AdmiralEmoryScottLand,chairmanoftheU.S.MaritimeCommission,counteredbydubbingthemthe
"LibertyFleet."ThedirenecessityofWorldWarIIproducedthesepractical,ifinelegant,ships,whosepurposewastoproviderapidtransatlanticcargoservicetothe
warfronts.Between1941and1945,U.S.merchantshipyardsbuiltmorethantwentysevenhundredEC2cargovessels,or"Libertyships,"ofwhichtheSS
JeremiahO'Brienisthelastunalteredsurvivor.
Facedwithmassivetonnagerequirementsandadearthofsteamturbines,theUnitedStatesMaritimeCommissionin1941decideduponasinglescrewshipdrivenby
atripleexpansionsteamengineof2,500horsepower(1,864kW)."Whenthesupplyofhighpoweredmachineryhadbeencompletelyearmarked,
Page230
TheSSJeremiahO'Brien,partofthefleetofU.S.
"Libertyships,"survivedWorldWarIIintact.
anyadditionalshipseitherhadtobeslowerships,oremptyhullswithoutengines,"washowRearAdmiralHowardL.Vickery,MaritimeCommissionvicechairman,
explainedthechoiceofthereciprocatingenginesin1943.
OfEnglishdesign,withrakedstemandcruiserstern,theLibertyshiphadanoveralllengthof441feet,6inches(134.5m)abeamof57feet(17.4m)adepthof37
feet,4inches(11.3m)andacargocapacityof9,146tons(8,297t).Cylindersof24.5inches(622mm),37inches(940mm),and70inches(1,780mm)indiameter
andastrokeof48inches(1,220mm)drovethefourbladed,18foot(5.5m)diameterpropellerat76rpmforanaveragecruisingspeedof11knots.TheLiberty
shiphadfivemaincargoholds,threeforwardandtwoaftofthepropulsionmachinery.Steamwinchesandboomshandledthecargo.
TheLibertyshipprogramintroducedthetechniquesofmassproductiontotheshipbuildingindustry,withtheworkspreadthrougheighteenshipyardsspeciallybuiltfor
theproject(seesidebar)andmorethanfivehundredmanufacturingplantsnationwide.Asworkprogressed,innovationsinyardarrangement,equipment,and
constructionmethodstransformedtheindustry.
TheEC2sinitiallywerescheduledtobeturnedoutinaperiodofsixmonthsfromkeellayingtodelivery.FollowingPearlHarbor,therushfortonnageaccelerated
constructionto105days,andinJanuary1942,the79emergencycargoshipsdeliveredaveragedonly52.6days,whileoneyard,OregonShipbuildingCorporationin
Portland,turnedoutashipinjust46days.Thisspectacularreductioninbuildingtimewasmadepossiblebystandardization,prefabrication
Page231
EC2CargoVessels(LibertyShips)Deliveredin1943,byShipyard:
AlabamaDryDock&ShipbuildingCo.,Mobile,Ala.
BethlehemFairfieldShipyard,Inc.,Fairfield,Baltimore,Md.
192
CaliforniaShipbuildingCorp.,Wilmington,Calif.
166
DeltaShipbuildingCorp.,Wilmington,Calif.
35
HoustonShipbuildingCorp.,Houston,Tex.
74
J.A.JonesConstructionCo.,Inc.,Brunswick,Ga.
21
J.A.JonesConstructionCo.,Inc.,PanamaCity,Fla.
15
KaiserCo.,Inc.,Vancouver,Wash.
MarinshipCorp.,Sausalito,Calif.
10
NewEnglandShipbuildingCorp.,SouthPortland,Maine
91
NorthCarolinaShipbuildingCo.,Wilmington,N.C.
75
OregonShipbuildingCorp.,Portland,Oreg.
197
PermanenteMetalsCorp.,Richmond,Calif.
279
St.John'sRiverShipbuildingCo.,Jacksonville,Fla.
25
SoutheasternShipbuildingCorp.,Savannah,Ga.
36
WalshKaiserCo.,Inc.Providence,R.I.
6
Total,1943
1,232
U.S.LibertyShipEngineBuilders,NumberBuilt:
AlabamaMarineEngineCo.,Birmingham,Ala.
11
AmericanShipBuildingCo.,Cleveland,Ohio
40
ClarkBrothersCo.,Inc.,Olean,N.Y.
21
EllicottMachineCorp.,Baltimore,Md.
44
Filer&StowellCo.,Milwaukee,Wis.
140
GeneralMachineryCorp.,Hamilton,Ohio
79
HamiltonEngineeringWorks,Brunswick,Ga.
HarrisburgMachineryCorp.,Harrisburg,Pa.
91
IronFiremanManufacturingCo.,Portland,Ore.
309
JoshuaHendyIronWorks,Sunnyvale,Calif.
773
NationalTransitPump&MachineCo.,OilCity,Pa.
28
OregonWarIndustries,Inc.,Portland,Ore.
43
SpringfieldMachine&FoundryCo.,Springfield,Mass.
ToledoShipbuildingCo.,Inc.,Toledo,Ohio
VulcanIronWorks,WilkesBarre,Pa.
69
WillametteIron&SteelCorp.,Portland,Ore.
211
WorthingtonPump&MachineryCorp.,Harrison,N.J.
115
Page232
(subassemblyunitsanentirebowsection,forexamplewerefabricatedelsewhere,"aheadoftheways"),advancesinmaterialhandlingfacilities(especiallylarger
cranes),andtheuseofweldedinsteadofrivetedconstruction.
Withanormalcrewoffortyfour,LibertyshipscrossedtheAtlanticinconvoys,callingatnearlyeverymajorworldportwithfoodstuffs,coal,oil,locomotives,aircraft,
ammunition,motorvehiclesandvehicleparts,Crations,andbooks.These"shoppingbasketsofWorldWarII,"asoneradioannouncerdescribedthem,sailed
bravely,manyofthemespeciallyatthebeginningoftheprogramwithoutdefensiveweapons.Later,mostwereequippedwitharmamentandcarriedcontingentsof
theU.S.NavyArmedGuardinadditiontotheusualmerchantmarinecrew.Fewerthantwohundredwerelost.
NamedaftertheintrepidMaineseacaptainwhoin1775ledthefirstnavalactionoftheRevolutionaryWar,theSSJeremiahO'Brienwasbuiltinfiftysixdaysbythe
NewEnglandShipbuildingCorporation,aunitoftheBathIronWorks,andlaunchedinJune1943fromSouthPortland,Maine.GeneralMachineryCorporationof
Hamilton,Ohio,oneoffourteenAmericanenginebuildersparticipatingintheLibertyshipprogram(seesidebar),manufacturedtheengine.
In1966CommodoreThomasJ.Patterson,Jr.,initiatedanefforttosavetheJeremiahO'Brienasanexampleofherclassandamemorialtothemenandwomen
whobuilt,operated,defended,repaired,andsuppliedtheLibertyshipsofWorldWarII.PattersonchosetheO'Brien,theninmothballsaspartoftheReserveFleet
atSuisunBay,California,becausetheshiphadneverbeenaltered.In1978theNationalLibertyShipMemorial,Inc.,wasformedtomanagetherestoration.
Countlessvolunteersdonatedtheirtimetorestoringthevessel,whichhadbeeninoperativeformorethanthirtyyears.OnOctober6,1979,theJeremiahO'Brien
sailedoutofSuisunBayunderherownpower,headingwesttoSanFranciscoBayand,eventually,apermanentberthatFortMason.
Location/Access
TheSSJeremiahO'BrienisberthedatPier2justofftheBayBridge.Forinformation,contacttheFortMasonCenter,BuildingA,SanFrancisco,CA94123phone
(415)4413101.ThevesselisopenfortoursMondayFriday,9A.M.to3P.M.,andSaturdayandSunday,9A.M.to4P.M.Admissionfee.EachMay,the
O'BriensailsSanFranciscoBay,carryingsomesevenhundredpassengersontheannualSeamen'sMemorialCruise.
FurtherReading
"BuildingLibertyShipsin46Days,"EngineeringNewsRecord129(16July1942):6267.
"LibertyShipsBuiltinBasinsandonWays,"EngineeringNewsRecord129(2July1942):6467.
HowardL.Vickery,"ShipbuildinginWorldWarII,"MarineEngineeringandShippingReview48(April1943):18290.
Page233
CutawayviewoftheNSSavannahshowingthenuclearpropulsionsystem.
NSSavannah
Mt.Pleasant,SouthCarolina
Thesleek,whiteshipchristenedbyMamieEisenhowerbeforeslippingdownthewaysintotheDelawareRiveratCamden,NewJersey,wastobebothdiplomatand
pioneer.TheNSSavannah,theworld'sfirstnuclearpoweredmerchantvessel,woulddemonstratethetechnicalandoperationalfeasibilityofnuclearenergyasa
sourceofpowerforcommercialvesselsandensuretheacceptanceofnuclearshipsintheworld'sharbors.Nuclearpoweredships,manyhoped,wouldimprovethe
competitivenessofamerchantmarineonthevergeofobsolescence.
TheSavannahwasaptlynamedafterthefirstvesseltousesteampoweronanAtlanticcrossing.Asailingshipfittedwithanauxiliarysteamengine,the320ton(290
t)SavannahbeganitsepochmakingvoyagefromSavannah,Georgia,onMay22,1819,arrivinginLiverpool,England,twentyninedayslater.Justasitsnamesake
hadusheredintheSteamAgeofoceantravel,theNS(forNuclearShip)SavannahwouldusherintheAtomicAge.
PresidentDwightD.Eisenhowerfirstproposedtheconstructionofanuclearpoweredmerchantshipina1955addresstotheAssociatedPress."Thenewship,
poweredwithanatomicreactor,willnotrequirerefuelingforscoresofthousandsofmilesofoperation,"hesaid."Visitingtheportsoftheworld,itwilldemonstrateto
peopleeverywherethispeacetimeuseofatomicenergy,harnessedfortheimprovementofhumanliving."Thefollowingyear,Congressauthorized$42.5millionforthe
developmentandconstructionoftheship.ConstructionoftheSavannah,administeredjointlybytheMaritimeAdministrationoftheDepartmentofCommerceand
theAtomicEnergyCommission,beganinMay1958.
Page234
GeorgeG.Sharp,Inc.,ofNewYorkdesignedtheSavannah,whichwasbuiltbytheNewYorkShipbuildingCorporationatitsCamdenyards.Babcock&Wilcox
designedandbuiltthepowerplantDeLavalSteamTurbineCompanysuppliedthepropulsionequipment.Thesinglescrew,combinedpassengerandcargoshipwas
designedtocarry60passengersandacrewof109.Itwas595feet(181m)long,withabeamof78feet(24m)andadeadweighttonnageof9,990tons(9,063t).
Undernormalpower,theshipwasdesignedtocruiseataspeedof20knots.
Thepropulsionsystemofanuclearpoweredshipdiffersfromthatofconventionalshipsprimarilyinthesourceofheatforgeneratingsteamfordrivingthepropulsion
turbine,usinganuclearreactorinsteadofanoilfiredboiler.TheSavannah'spressurizedwaterreactorconsistedofareactorvesselintowhichwasloadedthecore
offissionablematerialthirtytwofuelelementscontaining17,000pounds(7,711kg)ofuraniumdioxide,enoughenergytooperatetheshipforthreeyears.Water
waspumpedthroughthereactorcore,whereitwasheated,thenthroughasteamgenerator(heatexchanger),whereitgaveupitsheat,producingsaturatedsteamina
secondarysystem.Thissteamturnedthe22,000horsepower(16,405kW)mainpropulsionturbine(drivingthesinglepropellerthroughmechanicalreductiongears)
andpoweredtheship'sauxiliaries.ThetrainingprogramforengineeringofficersservingontheSavannahincludedfieldworkatthelandmarkVallecitosBoilingWater
ReactoratPleasanton,California(seep.329).
FirstoperatedforthegovernmentbyStatesMarineLines,theSavannahmadeitsmaidentripin1962,stoppingatSeattle,whereitwasshownofftocrowdsatthe
World'sFair.Butthetravelsofthisgoodwillambassadorfornuclearpowerwereabruptlyhaltedwhenalabordisputeledengineerstoshutdowntheship'sreactor.
TheSavannahsatidleforalmostayearbeforeundertakingitsfirstglobalvoyage,withanewcrew,undertheAmericanExportIsbrandtsenLinesflag.
TheSavannah,acostlyprototype,wasneverexpectedtocompeteeconomicallywithconventionallypoweredships.But,inthefuture,nuclearpropulsionwas
expectedtoofferseveraleconomicadvantagesthatwouldoffsethighercapitalcosts.Itwouldeliminatethespacerequiredforfueloilandsaveonitsweight,increase
cargocarryingcapacity,allowlongercruisingranges(therebymakingnuclearshipsvirtuallyindependentoffuelsuppliesoutsidetheirhomeports),and,finally,operate
athigherspeeds.
TheSavannahwasretiredin1971.In1980CongresscharteredthevesseltoPatriotsPointDevelopmentAuthority,anagencyofthestateofSouthCarolina,foruse
asamuseum.In1995,thevesselwasmovedtoaU.S.MaritimeAdministrationfacility,possiblytobescrapped.
FurtherReading
U.S.AtomicEnergyCommission,DivisionofTechnicalInformation,NuclearPropulsionforMerchantShips,byA.W.Kramer(Washington,D.C.:U.S.
GovernmentPrintingOffice,1962).
Page235
RAILTRANSPORTATION
Introduction
byJ.LawrenceLee
Mechanicalengineershavebeenstimulatedbythechallengesofrailroadingfromitsearliestdays.Inmanywaysrailroadsandengineeringhavegrownuptogether.The
needtotravelandtransportmaterialsoverlandgoesbacktoancienttimes.Nooneknowswhofirstmovedobjectsbyrollingthemonlogs,thusmakingmoreefficient
useofanimalandhumanpower,andnoonehasidentifiedthatinspiredindividualwhofirstconceivedthewheel,axle,andbearingcombinationthatmaderolling
vehiclestrulypractical.Thechallengethenbecame,andhasremained,howtocarrymorewithgreatercomfort,speed,efficiency,andsafety.
TheconceptofarailroadwasborninEnglandaround1630whenflangedrailswerefirstusedtoguidecoalwagons.Intheearlypartofthenineteenthcentury,the
revisionofthisconceptintooneusingflangedwheelsonunflangedrailsandtheconcurrentdevelopmentofthesteamlocomotivesetthestageforthedevelopmentof
modernrailroads.Thatblendofartandsciencewecallmechanicalengineeringhasplayedamajorpartineverystepofthisdevelopment.
TheBaltimore&Ohio"OldMainLine"andtheSt.CharlesAvenuestreetcarlineinNewOrleansweretwoearlyeffortsatpracticalrailroadsintheUnitedStates,
theformeranintercityroutepoweredfirstbyhorsesandlaterbysteamanddiesellocomotives,andthelatteralocalcarrierthatexperimentedwithseveralpower
sourcesbeforesettlingonelectricity.Bothlinesremaininservice.
Thecontinuingneedforpowertomoveheaviertrainsatfasterspeedswithgreaterefficiencyhasbeenthegenusforseverallandmarklocomotives.Theseinclude
Texas&PacificNo.610,anearly"SuperPower"locomotivethatrevolutionizedmodernsteamlocomotivedesign,andSouthernPacificNo.4294andNorfolk&
WesternNo.611,twolaterapplicationsofthesesameconceptstomeettwovastlydifferentneeds.TheNewHaven'sACelectrificationofitsNewYork
Page236
NewHavenmainlinein1907pioneeredmainlineelectrificationinAmerica.Almostthirtyyearslater,PennsylvaniaNo.4800,theprototypeforafleetof139electric
locomotivesthatwerearguablythebesteverybuilt,beganoperation.Theearlydieselelectriclocomotivesarerepresentedhere,too.ThePioneerZephyrcombined
alightweightdieselenginewithatrainbuiltwithnewmaterialsandtechniquestousherinthe"streamlineage."ElectroMotiveFTfreightdieselNo.103hasaptlybeen
called"thedieselthatdidit,"forthiswasthelocomotivethatshowedhowdieselscouldoutperformsteaminfreightaswellaspassengerservice.
Whereconditionswerenotsuitableforconventionaldesigns,engineersdevelopedothertechnologiestomeettheneeds.Therough,oftentemporarytrackusedby
loggingrailroadsneededmoreflexibleenginesthantheconventionalrodtypelocomotives.Gearedsteamlocomotives,suchastheShay,Climax,andHeislerdesigns,
providedtheanswer.TheMt.WashingtonCogRailwayandtheManitou&PikesPeakCogRailwayconqueredmountaingradestoosteepforadhesionthroughthe
useofrackandpiniondrivesystems.TheMonongahelaandDuquesneinclinesinPittsburghcombinedtheconceptsofrailroadandhoist.InSanFrancisco,endless
cablesmovingunderthehillystreetstransmittedpowerfromacentralpowerhousetothefamouscablecars.Whenspacewasnotavailableatstreetlevel,the
streetcarsweretakenunderground,asillustratedbytheNewYorkIRTsubway.Decadeslater,theelevatedmonorailsystematDisneylanddemonstratedanother
technologyforthecomfortableandefficienttransportoflargenumbersofpeople.
Throughoutrailroadinghistory,safetyandreliabilityhavealwaysbeenprimarygoalsoftherailwaymechanicalengineer.Whilemanyofthelandmarksinthissection
incorporatedimprovementsinsafetyovertheirpredecessors,noneexemplifythisquestmorethanthePullmanCarGlengyle.Itsallsteeldesignstillisrecognizedas
oneofthemostsignificantadvancesincarbuildingandpassengersafety.Railwayengineersrealizedthatpropermaintenancewasessentialforsafe,reliableoperation,
andavastarrayofspecializedfacilitieswerebuilttoaccomplishthis,includingtheBurlingtonRoute'sroundhouseandshopsinAurora,Illinois.Thisfacility,with
machinerythatcouldproducealmostanyneededpart,oncewasoneofthelargestrailroadshopcomplexesintheMidwest,anditistypicalofthemassiveresources
neededtokeepthetrainsrunning.Themaintenanceproceduresforrailwaylocomotivesandcarshavechangedquiteabitfromthoseinusewhenthiscomplexwas
built,andthedesignofmodernshopsreflectsthatchange,buttoday'sshopsclearlyhavetheirancestryinshopslikethese,andtheyremainanessentialcomponentof
safe,reliableoperation.
Itmaybethatnoactivityismorecloselyassociatedwithmechanicalengineeringthanrailroading.Nodoubt,itisthepresenceoflargemachinery,notonlyinmotion,
butalsomovingfromoneplacetoanother,thatinspiresthisconnection.Railroadsareahighlyvisibleexampleofourtechnologicalprogressanditseffectonthe
nation.Thismaybeadequatetodefinethelinktoengineeringfor
Page237
thelayperson,butitdoesnotexplaintheattractionthesemechanicalcreationshaveforsomany.Perhapsthathassomethingtodowiththescaleofrailroad
locomotivesandcars.Thesearelarge,powerfulmachines,buttheycanbeapproachedcloselyandtheirdetailsappreciated.Largeastheymaybe,trainsdonot
obliteratethepeoplewhouseandcontrolthem.Itisaveryhumanscale.Distinctivesoundsandaromasaboundtoaugmentthevisualimages.Finally,thereisthe
immutableconnectionbetweenthetrainanditstrack.Innoothermodeoftravelarethevehicleanditspathsototallydefinedandlinked.Stretchingoverthehorizon
orjustaroundabend,evenavacanttrackstirsimmediateimagesofthetrainsithosts.Thismaybethestuffoflegendandlore,butitisindeliblylinkedtotheprogress
ofrailwaymechanicalengineering.
Someofrailroading'sglamourmayhavebeensupersededinthemindsofmanybythatofjetaircraftorspaceshuttles,butacertainfascinationwithrailroadsand
railroadequipmentseemstobeperennial.Itisafascinationthatiswelldeserved.Thisisthetechnologythattiedavastcontinenttogetherintoagreatnation.Someof
theverybestoftheartandscienceofmechanicalengineeringisrepresentedbytheHistoricMechanicalEngineeringLandmarkdescribedinthissection.Fromthe
"OldMainLine"oftheB&OtotheDisneylandMonorailSystem,theyconstituteabrilliantheritageofmechanicalengineeringcreativity.
Page238
Baltimore&OhioRailroadOldMainLine
Baltimore,Maryland
WhenthefirstsegmentoftheBaltimore&OhioRailroadopenedtopassengertrafficonMay24,1830,itmarkedthefirstcommoncarrierrailroadserviceinthe
UnitedStates.Threetimesaday,horseshauledcarsalongtheoneandahalfhourroutebetweenPrattStreetinBaltimoreandEllicott'sMills,adistanceof13miles
(21km).ByJanuary1837,steamlocomotiveslinkedBaltimorewithHarpersFerryonthePotomacRiver,connectingtheinteriorofAmericawiththeEastern
seaboardandprovidinganoutletfortheagriculturalandmineralproductsoftheShenandoahandPotomacrivervalleys.Constructionoftheroadwitnessedthebirth
ofcountlessengineeringinnovations,winningfortheB&Onationalandeveninternationalfameasthe"universityofrailroading."
FollowingtheAmericanRevolution,GreatBritaincededthevastNorthwestTerritory(comprisingwhatwouldbecomethestatesofOhio,Indiana,Illinois,Michigan,
Wisconsin,andpartofMinnesota)totheUnitedStates.In1803PresidentThomasJeffersonpurchasedtheLouisianaTerritory,givingtheUnitedStatestitletothe
MississippiwatershedandmostofthelandeastoftheRockyMountains.TheOhioandMississippiriversprovidedatraderouteforproducefromthenation's
heartland,boostingNewOrleanstoprominencebutthreateningthedominanceofEasterncitiesonthefarsideoftheAppalachianMountains.
Toovercomethismountainbarrierandtoopentheinteriortosettlement,theNationalRoadthefirstinterstatehighwaywasbuiltundertheauspicesofthefederal
governmentbetween1808and1817.Next,tworivalcompaniesbeganconstructionofprojectsintendedtoreplacethiscrowdedandinadequateroad.OntheFourth
ofJuly,1828,inWashington,PresidentJohnQuincyAdamslaidthefirststoneoftheChesapeake&OhioCanal,whileonthesameday,inBaltimore,thesole
survivingsigneroftheDeclarationofIndependence,ninetyyearoldCharlesCarroll,turnedthefirstspadefulofearthfortheBaltimore&OhioRailroad.
InJuly1827,agroupofborrowedArmytopographicalengineersbegansurveyingpossibleroutesbetweenBaltimoreandtheOhioRiver380miles(611km)of
ruggedterrain.LieutenantColonelStephenH.Long,CaptainWilliamGibbsO'Neill,andJonathanKnight,aciviliangovernmentengineerwhobecamechiefengineer
oftheB&O,formedtherailroad'sseniorengineeringmanagementCasparW.Wever,aPennsylvanianwhohaddirectedconstructionofaportionoftheNational
Road,servedassuperintendentofconstruction.AshorsesploddedtheroutebetweenPrattStreetandEllicott'sMills,thebuilderspushedwesttoFrederick,
Maryland,reachingthePotomacRiveratPointofRocksin1832.
Page239
Baltimore&Ohio's1929reproductionofthe1832locomotiveAtlantic
pullingtwoImlaycoachesontheOldMainLine.
CourtesyB&OMuseumArchives.
By1830,theessentialsof''modern"steamlocomotiveshadbeendevelopedinEngland.Noexistinglocomotive,however,couldconquertheB&O'simpossiblysharp
curves.In1830PeterCooperbuiltademonstratortobetestedonthelinethesinglecylinderTomThumb(thenamecamelater)provedsteam'sefficacy.
Encouraged,B&Odirectorsadvertisedtofindamoreefficientlocomotive,stipulatingacoalorcokefiredboiler,amaximumsteampressureof100psig(689kPa),
aweightlimitof3.5tons(3.17t),andtheabilitytodrawa15ton(13.6t)loadat15milesperhour(24km/hr).ThewinnerwastheYork(1831),builtbyPhineas
DavisofYork,Pennsylvania.FromthisprototypefollowedtheAtlantic(1832),theforerunnerofafleetofgeared,fourwheel,verticalboilerlocomotivesthat
becamethebackboneofB&Oservicebythemid1830s.
SinceleavingBaltimore,therailroadhadundergoneconstantimprovementeverymilebroughtsomeinnovationdictatedbyunforeseenconditions.Thetrack,for
example,evolvedfromironstraprailtorolledironTrailtheties,fromgranitetowood.Bridgingrivers,theB&Oengineersdiscovered,wasbestdonenotby
prohibitivelyexpensivestonearchesbutbytimbertrussesand,later,theirontrussesofWendelBollmanandAlbertFink.Meanwhile,totapthecoalfieldsinthe
Cumberlandareatherailroaddevelopedlocomotivesandcarsspeciallydesignedforheavytonnageandsteepgrades.
Thus,therailroadengineeringconceptsthatwouldopentheAmericanWestandtransformthenationowedtheirorigintotheBaltimore&OhioRailroad.That
pioneeringprojectled,aswell,todivisionoftheAmericanengineeringprofessionintocivilandmechanicalbranches.
Page240
Location/Access
The"OldMainLine"betweenBaltimoreandHarpersFerry,WestVirginia,adistanceofabout80miles(129km)islitteredwithwhatrailroadhistorianHerbert
Harwoodhascalled"therichestandmostconcentratedcollectionofhistoricrailroadstructuresanywhere,"includingthenation'soldestrailroadstation,atEllicottCity,
Maryland(1831)inImpossibleChallenge(seebelow),Harwoodprovidesasuperbguidetothesesurvivals.InBaltimore,theMt.ClareStation(1851)atPrattand
Poppletonstreets(901WestPrattStreet,Baltimore,MD21223)formstheentrywayfortheB&ORailroadMuseum,whichcontainsrollingstockandoneofthe
mostimportanthistoriclocomotivesintheUnitedStates.Phone(410)7522490.Hours:WednesdaySunday,10A.M.to4P.M.Admissionfee.
FurtherReading
HerbertH.Harwood,Jr.,ImpossibleChallenge:TheBaltimoreandOhioRailroadinMaryland(Baltimore:Barnard,RobertsandCompany,Inc.,1979).
EdwardHungerford,TheStoryoftheBaltimoreandOhioRailroad,18271927(NewYork:G.P.Putnam'sSons,1928).
JohnF.Stover,HistoryoftheBaltimore&OhioRailroad(WestLafayette,Ind.:PurdueUniversityPress,1987).
St.CharlesAvenueStreetcarLine
NewOrleans,Louisiana
Today,it'sabusnamedDesireandastreetcarnamedSt.Charles,forTennesseeWilliams'slegendarystreetcarlineandallbutoneotherhavedisappearedfromthe
CrescentCity.Happily,theSt.Charlesstreetcarlinestilloperatesdailyonitssixandahalfmile(10km)route,carryingresidentsandtouristsbetweenthecentral
businessdistrictandthecity'sCarrolltonneighborhood.ItisthelaststreetcaroperatinginNewOrleansandtheoldestsurvivingstreetrailwayintheUnitedStates,
havingoperatedcontinuouslysince1834usinghorse,steam,and,ultimately,electricpower.
IncorporatedastheNewOrleans&CarrolltonRailRoad(NO&C)onFebruary9,1833,thelinewasconceivedaspartofasophisticatedlanddevelopment
scheme.Itspromoterswoulduse"anEnglishinvention,thesteampoweredLocomotive,rollingonaroadofironrails"toprovide"acertainspeedyandeasy
transportation"todevelopingpartsofthecity.ThefirstsectionoftheNO&C,ahorsecarlineoperatingalongSt.CharlesbetweenCanalandJackson,openedin
1834.TwosteamlocomotivesorderedfromEnglandarrivedsoonthereafter,whilefourotherswereorderedfromWilliamNorrisofPhiladelphia.
Page241
OneoftheThomasbuiltstreetcarsapproachesastopalongSt.Charles
AvenueinNewOrleans'GardenDistrictduringthe1970s.
Followingabroad,crescentshapedroutedictatedbythecourseoftheMississippiRiver,thestreetrailwayplayedavitalroleinthedevelopmentofthecity'sGarden
District,wherewealthyAmericansbuilttownhousesandmansionsontheoldplantationtracts.By1840,thepopulationofNewOrleanswas102,000,havingmore
thandoubledintenyearsandmakingit,briefly,thefourthlargestcityinthecountry.
DuringtheCivilWar,theU.S.MilitaryGovernmentseizedcontrolofthestreetcarline,anditwasnearbankruptcyatwar'send.Thegovernmentleasedittoan
investorsgroupledbyGeneralP.G.T.Beauregardfortwentyfiveyears.Thenewlesseesabandonedtheuseoflocomotives,substituting"bobtail"carspulledby
mules.Beauregardexperimentedwithcabletraction(usinganoverheadcablepoweredcarhepatentedin1869)andwithammoniapoweredlocomotives,butthese
provedimpracticalandweresoonabandoned.Horsesandmulescontinuedtoprovidethemotivepoweruntiltheline'selectrificationin1893.
TodaytheSt.CharleslineisoperatedbytheRegionalTransitAuthorityofNewOrleans.Thirtyfive900seriescarscurrentlyinservicearethedirectdescendantsof
theallsteel(exceptingthefloorandroof)400seriescarsbuiltin1915bytheSouthern(laterPerleyA.Thomas)CarCompanyofHighPoint,NorthCarolina.
Poweredby600voltdirectcurrentfromtheValenceSubstation(1909),theyoperateontheoriginalrightofwaywiththe5foot,2inch(1,590mm)gauge
adoptedin1929.
Location/Access
TheSt.CharlesAvenuestreetcaroperatestwentyfourhoursadaybetweenCanalStreetandCarrolltonAvenue.Theroundtripridetakesoneandonehalfhours,
Page242
travelingmuchofthewayalongthegrassymedianofthecity'smostbeautifulboulevardandpassingthroughtheGardenDistrict,richwithnineteenthcentury
architectureandlavishformalgardens.TakeaboxlunchforapicnicinAudubonPark,directlyoppositeTulaneandLoyolauniversities,whose340acres(137ha)
stretchfromSt.CharlesAvenuetotheMississippiRiver.
FurtherReading
J.L.Guilbeau,TheSt.CharlesStreetCarorTheNewOrleans&CarrolltonRailRoad,rev.ed.(NewOrleans:selfpublished,1977).
Chicago,Burlington&QuincyRailroadRoundhouseandShops
Aurora,Illinois
TheChicago,Burlington&QuincyRailroadroundhouseandbackshopsareallthatremainofwhatwasonceoneoftheMidwest'slargestrailroadshopfacilities.The
AurorashopsturnedoutmorelocomotivesandcarsincludingthePullmanhotelcarCityofNewYorkof1866andtheDelmonicoof1868,thefirstfulldinerthan
anyotherBurlingtonfacility.TheJaurietfirebox,whichimprovedthecombustionefficiencyofhighsulfurIllinoiscoal,andtheKerrcoalchute,whichimproved
locomotivecoaling,werebothdevelopedhere.
TheChicago,Burlington&QuincytracesitsorigintotheAuroraBranchRailroad,charteredin1849,whichlinkedthesmallcrossroadsofAurorawithTurner
Junction12miles(19km)tothenorth(thepresentcityofWestChicago).There,therailroadconnectedwiththeGalena&ChicagoUnion,apredecessorofthe
Chicago&NorthWestern.In1854thestateofIllinoisgrantedacharterallowingthemergeroftheAurora&ChicagoRailroad(successortotheAuroraBranch
Railroad)withtheCentralMilitaryTract,NorthernCross,andPeoria&Oquawkarailroads,eachofwhichcontrolledcriticalsegmentsoftrackagetotheMississippi
River.Thenewroad,theChicago,Burlington&Quincy,wasthefirsttolinkthetradecenterofChicagowiththeMississippiRiver.
Followingthemerger,therailroad'sneedfornewshopsbecamecritical.Atacostof$150,000,theBurlingtonerectedacomplexofsevennewbuildingsatAurora,
includingaroundhouseandmachineshop.Theroundhouse,ofbuffcoloredlimestonequarriedinnearbyBatavia,wasbuiltinthreesections:thefirstsection,ahalf
circlecontaining22stalls,in1856aquarterround,containing8stalls,in1859andafinal10stallsectionin1866.
By1857,theBurlington'sAurorashopsemployedabout350.Abouthalftheroad'slocomotiveswerebasedthere,thetotalnumbergrowingfrom58in1858to165
in1872.Between1871and1910,atleast250locomotiveswerebuilt
Page243
ShopcrewandlocomotivesinsidetheChicago,Burlington&QuincyRoundhouse,
ca.1880.AuroraHistoricalSocietyphotograph,LibraryofCongressCollections.
attheshops,includingtheAmerican(440)typeandClass"E"(040).TheBurlington'sfirstMogul(260)locomotivesweredesignedandconstructedherein
1888.
Duringthetwentiethcentury,theAurorashopsmadethetransitionfromtheconstructionandrepairofsteamlocomotivestostreamlinedpassengercars.In1970the
Chicago,Burlington&QuincywasmergedintotheBurlingtonNorthern.Decliningrailroadserviceledthecompanytoclosethecomplexin1974.
Location/Access
TheformerCB&QAurorashops,locatedatNorthBroadwaybetweenSpringandPiercestreetsinAurora,Illinois,todayserveasaregionaltransitcenter.The
concourse(formerlythebackshop)containsdisplaysillustratingthehistoryoftheshopsandthecityofAurora.
FurtherReading
BernardG.CorbinandWilliamF.Kerka,SteamLocomotivesoftheBurlingtonRoute(RedOak,Iowa:selfpublished,1960).
RichardC.Overton,BurlingtonRoute:AHistoryoftheBurlingtonLines(NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,1965).
Page244
MountWashingtonCogRailway
MountWashington,NewHampshire
Rising6,288feet(1,917m)abovesealevel,MountWashingtonisthehighestpointinNewEngland.Theweatheratthetreelesssummitisoftencalledtheworstinthe
worldthestrongestwindseverrecorded,231milesperhour(372km/hr),sweptacrossMountWashingtonin1934.Asearlyas1642,theEuropeanexplorerDarby
Fieldclimbedtothehighestpoint.Inthenineteenthcentury,withtheconstructionofrailroadsandhotels,tourisminNewHampshire'sWhiteMountainswas
establishedonagrandscale.ThehighlightofanyvisitwasatriptothesummitofMountWashingtonaboardtheMountWashingtonCogRailway.
TheMountWashingtonCogRailwayisuniqueontwocounts:itisthepioneercograilwayoftheworld,anditisstillinitsoriginalcondition,neverhavingbeen
modernizedbythesubstitutionofelectricordieselpowerforsteam(thecasewithothercograilwaysintheworld).Thesight,sound,andsmelloftheoriginalsteam
operationof1869arestilltobeexperiencedarareadventure.
In1857inventorSylvesterMarsh(180384)climbedthemountainwithafriend.Overtakenbynightfallandbadweather,theylosttheirway,finallystumbling,
exhausted,ontotheTiptopHouse.TheexperiencereputedlyconvincedMarsh,aNewHampshireborncivilandmechanicalengineerwhohaddevotedhiscareerto
themeatpackingandgrainhandlingbusinesses,oftheneedforaneasierandsaferwaytoascendthemountainthanthecarriageroad.
MountWashingtonCogRailway.
Page245
In1858MarshpetitionedtheNewHampshirelegislatureforachartertobuildarailroadtothesummitofMountWashington.Hisproposalwasgreetedwith
skepticism,onememberreputedlyofferinganamendment"thatthegentlemanbefurtherauthorizedtoextendhisrailroadtothemoon."In1861Marshpatentedan
improvedlocomotiveforascendinginclinedplanes.Asconventionaladhesionbetweenpoweredwheelsandsmoothrailswasineffectiveonsuchslopes,Marsh
proposedtodrivehislocomotivebyacogwheelengagingacentral,toothedrailandtoholdtheenginetothetrackthroughasystemofspringplatesandfriction
rollers.Aleverpawlandcamwouldpreventtheenginefromrunningbackward.Amodelengineandcarhelpedenlistinvestorslargelytherailroadsoperatinginor
leadingtotheWhiteMountainsandin1865,MarshorganizedtheMountWashingtonSteamRailwayCompany.Constructionbeganthefollowingyear.
Allmaterialshadtobebroughttothebasecamp(presentdayMarshfield)byoxtrainfromLittleton,25miles(40km)away.Marsherectedawaterpowered
sawmillontheAmmonoosicRivertoprovidecrosstiesandwoodenmembersfortheextensivetrestlingrequiredtoscalethemountain'sruggedterrain.Thelinewas
laidoutwithagaugeof4feet,8inches(1,423mm)andbuiltin12foot(3,657mm)sectionsnumberedfrom1atthefootto1,200atthesummitofthemountain.
Locatedbetweenthetworunningrails,therackrailconsistedoftwostripsofangleironabout6inches(152mm)apart,boltedtoacenterstringerandconnected
every4inches(102mm)byheavysteelbolts,whichengagedtheteethofthedrivingandbrakingcogwheelsoftheengine.
Marshdesignedthefirstlocomotive,builtbyCampbell,Whittier&CompanyofRoxbury,Massachusetts,andshippedtothesiteinsectionsin1866.Christened
"Hero,"theoddlookinglocomotivewassoonrenamed"Peppersass"(peppersauce)foritsresemblancetoacruet.Twocylinderspoweredthefrontaxlethatcarried
thecogwheeltheverticalboilerhungontrunnionssothatitwouldremainuprightnomatterwhatthegrade.Inadditiontotheratchetsafetypawltocheckrollback,
theenginecouldbesloweddownonthedescentbycompressingairinthecylinders.AsuccessfultrialrunonAugust29,1866,helpedstimulateinvestorinterest,and
onJuly3,1869,thefirsttrainreachedthesummit.Adecadelater,thecograilwaywashandlingmorethanseventhousandpassengersayearandhadbecomean
essentialstoponthegrandtourofNewEngland.
TheMountWashingtonCogRailwaystartspartwayupthemountainatanelevationof2,688feet(819m)andclimbs3,600feet(1,097m)tothesummitof6,288
feet(1,916m).(ThissummitelevationisroughlythatofManitouSprings,wheretheManitou&PikesPeakCogRailwayseep.252startsitsclimb.)The3.5mile
(5.6km)railwayhasanaveragegradeof25percentandamaximumgradeof37.4percentthelattersection,climbingthesteepestshoulderofthepeak,isnamed
Jacob'sLadder,anallusiontothebiblicalladderascendingtoheaven.
Page246
Exceptforthewaryearsof1918and194345,theMountWashingtonCogRailwayhasoperatedcontinuouslysince1869.Jacob'sLadderwassubstantially
reconstructedfollowingahurricanein1938,andturnoutswereaddedintheearly1940stoallowtheoperationoftwoormoretrainsatthesametime,butotherwise
therailwayislittlechanged.Thejourneytothesummitisstillslow,cold,cindery,andnoisyjustasitwasoveracenturyago.An0220fourcylinderlocomotive
(nowwithhorizontalboiler)nosesthesinglepassengercaraheadofitself(thereisnocoupler),withthespeedaveraging2milesanhour(3.2km/hr)onthe70minute
uphilltrek.Atthetop,onaclearday,travelersarestillrewardedwithaviewthatP.T.Barnumcalled"thesecondgreatestshowonearth."
Location/Access
TheMountWashingtonCogRailwaydepartsfromtheMarshfieldBaseStation,6miles(9.7km)eastofU.S.Route302.TrainsoperatedailyfromMemorialDayto
ColumbusDay."OldPeppersass"isondisplayatthebasestation.Reservations(recommended)andinformation:phone(603)8465404.
FurtherReading
F.AllenBurt,TheStoryofMountWashington(Hanover,N.H.:DartmouthPublications,1960).
M.F.Sweetser,ViewsintheWhiteMountains(Portland,Maine:ChisholmBrothers,1879).
MonongahelaandDuquesneInclines
Pittsburgh,Pennsylvania
TheAlleghenyandMonongahelariverscarveoutprecipitousbluffsonthewestandsouthsidesofPittsburgh.Inthenineteenthcentury,commerceandindustry
claimedtheleveltriangledefinedbythetworivers,whilehomebuilderslookedtothehillsides.Pittsburgh'slargeGermanpopulationsettledonCoalHill(nowknown
asMountWashington),wherelandwascheapbecauseofitsinaccessibility.Landdevelopers,meanwhile,plannedinclines,orinclinedrailways,toovercomethe
ruggedtopography.
Basedonthesteilbahn(orfunicular)oftheoldcountry,theinclinedrailwayconsistsofadouble,slopedtrackonwhichapairofcarsaremovedbyaconnectingsteel
cablewoundonapowereddrum.Inadditiontothehaulingcable,thereisasecond,safetycable.Onecarascendswhiletheotherdescends,counterbalancingeach
other.Forpassengertransportandlightfreight,theusualgaugewas5feet(1,524mm).Thefirstinclinedrailway,completedin1854,handledcoalfromamineon
CoalHill(MountWashington)toaraillinebelow.Furtherprogresswasslow,butinclinesflourishedaftertheCivilWar,andbytheturnofthecentury,
Page247
Pittsburghhadatleastfifteenofthem,carryingfreight,passengers,andteamsupanddownthehillsidesandofferingvisitorspanoramicviewsofthe"IronCity."
Thefirstpassengerincline,builttoserveMountWashington,wastheMonongahelaor"OldMon"asitisaffectionatelyknowncompletedin1870.Itwasdesigned
andbuiltbyJohnJ.Endres,aGermanmechanicalengineerwhohadsettledinCincinnatiin1866,andisbelievedtobethefirstpassengerinclineintheUnitedStates.
TheoriginalwoodstructurewasrebuiltbySamuelDiescher,aHungarianbornengineer,usingironin1882.DiescherdesignedmostofPittsburgh'sotherinclinesas
wellasthoseinothercities.(Later,DiescherwouldassistG.W.G.FerrisinthedesignandconstructionofthePittsburghbuilt,1,000passengerFerrisWheel,
erectedinChicagofortheWorld'sColumbianExpositionof1893.)
ThehoistingplantoftheMonongahelaIncline,asdescribedbyStreetRailwayJournalin1891,consistedoftwo12inchby20inch(304mmby508mm),
PittsburghbuiltMillhollandengines.Departingfromthestandardpractice,eachcarhadaseparatehoistingropeanddrum.Thedrumswere8feet,10inches(2,692
mm)indiameter,madeofcastironwithwoodenlaggingonthehoistingsurface.Aseparatefreightincline(nolongerextant)wasbuiltnexttothepassengerinclinein
1883.Electricmotorsreplacedtheoriginalsteamenginesin1935.
AmilewestofOldMon,theDuquesneInclineservesthehilltopneighborhoodofDuquesneHeights.ItwasbuiltbySamuelDiescherfortheDuquesneInclinePlane
Companyandopenedforbusinessin1877.Theoriginalstructure,ofwoodandiron,wasrebuiltentirelyofironin1888.TheDuquesneInclinewas
TheMonongahelaIncline,lookingtowardMountWashington
fromWestCarsonStreet,1969.PhotographbyH.H.Harwood,Jr.
Page248
TheDuquesneIncline,fromtheupperstationonMount
Washington,1975.PhotographbyH.H.Harwood,Jr.
poweredbyadoublesteamengineof70horsepower(52kW)with14inch(355mm)cylindersand24inch(609mm)stroke.Theengineoperatedashaftcarrying
adrivingpinion30inches(762mm)indiameter,engagingtoamaindrivinggear12feet(3,657mm)indiameter.Thecarswereconnectedtoasteelwirecableof
1inch(32mm)diameter,whichwaswoundaroundasingledrum.AWestinghouseelectricmotorreplacedthesteamenginein1932,butboththedrumanddrive
areoriginal.
Pittsburgh'slastsurvivinginclinedplanesremainineverydayservice.BothhavebeenownedbythePortAuthorityofAlleghenyCountysince1964.TheDuquesne
InclineisleasedforonedollarayeartotheSocietyforthePreservationoftheDuquesneHeightsIncline,agroupformedintheearly1960swhendeclin
Pittsburgh'sInclines
Monongahela
Duquesne
Length,ft(m):
640(195)
793(242)
Elevation,ft(m):
375(114)
400(122)
Grade,degrees:
28.5
30.5
Gauge,ft(mm):
5(1,524)
5(1,524)
Dateopened:
May1870
May1877
1935
1932
6(9.6)
4(6.4)
Repoweredwithelectricmotors:
Speed,mph(km/hr):
Page249
ingrevenuesandlackofmaintenancethreatenedtoclosetheincline,thenunderprivateownership.Concernedcitizens,mostofthemresidentsofMountWashington,
launchedafundraisingdriveandestablishedanagreementwiththeownertorepairandreopentheinclineifsufficientmoneywasraised.Thesocietyraisedthe
necessaryfunds,whilevolunteersfromthecommunitycleaned,rehabilitated,andrefurbishedtheincline,whichreturnedtoserviceafterashutdownofonlyafew
months.
Location/Access
Pittsburgh'sinclinesoperatedailybothhaveobservationdecksatthetopandofferpanoramicviewsoftheGoldenTriangle,wheretheMonongahelaandAllegheny
riversmeettoformtheOhioRiver.MonongahelaIncline:boardonWestCarsonStreetneartheStationSquareMallphone(412)2315707.DuquesneIncline:
boardonWestCarsonStreetsouthwestofFortPittBridge(lowerstation)orat1220GrandviewAvenue(upperstation)phone(412)3811665.
FurtherReading
P.G.Eizenhafer,100YearHistoryofPittsburghInclines1863to1963(Pittsburgh:MonongahelaInclinedPlaneCo.,1963).
''TheInclinedPlanes,"StreetRailwayJournalSouvenir7(October1891):3740.
"ModernHillClimbing,"ScientificAmerican,September18,1880,1.
Ferries&CliffHouseRailway
SanFrancisco,California
InOctober1973,theAmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineersinaugurateditsprogramofdesignatinghistoricmechanicalengineeringlandmarksbyrecognizingSan
Francisco'scablerailway,thelastoperatingcablerailwayintheworld.Citydignitaries,ASMEmembersandfriends,andthemediagatheredintheuppercourtyardof
thecity'scablecarpowerhouseatWashingtonandMasonstreetstowitnessthepresentationofaplaquehonoringtheFerries&CliffHouseRailway(F&CH),oneof
thecity'sfirstcablerailways,anditsdesigner,HowardCarletonHolmes.
In1869wireropemanufacturerAndrewHallidie(18361900)reputedlyconceivedtheideaofcablestreetrailwayswhilewatchingaheavilyladenhorsecarstruggle
tomakeitupasteephill.Hallidie'sidea:toattacharailcartoanendlesscablerunningcontinuouslyinaconduitbetweenrailsinthestreet(seesidebar).
In1872HallidieandthreepartnersformedacorporationtobuildalineupSanFrancisco'sClayStreethill.Withthecablerunningat9milesperhour(14.5
Page250
Powerhouseandcarbarn,FerriesandCliffHouseRailway,SanFrancisco,
1981.PhotographbyJetLowe,LibraryofCongressCollections.
km/h)onClayStreet's20percentgrade,thetrialrunonAugust2,1873,representedthefirstcablelinetooperatesuccessfullyintheUnitedStates.TheClayStreet
HillRailroadCompanybeganregularoperationsthefollowingmonth.
The1870ssawthetransitionfromanimaltomechanicalpowerinmanyAmericancities.Attheheightoftheirpopularity,cablecarsystemscouldbefoundfromNew
YorktoLosAngeles.Exceptforlocationswithverysteepgrades,however,cabletractionwastechnologicallyobsoleteby1888electricstreetcarsenjoyedmuch
simplerpowerdistribution,andtheoverheadtrolleywirewasmuchcheapertoerectandmaintainthantheundergroundcableandconduit.
InSanFrancisco,cablecarlinesproliferatedfollowingHallidie'sconvincingdemonstrationonClayStreet.By1890,ninecompetingcablelineswereoperatingsome
sixhundredcarsover110miles(177km)oftrack.TheFerries&CliffHouseRailway,organizedinthe1880s,representedtheamalgamationoftwoprojects:a
northsouthlineacrossNobHillandaneastwestlineconnectingtheFerryBuildingwiththeCliffHouseresortonthePacific.Thedesignofthesystemwasentrusted
toHowardCarletonHolmes(18541921),acivilengineereducatedintheSanFranciscopublicschoolswhohadearlierdesignedthepowerhousefortheOakland
CableRailway.TheinitialsystemoftheF&CH,putintoservicein1888,includedtoday'sPowellMasonline,withapowerhouseatMasonandWashingtonstreets.
F&CHpromotersalsopurchasedHallidie'shistoricClayStreetline,whichHolmesrebuiltandexpandedbeforeresigningin1892.
Consolidationshadreducedthenumberofcablerailwaystofourontheeveofthedevastatingearthquakeandfireof1906.In1944theSanFranciscoMunicipal
Railwayassumedcontrolofvirtuallyalltransitoperationsinthecity,including
Page251
Ferries&CliffHouseRailway:HowItWorks
Anelectricmotor(formerlysteamengines)drivesasystemofsheavesandpulleysthatkeepsfourendlesscablesmovingataconstantspeedof9
milesperhour(15.3km/h)throughconduits18inches(457mm)belowthestreet.Thecablecariscontrolledbya"grip"inessence,ahugepairof
pliersthatgrabsontothemovingcablewhenthe"gripman"haulsonaleverinsidethecar.Whenclampedontothecable,thecarmovesatthe
constantspeedofthecablewhethergoingdownoruphill.
Thecarsareseparatedfromthecableonlyatthemomentofadeliberatestop.Tostopthecar,thegripmanreleasesthecableandapplies
conventionalwheelbrakesbysteppingonalargefootpedal.Thesearebackedbytrackbrakes,fourpineblocks(twopertruck)thatcanbe
presseddownontherails.Asalastresort,thereisanemergencybrakethatdrivesasteelwedgeintothecableslottobringthecartoahalt.
Thecablecarhastechnologicalcousins.Theelevator,theinclined(funicular)railway,andtheskiliftoperateonsimilarprinciples.What
distinguishesthecablecarisitsabilitytoconnecttoanddisconnectfromtheconstantlymoving,endlesscable.The1inchthick(32mm)wire
ropecables(steelwrappedhemp)lastbetweenthreeandtenmonths,dependingonlocation,season,traffic,andpassengervolume.
theremainingcablecarlines,whichittargetedforremoval.Ahardfoughtcitizenscampaign,however,succeededinpreservingthreelines:PowellMason,which
operatesbetweentheterminalattheintersectionofMarketandPowellstreets,andFisherman'sWharfviaMasonStreetPowellHyde,whichoperatesbetweenthe
MarketandPowellstreetsterminalandAquaticParkviaHydeStreetandCaliforniaStreet,whichoperatesbetweenVanNessAvenueandthefinancialdistrictvia
CaliforniaStreet,passingoverNobHill.
TheheartofthepresentoperationisthecablecarbarnandpowerhouseatWashingtonandMasonstreets.Holmes'soriginalthreestorypowerhouseof1887and
muchoftheequipmentweredestroyedinthedisasterof1906.Thepresentcarbarnandpowerhousewaserectedin1907.TheworkoffourCorlisssteamengines
two500horsepower(373kW)verticalandtwo450horsepower(336kW)horizontaltodayisperformedbyasingle740horsepower(552kW)electricmotor.
Fourcablesvaryinginlengthfrom9,150feet(2,789m)to21,500feet(6,553m)keep23to31carsinserviceonthesystem's10.7miles(17.2km)ofcablerailway.
Thecarscarryanaverageof35,000passengerseachday.
SanFranciscocanboastmorethanacenturyofcablecaroperationwithonlytwofatalities.Althoughtoday'ssystemisgreatlyreducedinsize,inoperationitislittle
changedfromthe1880s.Fortunately,thecablecarswerenotseriouslyaffectedbytheearthquakeof1989andremainthecity'sprincipaltouristattraction.
Page252
Location/Access
Thecity'sthreecablecarlinesofferservicefrom6A.M.to1A.M.daily.Thecablecarbarnandpowerhouse,locatedatWashingtonandMasonstreets,havebeen
refurbishedasacablecarmuseum(1201MasonStreet,SanFrancisco,CA94108).Visitorscanobservethecablewindingmachineryinoperation.Hours:daily,10
A.M.to6P.M.OctoberApril,daily,10A.M.to5P.M.Admissionfree.
FurtherReading
GeorgeW.Hilton,TheCableCarinAmerica,rev.ed.(SanDiego,Calif.:HowellNorthBooks,1982).
"HowardCarletonHolmes"(obituary),AmericanSocietyofCivilEngineersProceedings48(1922):13234.
CharlesSmallwood,WarrenEdwardMiller,andDonDeNevi,TheCableCarBook(Millbrae,Calif.:CelestialArts,1980).
ChristopherC.Swan,CableCar(Berkeley,Calif.:TenSpeedPress,1978).
Manitou&PikesPeakCogRailway
ManitouSprings,Colorado
Discoveredin1806byLieutenantZebulonPike,PikesPeakisnotthehighestmountaininColoradobutitisthemostwidelyknownbecauseofitscommanding
locationandeasyaccessibility.Thesummitmaybereachedbytrail,byanautomobiletollroadopenedin1916,orbyacograilwayinoperationsince1891.A
latecomertothefieldoperationbegansometwentytwoyearsafterMountWashingtonthecograilwaytoPikesPeakreachesthehighestelevation,14,100feet
(4,298m),ofanyrackrailway,andits8mile(14.1km)lengthisexceededonlybyoneinSwitzerland.
Althoughthefirstsurveysfortheroutedatefrom1870,progresswasslow.Anearlycompany,organizedin1883,madeagoodstartbutcollapsedfollowingfailureof
theNewYorkbankthathelditsmoney.In1888anewfirmbearingthepresentcorporatenamewasorganized.ItwasentirelyfinancedbymattresskingZalmonG.
SimmonsofKenosha,Wisconsin.Simmonsandhisheirsremainedthesoleownersoftherailwayuntil1925.
ConstructionbeganatthetoponSeptember25,1889.Thenarrowroadbedhadtobegradedbyhandusingpicks,shovels,andwheelbarrows,andthe
uncomfortablythinairathigherelevationscausedanalmostconstantturnoverinthelargelyimmigrantworkforce.Thelineclimbsfrom6,571feet(2,003m)at
ManitouSprings(justoutsideColoradoSprings)tothesummit,ariseof7,539feet(2,298m).Theaveragegradeis16.2percentthemaximum,25percent.The
standardgaugeroadusestheAbtracksystem,patentedbyRomanAbt(18501933)ofLucerne,Switzerland,in1882.
Page253
Manitou&PikesPeakCogRailway,ca.1900.
BothSylvesterMarsh,whobuilttheworld'sfirstcograilwayupMountWashingtonin1869,andKlausRiggenbach,whobuiltthesecondin1871inSwitzerlandhad
usedracksinwhichthe"teeth"werepinsconnectingtheuprightflangesofangleirons.TheAbtdesignfeaturedeithertwoorthreeconventionalracksstaggered,
withopen,upstandingteethintowhichmeshedtwoormoredrivingpinionscarriedonthelocomotive.AtPikesPeakonlytworacksareusedthepitchoftheteeth
is2.35inches(59mm).Thethicknessofthesteeli.e.,thewidthoftherackvariedwiththegrade,graduatingfrom7/8inch(22mm)forgradesupto12.5percent
to1inches(32mm)forthesteepestgrade.
Theoriginalmotivepowerconsistedofthree26ton(23.6t)Baldwintanklocomotives,withthebearingframesinclined9degreessothattheboilerwas
approximatelylevelonthe16percentaveragegrade.Theboreandstrokeofthetwocylinderenginewere17and20inches(430and510mm),withthreedouble
pinionsorcogwheelsforthedrive.AfourthBaldwinenginewasdeliveredin1893.TheVauclaincompoundwithcylinderboresof9and15inches(230and380
mm)and22inch(560mm)strokewasadecidedimprovement,decreasingbothrunningtimeandcoalconsumption.Asonothercoglines,theenginenosedthecar
uphilltherewerenocouplers.Onitsdescent,thetrainwascontrolledbycompressingairinthecylindersandasteambrake.
Page254
In1925thePikesPeakAutoHighwayCompanyacquiredthecograilwayfromtheSimmonsfamilyandsubsequentlymodernizeditsstableofmotivepower.In1936
thecompanybuilta24passenger"streamliner"initsownshopsitwaspoweredbya175horsepower(130kW)gasolineengine(laterchangedtoaCadillacV8
engine).Theexperimentwithinternalcombustionenginesledthecompanygraduallytophaseoutsteampowerinfavorofdieselelectricpower.Thefirstdiesel
electriclocomotive,builtbyGeneralElectricandpoweredbythreeGeneralMotorsmodel671engines,wentintoservicein1939.Fourmoredieselelectric
locomotivesfolloweduntil1956.Thesewereequippedwithelectrodynamic,air,andhandbrakes,althoughonlythefirsttypewererequiredforthetripdownhill,
whentheengineswereturnedoff.SinceGeneralElectricwasnotinterestedinbuildingoneoffunits,beginningin1963thecograilwayobtainednewSwissrailcars
withCumminsdieselenginestheseselfpropelledunitseachcarried76passengers.
Inthe1970s,twotwinunit,dieselhydraulictrainsseating206passengerseach(theearlieststeamtrainshadcarriedonly50passengers)werepurchasedfromthe
SwissLocomotiveWorksofWinterthur.TheywentintoregularservicewiththededicationofthecograilwayasaHistoricMechanicalEngineeringLandmarkinMay
1976andwerethefirstarticulatedtrainsonanyrackroadintheworld.Eachtrain,runbyacrewofthree,hasfourdieselhydraulicdrivesystemsof300horsepower
(224kW)foratotalof1,200horsepower(895kW)pertrain.In1975passingtrackswereinstalledattwopointsontheroute,allowingmultipletrainstooperateon
acontinuousschedule.
Steam'slastrevenuetripontheManitou&PikesPeakRailwaywasmadeinSeptember1958.Anenlightenedmanagementsparedfouroftheoldeststeamengines
fromthewrecker'storch.Theyareondisplayattherailway'sManitouSpringsstation,attheCheyenneMountainZooinColoradoSprings,andintheColorado
RailwayMuseuminGolden.
Location/Access
TheManitou&PikesPeakRailwaydepotisat515RuxtonAvenueinManitouSprings,6miles(10km)westofColoradoSprings.FromMaythroughOctober,
trainsdepartat9:20A.M.and1:20P.M.additionaltrainsrunthroughoutthedayfrommidJunetomidAugustfrom8A.M.to5:20P.M.Passengersmustpurchase
ticketsthirtyminutesbeforedeparturetheroundtripridelaststhreehoursandtenminutes.Advancereservationsareadvised.CalltheCogRailDepotat(719)685
5401,orwritetoP.O.Box1329,ColoradoSprings,CO80901.
FurtherReading
MorrisW.Abbott,ThePike'sPeakCogRoad(SanMarino,Calif.:GoldenWestBooks,1972).
ClaudeandMargaretWiatrowski,CogWheelRoute,TheManitouandPike'sPeakRailway(ColoradoSprings,Colo.:MACPublishingCo.,1982).
Page255
GearedLocomotivesoftheRoaringCamp&BigTreesNarrowGaugeRailroad:
ShayDixiana,ClimaxBloomsburg,andHeislerTuolumne
Felton,California
Beginninginthe1880sanduntiltheyweresupplantedbymotortrucksinthe1960s,gearedsteamlocomotiveshauledheavyloadsontherough,temporarytracksof
loggingandminingcompanies.Inagearedlocomotive,powerfromthecylindersistransmittedtothewheelsthroughalineshaftandreductiongears.Bythismeans,
thesmall,highspeedsteamenginesproducedasteadierresultantpullatlowspeedthanrodengines.Theuseofflexible,fourwheeledtrucksalsogavethese
locomotivestheabilitytonegotiatesharpcurves,roughroadbeds,andlight,temporaryrailswithfewerderailments.
Threegearedlocomotivesdominatedthefield:Shay,Climax,andHeisler.TheoldestandmostpopularwastheShay,designedbyMichiganloggerEphraimShay
(18391916)andbuiltbytheLimaLocomotiveWorksofLima,Ohio.LimaturnedoutmorethanthirtythreehundredShaysbetween1878and1945.Varyingin
sizefromnarrowgauge"teakettles"tolargemachinesforClass1railroads,theShaywasdesignedfordozensofdifferentjobs.
TheearliestShayswerecrudeaffairs,withwoodenframes,verticalboilers,andtwocylinders.Bythemid1880s,theShayswereimprovedwithhorizontalboilers
andsteelframes.LargerShayswereequippedwiththreecylinderenginesthatproducedmorepowerandresultedinsmootheroperation.Tocompensateforthe
weightandpositionoftheengine(locatedonthelocomotive'srightside),theboilerwassetoffcentertotheleftasacounterbalance,givingthelocomotiveanodd,
lopsidedappearancewhenseenfromthefront.AShaythrashingitsslowcourseupasteepgradeamidsmokeandsteam,itscylindersbeatingrapidlyand
rhythmically,isanunforgettablesight.
SecondofthegearedenginestocomealongandaseriouscompetitortotheShaywastheClimax,patentedbyGeorgeGilbertandbuiltbytheClimaxManufacturing
CompanyofCorry,Pennsylvania,beginningin1888.TheearlyClassAClimaxhadavertical,twocylindermarinetypeenginemountedonthecenterlineofthe
framebehindtheboilerbackhead.Alineshaftranthroughthecenteroftheengine,drivingeachaxlethroughapairofbevelgears.Aselectivetransmissiongavethe
engineerachoiceofgearratios.
MostClimaxengineswereofthetwotruckdesign,althoughinlateryearsthecompanyproducedlargethreetruckenginesthatlookedmorelikeconventionalrod
locomotives.Withacylindermountedoneachsideoftheboilerata30degreeangle,thepistonsdroveacrankshaftrunningcrosswiseundertheboiler.Powerwas
transmittedthroughbevelgearstoalongitudinalcentershaftandagainthroughbevelgearingtotheaxles.Thecylinderswerenotlarge,butwiththereductiongearing
theyprovidedplentyofpullingpowerandusedaminimumofsteam.
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TheGearedLocomotivesofRoaringCamp&BigTrees
ShayDixianaThe"Dixie"wasoutshoppedbyLima(Ohio)LocomotiveWorksonOctober12,1912.Sheservedonsix
differentshortlinerailroads,includingtheSmokeyMountainRailroadinTennesseeandanarrowgaugeminingroadnear
Dixiana,Virginia(whichgavethelocomotiveitsname),beforeheadingwesttoCalifornia.Atwotruckengine,withthree
10inchby12inch(254mmby304.8mm)cylinders,theDixieweighs42tons(38t).Its29.5inch(750mm)driversgivethe
locomotiveatractiveeffortof17,330pounds(7,861kg).
ClimaxBloomsburgBuiltbytheClimaxManufacturingCompanyofCorry(Pennsylvania)fortheElkRiverCoal&LumberCompany
ofSwandale,WestVirginia,in1928,theBloomsburgwaslastoperatedontheCarrollPark&WesternRailroadinBloomsburg,Pennsylvania,
fromwhichitreceiveditspresentname.Originallystandardgauge,thetwotrucklocomotivewaslaterconvertedto42inch(1,070mm)gauge.With33
inch(840mm)driversandtwo12.25inchby14inch(311mmby360mm)cylinders,thelocomotiveweighs50tons
(45t)andhasatractiveeffortof22,000pounds(9,072kg).
HeislerTuolumneTheoldestoperatingHeislerengineintheworldwasbuiltbyStearnsManufacturingCompanyinErie,
Pennsylvania,in1899.TheTuolumnewasorderedbytheHetchHetchy&YosemiteValleyRailroadforoperationattheWestSide
Flume&LumberCompanysawmillnearTuolumneCity,California.Thetwotruckengineweighs37tons(33.6t)andhasatractive
effortof14,000pounds(6,350kg).Ithas36inch(940mm)driversandtwo10inchby15inch(250mmby380mm)cylinders.
DrawingsbyJoanLengquist.
Page257
AlthoughmanycompaniesincludedaClimaxintheirrostersforspecialjobs,fewboughttheminquantity.Theirflyingmainrodshadatendencytocausevibrationin
theenginethatcrewsdislikedtheengine'sdetractorslikedtosaythataClimaxwoulddisintegrateitself,therailroad,andthecrewwithequalimpartiality!TheClimax
worksproducedjustmorethanathousandlocomotivesbeforeclosingin1928.
Thethirdofthegearedtriumvirate,andthelasttomakeitsappearance,wastheHeisler,developedbyCharlesL.Heislerintheearly1890s.Thetwocylindered
HeislerusedacrosswiseVtypeenginedrivingacenterlineshaftgearedtotheinneraxleineachtruck.Siderodscarriedpowertotheouteraxles.EarlyHeislers
wereofthetwotrucktype,whilelaterdesignswereoftenthelarger,threetrucktype.
TheHeislerwasdesignedtoperformmuchlikearodengine,whileretainingtheadvantagesofagearedengine.Itwascapableoffairspeedsongoodtrack.Itsfaster
performancewasoffsetbyunusuallylargecylinders,whichsometimestaxedthesteamingcapacityoftheboiler.TheStearnsManufacturingCompanyofErie,
Pennsylvania,outshoppeditslastHeislerin1941,bringingitstotalproductionofHeislerstoabout625
Theargumentoverwhichnoisy,geardrivenenginewasbesttheShay,theClimax,theHeisler,ortheirfewothercompetitorshadbecomemootbythe1930s,
whentractorsandmotortrucksbeganusurpingtheirduties.Today,thefewoperablesurvivorsservethetouristratherthantheloggingindustry.Thethreemost
populartypesareallrepresentedontherosteroftheRoaringCamp&BigTreesNarrowGaugeRailroad,asteamexcursionlinethatbeganoperationin1963.
Location/Access
LocatedonGrahamHillRoad,afewmilesnorthofSantaCruzonRoute9,theRoaringCamp&BigTreesNarrowGaugeRailroadoffersanhourlong,6mile
(10.4km)excursionthroughthousandyearoldredwoodforeststothetopofBearMountain.Thethreelandmarklocomotivestaketurnswithtwoothersonthe
railroad'sroster.Informationandreservations:phone(408)3354400.
FurtherReading
KramerA.Adams,LoggingRailroadsoftheWest(Seattle:SuperiorPublishingCompany,1961).
TheHeislerLocomotive(Lancaster,Pa.:BenjaminF.G.Kline,Jr.,1982).
GeorgeW.Hilton,AmericanNarrowGaugeRailroads(Stanford,Calif.:StanfordUniversityPress,1990).
EricHirsimaki,Lima:TheHistory(Edmonds,Wash.:HundmanPublishing,Inc.,1986).
JohnT.LabbeandVernonGoe,RailroadsintheWoods(Berkeley,Calif.:HowellNorthBooks,1961).
ThomasT.TaberandWalterCasler,Climax,AnUnusualSteamLocomotive(Morristown,N.J.:RailroadiansofAmerica,1960).
Page258
InterboroughRapidTransitSystem(OriginalLine)
NewYorkCity,NewYork
Duringthelatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcentury,trafficcongestionledmanyoftheworld'slargestcitiestoplannewcommuterrailways,eitheraboveorbelow
ground.InEurope,subwaysopenedinLondon(1863),Glasgow(1886),Budapest(1896),Paris(1900),andBerlin(1902).InNewYork,theInterboroughRapid
Transit(IRT),thecity'sfirstsubwayandthefirstcompletelyelectricallysignaledrailroadintheUnitedStates,openedin1904.
Asearlyas1870,AlfredElyBeachbuiltanexperimentaloneblocktunnelunderBroadwayfromWarrentoMurrayStreet,throughwhichheoperateda
pneumaticallydrivenrailroadcartodemonstratethepracticalityofsubways.Beach'sproposaltobuildalinefromlowerBroadwaytotheBronxwonpopular
approvalbutmetoppositionfrompropertyowners,andtheventurefailed.NewYork'splansforundergroundrapidtransitremainedstalledthroughoutthelatterhalf
ofthenineteenthcentury.(NorthAmerica'sfirstsubway,infact,openednotinNewYorkbutinBoston,beneathTremontStreet,in1897.)Finally,onMarch24,
1900,financierAugustBelmontandMayorRobertA.VanWyckbrokegroundatBoroughHallinManhattanforNewYorkCity'sfirstsubway.
ThegeneralplanfortheIRTcalledforthesubwaytotunnelnorthfromCityHall,thenuptheEastSideofManhattantoGrandCentralTerminal.Itwouldthenturn
westunder42ndStreettoTimesSquareandproceednorthbeneathBroadwayto145thStreet.Thelengthoftheinitialroute,ofwhichabout2miles(3.2km)wason
viaducts,was13.5miles(22km).Subsequentplansforthesubway'sextensiontoBrooklynandtheBronxnecessitatedtheconstructionoftunnelsundertheEastand
Harlemrivers.
Unusualengineeringchallengeshadtobemet,includingthesupportof
OneofthefirstcompositeconstructioncarsusedontheInterboroughRapid
Transitsubwaywhenitbeganoperationin1904.
Page259
toweringbuildingsandheavystreetrailwayandvehiculartraffic.Alsoconfoundingtheengineerswasalabyrinthofwater,gas,andsteammains,sewers,pneumatic
tubes,andelectricalconduitsbeneaththestreets.Theusualcutandcovermethodofconstructioninwhichworkerscutatrenchalongtheroute,buildtherailway,
thenroofitwithsteelgirderswassupplementedbytheuseofheavycastiron,shielddriventubesundertherivers.
TheIRTpowerhouse,avastFrenchRenaissanceconfectiondesignedbyStandfordWhite,occupiedtheblockboundedbyWest58thand59thstreets,andEleventh
andTwelfthavenues,adjacenttotheNorthRiver.Itwasequippedwithnine8,000to11,000horsepower(5,966to8,203kW)compoundsteamenginesdirect
connectedto5,000kilowattgeneratorsthreesteamturbinesdirectconnectedto1,875kilowattlightinggeneratorsandtwo400horsepower(298kW)engines
directconnectedto250kilowattexcitergeneratorstoprovidefieldcurrentforthetractionandlightinggenerators.Thesubwaywaspoweredbyalternatingcurrent
convertedtodirectcurrentatsubstationsforsupplyingthethirdrail.
Fourcarbuildersfilledthesubway'sinitialorderfor500cars.Thesewereofsteelandwoodconstruction,asanallsteelcarhadyettobebuilt(see''Pullman
SleepingCarGlengyle,"p.262)TheIRTsubsequentlypreparedplansforanallsteelcar,awardinganinitialcontractfor200carsandeventuallyreplacingits
compositefleetwithsafersteelcars.Oneoftheproject'smostperplexingproblemshowtoavoidcrasheswassolvedbyanadvanced,practicalmethodof
signalingthatallowedtrainstooperateatheadwaysofaslittleastwominutes.
ThefirstlineoftheIRTopenedtogreatpublicenthusiasmonOctober27,1904.RegularservicebetweenCityHalland145thStreetandBroadwaybeganthe
followingday.Attheendoftheyear,anaverageof300,000passengersusedthenewsubwaydaily.Between1905and1908,theBronxandBrooklynextensions
opened,enlargingthecity'sfirstsubwayto23.5miles(38km)inlength.TodayNewYorkCityhasthelargestsubwaysystemintheUnitedStates.About3.2million
peopleridesubwaytrainseachday.
Location/Access
PlaquescommemoratingtheopeningofthefirstNewYorkCitysubwayareonpermanentdisplayintheBrooklynBridgeSubwayStation,nearCityHall.TheTransit
Museumat130LivingstonStreet,9thFloor,Brooklyn,NY11201phone(718)2435839isopenTuesdaythroughFriday,10A.M.to4P.M.,andweekends,
noonto5P.M.
FurtherReading
InterboroughRapidTransitCompany,TheNewYorkSubway:ItsConstructionandEquipment(NewYork:InterboroughRapidTransitCompany,1904).
BensonBobrick,LabyrinthsofIron:AHistoryoftheWorld'sSubways(NewYork:NewsweekBooks,1981).
Page260
AlternatingcurrentElectrificationoftheNewYork,NewHaven&HartfordRailroad
Greenwich,Connecticut
ThealternatingcurrentelectrificationoftheNewYork,NewHaven&HartfordRailroadwasthefirstmajorelectrificationofamainlinesteamrailroad.Itenabledthe
NewHaventouseelectriclocomotivesoverconsiderabledistancesforbothlocalandthroughservice,andwasaforerunneroftoday'smodernelectrifiedrailroads,
providingclean,reliable,andefficientmasstransitforadenselypopulatedandhighlyindustrializedregion.
Earlyelectrificationofsteamrailroadswasundertakenlargelytosolvetheproblemsofsmokeandcindersintunnels,coveredterminals,andurbanareas.In1903the
NewYorkStateLegislaturepassedalawprohibitingtheuseofsteamlocomotivesinNewYorkCitysouthoftheHarlemRiverafterJuly1,1908.TheNewYork
CentralRailroadchoseelectricoperationusinga660volt,directcurrentsystemwiththirdrailpickupforitsapproachtoGrandCentralTerminal.TheNewHaven,
whichalsooperatedintoGrandCentral,wasexpectedtofollowsuit.Instead,itannouncedacontractwithWestinghousefortheinstallationofan11,000volt,25
cycle,singlephaseACelectrificationofitsmainlinebetweenWoodlawn,NewYork,andStamford,Connecticut.
Thesuperiorityofalternatingcurrentforlargescaleelectricpowertransmissionwasalmostuniversallyrecognized,butopiniononACversusDCsystemsfor
AlternatingcurrentelectrificationoftheNewYork,NewHaven&HartfordRailroad.
Page261
heavyrailroadtractionremaineddivided.UntiltheelectrificationoftheNewHaven,nearlyallrailroadelectricpowerexperiencehadbeenwithdirectcurrentbecause
thevariablespeedperformancecharacteristicsofDCmotorsgenerallywereconsideredsuperiorforrailroadservice.Butbecauseoftherelativelylowvoltagesused,
DCsystemsrequiredheavycurrentsand,toavoidtransmissionlosses,frequentandexpensivesubstations.TheNewHavenboldlydecidedonhighvoltage,
alternatingcurrentforitslinesintoNewYork.Becauseoftheeasewithwhichvoltagecouldbesteppedupordownbytransformers,ACelectrificationwouldallow
moreefficientandeconomicaldistributionofpower,particularlyoverlongdistances.
Constructionofthehistoricsystembeganin1905.TheNewHavenbuiltitsowngeneratingplantatCosCobontheMianusRiverinGreenwich,Connecticut.The
initialinstallationconsistedoftwelveBabcock&WilcoxwatertubeboilerssupplyingsteamtothreeWestinghouseParsonssteamturbinestheturbinesweredirect
connectedto3,000kilowattWestinghousegenerators.Afourth3,330kilowattgeneratorwasaddedshortlyafterthefirstthreewereinstalled.Thestationsupplied
11,000voltpowerdirectlytotheoverheadsystem,auniquetriangularcrosssectioncatenary.Steelbridges,spacedat300foot(91m)intervalsandspanningfrom
fourtotwelvetracks,supportedthecatenary.
Latein1905,WestinghouseandBaldwinLocomotivejointlycompletedthefirstof35ClassEP1,doubletrucklocomotives.Theywere37feet,6inches(11.44
m)longandemployedaboxcabconfigurationwithoperatingcabsatbothends.ThelocomotivesnotonlyhadtoovercometheproblemsofavirtuallyuntestedAC
system,theyhadtooperateovera660volt,DCthirdrailonthe12miles(19km)ofNewYorkCentraltrackbetweenWoodlawnandGrandCentral.Each
locomotivewasequippedwithtwopantographsforoverheadACcurrentcollectionathird,smallerDCpantographforbridgingthirdrailgapsontheNewYork
Centralsystemandeightthirdrailshoes.ControlcircuitspermittedthetransitionbetweenACandDCoperationwithoutstopping.
TheoverheadwirefromCosCobtoNewYorkwasenergizedinApril1907,andthefirstregulartraintorunonelectricpoweroperatedfromGrandCentral
TerminaltoNewRochelle,NewYork,onJuly24,1907.ServicewasextendedtoPortChester,NewYork,thefollowingmonth,andtoStamford,Connecticut(33
miles,or53km,fromGrandCentral),byOctober.
TheNewHaven'selectrificationcamenonetoosoon.Commutertrafficwasincreasingrapidlyasthesuburbsitservedburgeoned.Between1910and1920,New
HavencommutertrafficintoandoutofGrandCentralmorethandoubledby1924,theNewHavenanditsWestchestersubsidiarywerehaulingcloseto2million
passengersintooroutofNewYorkeachmonth.
WiththeextensionofelectrificationtoNewHavenin1914,fourteenBigelowHornsbywatertubeboilersandfouradditionalturbogeneratorswereaddedtothe
CosCobplant,bringingthestation'stotalgeneratingcapacityto
Page262
35,400kilowatts.Theoriginalpowersupplysystem,bywhich11,000voltshadbeenfeddirecttothedistributionsystemfromthegenerators,wasreplaced
transformersnowsteppedthepowerupto22,000voltsfordistributiontosubstations,whichreduceditto11,000voltsforthecontactwire.
Owingtoitsworseningfinancialcondition,theNewHavenfailedtomeetitsoriginalgoalACcatenarystretchingunbrokenbetweenNewYorkandBoston.Butits
pioneeringACelectrificationwasaremarkableengineeringaccomplishmentthatsettheindustrystandardforthenexthalfcenturyandledthewayforsuchlarger
electrificationprojectsasthePennsylvaniaRailroad'sprogramofthe1930s.
Location/Access
TheCosCobPowerStation,nowabandoned,standsadjacenttotheNewHaventracksonthewestbankoftheMianusRiverinthetownofGreenwich,about1
mile(1.6km)fromLongIslandSound.Nooriginalequipmentremains.Thecatenaryisstillinuse,thoughitnowcarriespowerat25kv,60cycleforAmtrak'sAEM
7andE6oCPlocomotivesaswellasforselfpropelledcommutertrains.The60cyclepowerispurchasedfromthelocalutility.
FurtherReading
E.H.McHenry,"HeavyElectricTractionontheNewYork,NewHaven&HartfordRailroad"and"TheOverheadConstructionoftheNewHavenRailroad,"Street
RailwayJournal30(17August1907):24254.
,"ElectricLocomotivesoftheNewYork,NewHaven&HartfordRailroad,"StreetRailwayJournal30(24August1907):27885.
,"CosCobPowerStation,NewYork,NewHaven&HartfordRailroadCompany,"StreetRailwayJournal30(31August1907):30816.
ArthurJ.Manson,RailroadElectrificationandtheElectricLocomotive(NewYork:SimmonsBoardmanPublishingCompany,1923).
WilliamD.Middleton,WhentheSteamRailroadsElectrified(Milwaukee:KalmbachBooks,1974).
PullmanSleepingCarGlengyle
Dallas,Texas
TheGlengyleistheearliestknownsurvivorofthefleetofallsteelsleepersbuiltbyPullmanbeginningin1907asamarkedimprovementoverthewoodencarsthenin
use.SomeeightthousandsteelcarswerebuiltforPullmanuseduringthe"heavyweight"era(190731).Theyprovedsafe,durable,andefficient,eveniftheyfailedto
offertheprivacyandcomfortAmericanpassengerswerebeginningtodemand.
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CompletedinJanuary1911,thePullmansleepingcarGlengylewasamongthefirst
allsteelsleeperstorolloutofthePullmanshops.
Formorethanacentury,"Pullman"wasthefirstwordinluxuryrailtravel.AlthoughGeorgeM.Pullmandidnotinventthefirstrailroadcarwithsleeping
accommodations,bythe1890sthePullmanPalaceCarCompany,withitsextravagantlyornatewoodensleepers,enjoyedavirtualmonopolyonthebusiness.Butas
trainsgrewlonger,faster,andmorenumerous,itbecameapparentthatastrongerandsafercarwasneeded.
ThedecisiontoconstructatunnelundertheHudsonRiverbetweenHoboken,NewJersey,andManhattan,togetherwithnotuncommonreportsofwrecksandfires
involvingwoodencarsinthesubwaysofParisandNewYork,ledthePennsylvaniaRailroad(PRR)toordernewsteelcoachesin1907.Withencouragementfrom
PRR,PullmanCompanydirectorsandengineersadoptedallsteelconstructionfromthenon,andsteelgraduallybecamethestandardforallbuilders.
In1907Pullmandesignedanallsteel,12section,1drawingroomsleeper.TheJamestown,builtofsteelshapesavailablecommercially,provedmuchtooheavybut
ledtotheerectionofanewsteelcarplantatPullman'sChicagoworks,wheresophisticatedspecialshapescouldbefabricatedtoproducelightercarswithout
sacrificingstrengthorcomfort.
IntheCarnegie,completedin1910,Pullmanhadthepracticalsteelsleepingcardesignitwaslookingfor,onethatwouldserveasamodelforthesleepersthe
companywouldbuilduntiltheadventoflightweight,streamlinedcarsinthe1930s.The12section,1drawingroomcarwas82feet(25m)longincludingvestibules
9feet,103/8inches(3m)wideand14feet,inch(4.3m)tall.Itweighed68tons(62t)almost12tons(11t)lessthantheJamestown.
ThesteelcarallowedPullmantostandardizeallmajorpartsincluding
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frame,trucks,androofaswellasinteriorfixturesandelectricalandmechanicalcomponents.Usingthese"buildingblocks,"itwaspossibleforPullmantoconstructa
widevarietyofcartypeswhileretainingthemanufacturingandmaintenanceadvantagesofstandardization.
Formostsleepers,Pullmanretainedtheopensectionplan.Twofacingseatsbydayconvertedintoalowerberthatnight,whileanupperberthopenedfroma
compartmentabovethewindowthatprovidedstoragespaceforlinensandthelowerberthmattressduringtheday.Heavycurtainsprovidedprivacytoiletand
washroomfacilitiesformenandforwomenwerelocatedatoppositeendsofthecar.Despitecriticismthatitaffordedneitherprivacynorcomfort,theopensection
remainedthemostcommonplanforcarsbuiltduringtheheavyweightera,providingthesettingforcountlesssilverscreencomediesandbluejokes.
Agroupofallroomsteelsleepingcars,includingtheGlengyle,rolledoutofthePullmanshopsduringDecember1910andJanuary1911.ThetencarsofLot
Number3867eachcontainedsevencompartmentsandtwodrawingrooms.TheiroveralldimensionswerethesameastheCarnegie,buttheywereabout3,000
pounds(1,300kg)heavierduetodifferentinteriorarrangements.PullmanbuiltonlyseventycarsliketheGlengyle,allbetween1911and1923,representinglessthan
1percentofthetotalproduction.ButtheGlengyleanditssiblingswereamongthemostluxurious.ThecarsmadetheirdebutonthePennsylvania'sprestigiousNew
YorkFloridatrains.
Inthe1930s,theGlengylewasmodifiedwiththeadditionofairconditioning,replacementofexteriorbodypanels,andtheupgradingofitstrucksandairbrakes,but
itsinteriorsurvivedremarkablyintact.Followingthecloseofalongcareerin1957,thesleepingcarservedasadormitoryforTexassteelworkers.In1964theTexas
&NorthernRailroaddonatedittotheAgeofSteamRailroadMuseum.
Location/Access
TheGlengyle,alongwithtwolaterPullmanheavyweightsleepingcars,theMcQuaigandtheGoliad,arepartofaheavyweighterapassengertraindisplayedatthe
AgeofSteamRailroadMuseum,FairgroundStateFairofTexas,WashingtonandParrystreets.Mailingaddress:P.O.Box153259,Dallas,TX753153259phone
(214)4280101.Hours:ThursdayandFriday,10A.M.to3P.M.SaturdayandSunday,11A.M.to5P.M.Admissionfee.
FurtherReading
ArthurD.Dubin,SomeClassicTrains(Milwaukee:KalmbachPublishingCompany,1964).
WilliamW.Kratville,Steam,Steel&Limiteds(Omaha:KratvillePublications,1983).
JohnH.White,Jr.,TheAmericanRailroadPassengerCar(Baltimore:TheJohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1978).
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Texas&PacificNo.610,Lima"SuperPower"SteamLocomotive
Palestine,Texas
"SuperPower"wastheLimaLocomotiveWorks'solutiontoprovidingmorespeedandpowerforAmerica'srailroads.BrainchildofWilliamE.Woodard(1873
1942),Limavicepresidentofengineering,theA1demonstratorof1925combinedhigherboilerpressureandsteamingrate,alargerandmoreefficientfirebox,anda
highersuperheatingtoevaporatingsurfaceratiotodevelophighhorsepowerwitheconomicalfuelconsumption.Itwasanimmediatesuccess,outperformingits
contemporariesbyawidemarginandservingastheprototypeforthemodern,highspeedlocomotivethroughtheendofthesteamage.Texas&PacificNo.610,on
displayattheTexasStateRailroadHistoricalPark,isthesolesurvivingexampleoftheearliestformofsuperpowersteamlocomotive.
FollowingWorldWarI,increasingtrafficforcedAmericanrailroadstoreevaluateallfacetsoftheiroperations,includingtrainsizeandspeed.Itwasclearthatstronger
motivepowerwasneeded.Americansteamlocomotiveswereratedaccordingtotheirdrawbarpull,ortractiveeffort.Tomany,itseemedobviousthatifthepullon
thedrawbarwaswhatmovedatrain,theanswerto
Texas&PacificNo.610(Lima"SuperPower"SteamLocomotive)inexcursion
servicefortheSouthernRailwayatManassas,Virginia,August1977.Photograph
byT.N.Colbert,collectionofH.H.Harwood,Jr.
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Specifications
Texas&PacificNo.610
Builder:Lima(Ohio)LocomotiveWorks,1927
Type:2104
Length:
60foot,4inchengine(18.4m)
38foot,8inchtender(11.8m)
99footengineandtender(30.2m)
Height:15feet,5inchesabovetopofrail(4.7m)
Weights,inworkingorder:
Ondrivers:300,000lbs.(136,077kg)
Onpilottruck:41,800lbs.(18,960kg)
Ontrailingtruck:106,200lbs.(48,171kg)
Totalengine:448,000lbs.(203,208kg)
Tender:125,500lbs.(56,925kg)
Totalengineandtender:573,500lbs.(260,133kg)
Cylinders,diameterandstroke:
29inchesby32inches(73.7cmby81.3cm)
Drivers:63inchesindiameter(160cm)
Boilerpressure:255psig(1,758kPa)
Heatingsurfaces:
Firebox:473squarefeet(44m2)
Flues:4,640squarefeet(431m2)
Superheater:2,100squarefeet(195m2)
Total:7,213squarefeet(670m2)
Tractiveeffort:
Engine:84,000lbs.(38,000kg)
Booster:13,000lbs.(5,900kg)
Total:97,000lbs.(3,900kg)
greaterpowerlayinincreasedtractiveeffort.Woodard,however,demonstratedthattheboilerwasreallytheheartofthesteamlocomotiveand,thus,thestarting
pointforadvancesinlocomotivepowerandperformance.HewastheguidingforcebehinddevelopmentsthatwouldputLimasquarelyintheforefrontofsteam
locomotivetechnology.
TheLimabuiltMichiganCentralNo.8000,aheavy282completedinJune1922,providedatestvehicleforWoodard'sideasandconfirmedhisbeliefthatahigh
performanceboilerwascentraltoimprovedlocomotiveperformance.Amongotherfeatures,No.8000incorporatedahighcapacityboilerwithalargerfireboxand
increasedsuperheaterarea.Woodardwaspleasedwithhisfirsteffortbutnotyetsatisfied.Hewenttoworkonanew"super"locomotiveandhaditdownonpaper
by1924.
TheA1demonstratorof1925withitscaststeelcylinders,largeboiler,
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Elescofeedwaterheater,andarticulated,fourwheeltrailingtrucksupportinganenormousfireboxwaslikenothingelseontherails.Woulditperformthesame
way?AtestrunonApril14ontheAlbanyDivisionoftheBoston&Albany,oneoftheB&A'stoughestoperatingdistricts,provedjusthowgoodalocomotiveit
was.
B&AMikadoNo.190,anH10sisterofthe8000,leftSelkirkYardat10:57A.M.with46carsand1,691tons(1,534t)intow.TheA1departedat11:44A.M.
with54carsequaling2,296tons(2,083t)andpromptlybegantonarrowthegap,overtakingthelaboring"Mike"about1P.M.andarrivinginNorthAdamsJunction
at2:02P.M.,tenminutesaheadofit.NotonlyhadtheA1pulledonequartermoretonnageinfiftysevenminuteslesstime,ithadconsumedonethirdlesscoaland
water.Subsequenttestsonseveralotherroadsyieldedsimilarresults.NootherlocomotivecouldcomeclosetomatchingtheA1'sperformance.Limacoinedanew
namefortheremarkableenginethatcametobesynonymouswithitsbuilder:"SuperPower."
Thefirstcommercialorderforsuperpowerlocomotivesten2104swasdeliveredtotheTexas&PacificRailroadlatein1925.AssignedClassI1bythe
railroad(andknownasthe"Texas"type),thenewlocomotivesburnedoilinsteadofcoalandcontainedacombustionchamberandtwoNicholsonthermicsyphons
appliancesmissingfromtheA1makingitsboilerevenmoreefficient.
Followingimpressiveoperatingsavingscomparedwiththerailroad'sG1s(2102s),T&Pplacedasecondorderforfifteen2104s(Nos.610624,includingthe
presentlandmarkengine),deliveredinJune1927.By1930,therailroadhadseventyoftheseTexaslocomotives,nowitsstandardheavymainlinefreightpower.
Otherrailroadshoppedonthesuperpowerbandwagon,amongthemBoston&Albany,IllinoisCentral,SouthernPacific,Chesapeake&Ohio,andNorfolk&
Western.SodidotherbuildersbothAlcoandBaldwinbuilttheirownversionsof"superpower"locomotivesbasedontheprincipleslaiddownbyLima'sA1of
1925.
TheTexas&Pacific'sI1sreignedsupremeuntilthearrivalofdieselsinthelate1940s.NinewererebuiltintomoremodernI2s.No.610,fortunately,wasnot
amongthem(thoughthe610didreceivenewBaldwindiscmaindriversin1938,togetherwithnewlightweightnickelsteelroadsandnewcrossheads).Aftermore
thanamillionmiles(1.6millionkm)ofserviceontheT&P,the610wasputondisplayinFortWorthandlaterrestoredforserviceaspartofthebicentennial
AmericanFreedomTraintravelingexhibition.AfterpullingexcursiontrainsoftheSouthernRailway,the610wasdonatedtotheTexasStateRailroadHistoricalPark.
Location/Access
Texas&PacificNo.610isonpermanentdisplayattheTexasStateRailroadHistoricalPark(onRoute84betweenPalestineandRusk),P.O.Box39,Rusk,TX
75785phone(903)7953351.Builtin1896toservetheindustriesofthestate
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penitentiaryatRusk,theTexasStateRailroadtodayoperatesrestoredsteampoweredtrainsonthe50mile(80km)roundtriprunbetweenPalestineandRusk.The
610,toolargetooperateonTSRtracks,isstationary.
FurtherReading
W.W.Baxter,"NewTypeLocomotivesforTexas&Pacific,"RailwayReview77(19December1925):90512.
"AnEpochMakingAdvanceinLocomotiveDesign,"RailwayReview76(2May1925):799810.
EricHirsimaki,Lima:TheHistory(Edmonds,Wash.:HundmanPublishing,Inc.,1986).
CharlesM.Mizell,Jr.,"TIsforTexas,Texas&Pacific,andTWOTENFOUR,"Trains,February1978,2232.
PioneerZephyr
Chicago,Illinois
BuiltfortheChicago,Burlington&QuincyRailroadin1934,thePioneerZephyrmarkedtheendofoneeraandthebeginningofanother.Forunderneaththe
Zephyr'sstreamlined,stainlesssteelexteriortheresultofwindtunneltestsconductedattheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologyandtheinventionofthe
"shotweld"processlayarevolutionarydieselelectricpowerplantthateventuallywouldreplacethetraditionalsteamlocomotive,changingforeverthesight,sound,
andsmellofrailroading.Therevolutionitsparkedcanhardlybeexaggerated:In1934,whentheZephyrmadeitsfirstrun,somefiftythousandsteamlocomotives
werestillatworkonAmerica'srailroadsby1961,theindustrywascompletelydieselized.
ThedieselengineisnamedafterinventorRudolfDiesel(18581913),whocompletedhisfirstworkingprototypein1897followingyearsofresearch.Thediesel
enginehasneitheracarburetornoranelectricignitionsystem.Instead,airiscompressedinthecylinder.Atthetopofthepiston'sstroke,theairtemperaturehasrisen
to1,000F(537C),spontaneouslyignitingthefueloilinjectedintothecombustionchamberatjustthatpoint.
Dieselengineshadbeenusedforstationaryandmarinepurposessincetheturnofthecentury,buttheirlowpowertoweightratiomadethemimpracticalfor
lightweighttrains.In1932ateamatGeneralMotor'sWintonEngineCorporationworkingunderthedirectionofGMvicepresidentCharlesF.Ketteringperfecteda
twostroke,eightcylinderdieselengine.*Onekeytosuccesswasthedevelopmentofnewalloyshavingastrengthtoweightratiothatmadetheengine
*Reciprocatinginternalcombustionenginesoperateoneitherthetwostrokeorfourstrokecycle:theformerhavingapowerstrokeeveryrevolutionofthecrankshaftthelatter,
everysecondrevolution.
Page269
Chicago,Burlington&Quincy'sPioneerZephyr,hereshownnewin1934,was
America'sfirstdieselpowered,stainlesssteelstreamliner.
lightenoughtomountonalocomotiveframeand,atthesametime,powerfulenoughtopullatrain.Theenginewasbasedonadesignthathadbeendevelopedfor
navysubmarines.Itsweightwasfurtherreducedbyfabricatingtheengineframefromrolledsteelplates,cuttosizebyoxyacetylenetorchandjoinedbyelectricarc
welding.(Thiswasoneoftheearliestapplicationsoffabricatedconstruction,nowwidelyusedinmediumandheavymachineryconstruction.)
In1933,theBurlingtonorderedalightweight,stainlesssteeltrainfromtheEdwardG.BuddManufacturingCompanyofPhiladelphia.BurlingtonPresidentRalph
Budd(norelationtotherailcarmanufacturer)decidedtopoweritwitha660horsepower(492kW)WintonModel201ADieselengine.The8cylinderengine,of8
inch(203mm)boreand10inch(254mm)stroke,wasdirectconnectedtoa750voltDCgenerator,whichsuppliedpowertothe300horsepower(224kW)
tractionmotorsmountedoneachaxleoftheforwardtruck.Theengineoutputinexcessofthatneededforpropulsionpoweredanauxiliary25kWgeneratorfor
lighting,airconditioning,andotherelectricalfunctions.''Sincetheautomobileindustry,throughitsbrilliantachievementsinthedesignandmanufactureofprivate
automobiles,hasbeenresponsibleforthelossesofrailwaypassengertraffic,itseemedlogicaltotryadoptingasmanyofitsideasaspracticable,"Buddlaterwrote.
ThedieselpoweredZephyrrolledoutoftheBuddshopsonApril7,1934.(RalphBuddsuggestedthename,afterZephyrus,godofthewestwindinGreek
mythology.Burlington'smottowas"EverywhereWest.")Capableoftravelingatspeedsupto120milesperhour(193km/hr),thetrainconsistedofthreearticulated
cars(i.e.,theendsofadjoiningcarswerecarriedonasingletruck)measuring197feet(60m)longoverall,weighingapproximately208,000pounds(94,347kg),and
havingatotalseatingcapacityof72.Thefirstcarcontainedthedieselengine,railwaypostofficeapartment,andmailstorageareathesec
Page270
ond,abaggageroom,buffet,and20coachseatsthethird40coachseatsand12seatobservationlounge.
FollowingitschristeningonApril18,thetrainbarnstormedforseveralweeksbeforemakingitsfamousnonstop,dawntoduskrunbetweenDenverandChicagoon
May26,1934.Onthe13hour,1,015mile(1,633km)trip,theZephyrattainedamaximumspeedof107milesperhour(172km/hr)andaveraged77.6milesper
hour(124.9km/hr).TheZephyrarrivedinChicago'sGrantParkintimetocapoffthe"WingsofaCentury"transportationpageantattheCenturyofProgress
Exposition,thrillingspectatorsandprovidingapublicitybonanzafortheBurlingtonRoute.
OnNovember11,1934,theZephyrbecamethefirstdieselpoweredpassengertraininAmericatoenterregularservice,makingadailyroundtripof502miles(808
km)betweenKansasCity,Missouri,andLincoln,Nebraska.Burlingtondirectors,meanwhile,tookstepstoputtherailroadintheforefrontofthedieselrevolution,
orderingthreesimilartrains:twoTwinZephyrsforservicebetweenChicagoandMinneapolis,andtheMarkTwainZephyrforservicebetweenSt.Louisand
Burlington,Iowa.Meanwhile,theoriginalZephyr,renamedthePioneerZephyrtodistinguishitfromthegrowingfleet,completeditsfirstyearofoperationwithflying
colors:of365days,ithadbeenoutofserviceonly11,representinganastonishingavailabilityrecordof97percent,comparedwithabout70percentfortheline's
steamlocomotives.Operatingandmaintenancecosts,meanwhile,averaged35centspertrainmile,comparedwith59centsforthesteamhauledtrainsithad
replaced.Justasimportant,thehighspeedstreamliner,withitsclean,temperaturecontrolledrideandmoderndecor,hadsucceededinluringpassengersbackto
railroadtravel,boostingpassengerrevenueswhilegivingaDepressionwearynationamuchneededpsychologicallift.
Throughoutthe1930sand1940s,theBurlingtoncontinuedtosubstitutedieselelectriclocomotivesforsteam.By1954,alloftheline'spassengertrainsinregular
serviceandabout95percentofitsfreighttrainsweredieselpowered.ThePioneerZephyrcontinuedtoservetheWestandMidwest,loggingsome3.2millionmiles
(5.1millionkm)beforeitwasretiredin1959.
Location/Access
ThePioneerZephyrisonpermanentdisplayattheMuseumofScienceandIndustry,57thStreetandLakeShoreDrive,Chicago,IL60637phone(312)684
1414.Hours:JuneAugust:daily,9:30A.M.to4P.M.SeptemberMay:MondayFriday,9:30A.M.to4P.M.,andSaturdaySunday,9:30A.M.to5:30P.M.
Admissionfee.
FurtherReading
A.N.Addie,"TheHistoryoftheDieselElectricLocomotiveintheUnitedStates,"inASMERailTransportationDivision,RailwayMechanicalEngineering:A
CenturyofProgress(NewYork:AmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers,1979).
E.C.Anderson,"TheBurlingtonZephyr,"TransactionsoftheAmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers(Railroads)56(1934):65966.
Page271
RalphBudd,"TheBurlingtonZephyr,"CivilEngineering4(August1934):38387.
JohnF.Kirkland,DawnoftheDieselAge:TheHistoryoftheDieselLocomotiveinAmerica(Glendale,Calif.:InterurbanPress,1983).
RichardC.Overton,BurlingtonRoute:AHistoryoftheBurlingtonLines(NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,1965).
PennsylvaniaRailroadGG1ElectricLocomotiveNo.4800
Strasburg,Pennsylvania
ThePennsylvaniaRailroad'sGG1locomotiveNo.4800,builtbyBaldwinandGeneralElectric,wastheprototypefora139unitfleetbuiltbetween1934and1943to
servethePennsylvania'selectrifiedlines.TheGG1servedlongerfrontlinedutythananyotherclassoflocomotiveinhistorysteam,electric,ordiesel.Itowedits
successinlargeparttoaflexiblesuspensionsystemthatprovidedequaltractionforalldrivingwheelsregardlessoftrackcondition.
Torelievecongestion,in1913thePennsylvaniaRailroad(PRR)decidedtoelectrifyitstwomostheavilytraveledsuburbanroutesoperatingoutofPhiladelphia's
BroadStreetStation.Bythistime,thesuperiorcharacteristicsofsinglephaseACelectrificationforheavymainlineservicehadbeenwellestablishedbytheNew
Haven(see"AlternatingcurrentElectrificationoftheNewYork,NewHaven&HartfordRailroad,"p.260),andthePennsylvaniachosetheACsystemforits
Philadelphiasuburbanlines.
Bythemid1920s,thePennsylvania'seasternmainlinescarriedsomeofthedensestfreightandpassengerrailtrafficintheUnitedStates.Toincreasecapacity,the
railroadannouncedamassiveelectrificationprogramin1928.Altogether,some325miles(523km)ofrailroadbetweenNewYorkandWilmington,Delaware,and
betweenTrenton,NewJersey,andColumbia,Pennsylvaniawouldbeelectrified.Theprogramgraduallywasexpanded,andby1935electrifiedtrackstretchedall
thewaytoWashington,D.C.,andwesttoHarrisburg,givingthePennsylvaniamoretrackmilesundercatenarythananyotherrailroadinthecountry.
Withexpansionofitselectrifiedtrackcametheneedfornewelectricmotivepower.AnearlyfleetofP5alocomotivesbyBaldwinWestinghouseshowedserious
shortcomings,especiallytrackingproblemsathighspeeds.In1934thePRRorderedtwonewprototypesfromBaldwin.Thefirst,ClassR1locomotiveNo.4800
witha2D2wheelarrangement,followedtherailroad'straditionalpracticeofobtainingmaximumhorsepowerfromasfewaxlesaspossibleonarigidframe.The
secondprototype,ClassGG1No.4899,employeda2C+C2wheelarrangementonanarticulatedframei.e.,apairofframes,eachwithafourwheelpilottruck
Page272
PennsylvaniaRailroadGG1electriclocomotiveNo.4800withpassengertrainin
the1930s.CourtesyNationalMuseumofAmericanHistory.
andthreedrivingaxlesanarrangementfirstemployedbyGeneralElectricin1929forlocomotivesbuiltfortheClevelandUnionTerminalandlaterfortheNew
Haven'sEP3a's.
GG1No.4899,deliveredinSeptember1934,wasanimpressiveunit.Supportedbytwocaststeelframeshingedatthecenter,theGG1measured79feet,6inches
(24.2m)betweencouplerfacesandweighedmorethan230tons(209t).TwinACtractionmotorsdroveeachpairof57inch(145cm)drivingwheelsthrougha
gearedquilldrive,providingatotalof4,620horsepower(3,445kW)atamaximumspeedof100milesperhour(161km/hr).Thedrivingaxleswerefittedinto
rollerbearingboxesthatcouldmoveverticallyinpedestaljawsintheframethus,whilethemotorswererigidlyfixedtotheframe,thequilldriveallowedthewheels
anddrivingaxlestomovefreely.AlthoughlittleabouttheGG1wasnew,theyrepresentedtherefinementofproventechnologyanditsincorporationintoawell
balanceddesign.Theresultwasoneofthesmoothestridinglocomotiveseverbuilt,withfirmnessandstabilityathighspeedandsuperiortrackingability.
Followingtenweeks'competitiononthePennsy'stesttracknearClaymont,Delaware,theGG1emergedvictoriousovertheR1.Thetwoprototypeunitsexchanged
numbers.IndustrialdesignerRaymondLoewycreatedthedistinctive"cat'swhiskers"goldstripingandpersuadedtherailroadtoweldallsubsequentGG1bodies(the
prototypehadbeenriveted),givingthelocomotiveaclassic,streamlinedappearance.OnJanuary28,1935,No.4800pulledthefirstelectricallypoweredtrain
betweenWashingtonandPhiladelphia,coveringthe134miles(216km)in110minutesatanaveragespeedof73milesperhour(117km/hr).
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TheGG1'senormouspowerenabledthePennsylvaniatoincreasetrainspeeds,reducerunningtimes,andkeeppassengertrainsofmorethantwentycarsontime,
evenunderthemostdemandingconditions.No.4800routinelyoperatedatspeedsof100milesperhour(161km/hr),loggingnearly5millionmiles(8millionkm)
duringitsfortyfiveyearcareer.ItremainedinserviceonthePRRlaterPennCentralandConrailuntilitsretirementin1979.In1980theFriendsofGG14800
rescuedthefamouslocomotivebybuyingitfromConrailatitsscrappriceof$30,000.ItwasrestoredtotheoriginalLoewyliveryandpresentedtotheRailroad
MuseumofPennsylvania.
Location/Access
PRRlocomotiveNo.4800isondisplayattheRailroadMuseumofPennsylvania,Rte.741E(nearGapPike),P.O.Box125,Strasburg,PA17579phone(717)
6878628.Hours:MayOctober:MondaySaturday,9A.M.to5P.M.,andSunday,noonto5P.M.NovemberApril:TuesdaySaturday,9A.M.to5P.M.,and
Sunday,noonto5P.M.Admissionfee.ThemuseumcontainsanextensivecollectionofNortheastern(especiallyPennsylvania)railroadequipment,includinganother,
weldedGG1.
FurtherReading
WilliamD.Middleton,WhentheSteamRailroadsElectrified(Milwaukee,Wis.:KalmbachBooks,1974).
AlvinF.Staufer,PennsyPower:SteamandElectricLocomotivesofthePennsylvaniaRailroad,19001957(Carollton,Ohio:StandardPrinting&Publishing
Co.,1962).
KarlR.Zimmermann,TheRemarkableGG1(NewYork:QuadrantPress,1977).
ElectroMotiveFTFreightserviceDieselElectricLocomotive
St.Louis,Missouri
Thebulldognosed,darkgreenmachineabroadyellowstriperunningdownitsside,"GM"onitssnoutrolledoutofGeneralMotors'sprawlingElectroMotive
Division(EMD)plantatLaGrange,Illinois,inNovember1939.Duringthenextelevenmonths,thisfourunitEMD103demonstratorlocomotivewouldsailthrough
an83,000mile(133,500km)roadtesttobecometheprototypefortheworld'sfirstmassproduceddieselfreightlocomotives.Inshortorder,dieselwouldtriumph
oversteamtousherinaneweraforAmerica'sfreighthaulingrailroads.
No.103(itsshopserialnumber)wasthebrainchildofElectroMotivechiefengineerRichardM.Dilworth.Itconsistedoffour1,350horsepower(1,007kW)units
foratotalhorsepowerof5,400(4,027kW).Eachunitwascarriedontwo
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ThebulldognosedElectroMotiveFTdieselelectriclocomotive.
4wheeltrucks,withatractionmotorforeachaxle.Thisdesigndifferedsignificantlyfromthatofpassengerdiesels(two6wheeltrucks,eachwithtwodrivingaxles
andacenter,idleraxle),andprovidedmoretractivepower.And,whileEMDpassengerdieselsweregearedtorunamaximumof117milesperhour(188km/hr),
theFTwasheldto75milesperhour(121km/hr),resultingingreatertractiveeffortatlowspeeds.
EMDinvitedrailroadstotryitoutontheirlines.FromNovember1939toOctober1940,theexperimentalunitranfreighthaulsinthirtyfivestatesover83,000miles
(133,500km)oftrackontwentyClass1railroads.Oneroadafteranotherchallengedthe103withsteepgrades,tightcurves,extremetemperatures,andcapacity
tonnage.
Thebarnstormingdieselconsistentlybeatsteamschedulesforcomparabletonnagehauls,provingDilworth'sclaimthattheNo.103wassuperiortoanysteamengine
inthecountryandputtingtorestquestionsaboutdiesel'sabilitytodohardwork.Thedieselwasalsoasteadyworker,neveroncemissingitsassignedrunand
stoppingforfuelonlyonceevery500miles(805km).Besidessavingsinfuel(dieselfuelcostswereabouthalfthoseofsteam),railroadsstoodtorealizeadditional
savingsfromtheeliminationofwatertanks,ashpits,coalingtowers,roundhouses,andothercostlysteamsupportequipment.
No.103andits1,350horsepower(1,007kW)FTsiblingsweresubsequentlyreplacedbyother,morepowerfuldiesellocomotives.Butthealmost1,100member
fleethadalongandusefullife.The103unitsbecameSouthernRailwayNos.6100,6150,6151,and6104,servingonSouthern'sCincinnati,NewOrleans,&Texas
Pacificlineuntilretirementin1960.SoutherndonatedtheNo.6100totheNationalMuseumofTransportnearSt.Louisin1961.
Page275
Location/Access
EMD103(previouslySouthernRailwayNo.6100)isonpermanentdisplayattheNationalMuseumofTransport,3015BarrettStationRoad,St.Louis,MO63122
phone(314)9657998.ThemuseumcontainsalargeassortmentoflocomotivesandrailroadrollingstockfromthepreCivilWareratothe1950saswellasexhibits
ofothertransportationmodes.Hours:daily,9A.M.to5P.M.Admissionfee.
FurtherReading
DavidP.Morgan,"TheDieselthatDidIt,"Trains,February1960,1825.
FranklinM.Reck,TheDilworthStory:TheBiographyofRichardDilworth,PioneerDeveloperoftheDieselLocomotive(NewYork:McGrawHillBookCompany,
Inc.,1954).
FranklinM.Reck,OnTime:TheHistoryofElectroMotiveDivisionofGeneralMotorsCorporation(LaGrange,Ill.:ElectroMotiveDivisionofGeneralMotors
Corp.,1948).
Roanoke,Virginia
In1944RailwayAgedescribedthecharacteristicsofthemodernsteampassengerlocomotive.Itwouldhavetheabilitytohaulheavytrainsonsteepgradesif
necessaryatspeedsoffrom45to70milesperhour(72to113km/hr),adesignsuitablefortopspeedsof90to100milesperhour(145to161km/hr),andthe
abilitytorunoverlongdistances,dayinanddayout,withonlyminorterminalservicing.Itwouldbeofthe484type,of70,000pounds(31,750kg)tractiveforce,
withatotalweight(engineandtender)ofmorethan800,000pounds(362,800kg).Anditwouldhavemechanicallubricationforallmajormovingparts,sothatit
couldoperatemorethan1,000miles(1,609km)withoutreplenishmentofoilreservoirs.
RailwayAgemightwellhavebeendescribingNorfolk&Western'sClassJlocomotive,amongthemostadvancedandpowerfulofany484passengerlocomotive,
designedbytherailroad'sRoanoke(Virginia)Shopsandbuilttherebetween1941and1950.Theirsuperbperformanceandreliabilityallowedthemtooperate
15,000miles(24,000km)permonth,evenontheN&W'srelativelyshort,mountainousroutes,delayingthedaywhendieselelectricswouldprevail.
TheJwasdesignedforamaximumtractiveeffortof80,000pounds(36,287kg),thegreatestofany484.Undercontrolledtests,theJrealizedanaveragedrawbar
horsepowerof5,028(3,749kW)ataspeedof41milesperhour(66km/hr)aperformanceunsurpassedeventodaybymodernsingleunitdiesellocomotives
andpulleda15car,1,015ton(921t)passengertrainatspeedsupto110milesperhour(177km/hr)onlevel,tangenttrack.

teachers
Page276
Norfolk&WesternNo.611beingfiredupforanexcursionrunat
Lynchburg,Virginia,in1983.
Inadditiontoproducingahightractiveeffort,theJ'scomparativelysmall,70inch(1,780mm)driversallowedtheboilertobeunusuallylargeindiameterwithout
exceedingtheN&W'sclearancelimits.TheJalsohadthelargestfireboxandlongestcombustionchamberofany484burningeasternbituminouscoal.Aunique
siderodanddrivercounterbalancingdesign,togetherwithstiffenedcenteringoftheleadingandtrailingtrucks,permittedspeedsinexcessof100milesperhour(161
km/hr),whileamechanical,pressurizedlubricationsystem,feedingoilto220points,allowedtheenginestooperate1,300miles(2,092km)betweenrefills.
Foruptoeighteenyears,theJspulledthePowhatanArrow,Pocahontas,andCavalierontheirdailyrunsbetweenNorfolkandCincinnati.Theyalsoranonthe
Specifications
Builder:Norfolk&WesternRoanoke(Virginia)Shops(1950)
Type:484
Cylinders:27inchesby32inches(686mmby813mm)
Drivers:70inches(1,778mm)
Boilerpressure:300psig(2,068kPa)
Engineweight:494,000lbs.(224,073kg)
Engineandtenderweight:889,260lbs.(403,359kg)
Tractiveeffort:80,000lbs.(36,287kg)
Page277
N&WportionofthejointN&WSouthernRailwayroutes,pullingthePelican,BirminghamSpecial,andTennesseanbetweenWashington,D.C.,andsouthern
cities.
TheNorfolk&Westernwasthelastmajorrailroadtoconverttodieselpower,finallydiscontinuingsteamoperationin1960.TheN&WRoanokeShopsbuiltthelast
standardgaugesteamlocomotiveintheUnitedStates080switcherNo.244inDecember1953.Inall,thecraftsmenoftheRoanokeShopsbuilt447steam
locomotivesoversixtynineyears.
In1959Norfolk&WesterndonatedNo.611,thesolesurvivoroffourteenClassJlocomotives,tothecityofRoanoke.From1981to1982,fortheoccasionofthe
city'sonehundrethbirthday,therailroad(nowNorfolkSouthernCorporation)restoredthe611tooperatingcondition.Itpulledexcursiontrainsuntil1994,when
NorfolkSouthernceasedthistypeofoperation.No.611'slastrunwastotheVirginiaMuseumofTransportationinRoanoke.
Location/Access
No.611wasdonatedtotheVirginiaMuseumofTransportation,303NorfolkAvenue,S.W.,Roanoke,VA24016phone(540)3425670.Hours:Monday
Saturday,10A.M.to5P.M.,andSunday,noonto5P.M.
FurtherReading
ArthurM.Bixby,Jr.,"TheNorfolk&Western'sRoanokeShopsandItsLocomotives,"RailroadHistory137(Autumn1977):2037.
LewisInglesJeffries,N&W:GiantofSteam(Boulder,Colo.:PruettPublishingCo.,1980).
O.WinstonLinkandTimHensley,Steam,Steel&Stars(NewYork:HarryN.Abrams,Inc.,1987).
RichardE.Prince,Norfolk&WesternRailway,PocahontasCoalCarrier(Millard,Neb.:R.E.Prince,1980).
RonRosenbergwithEricH.Arthur,Norfolk&WesternSteam(TheLast25Years)(NewYork:QuadrantPress,1973).
SouthernPacificNo.4294"CabinFront"ArticulatedSteamLocomotive
Sacramento,California
SouthernPacificNo.4294,a4882"cabinfront"articulatedlocomotivebuiltin1944bytheBaldwinLocomotiveWorksofEddystone,Pennsylvania,isthesole
survivorofitstype.Itrepresentstheculminationofaseriesofcabinfrontsteamlocomotivesthatgrewoutoftheeverincreasingdemandsforgreatertractivepower
andtheneedtoreduceheatandsmokeinthecab,especiallyinthe38mile(61km)seriesofsnowshedsbetweenTruckeeandBlueCanyoninCali
Page278
SouthernPacificNo.4294"CabinFront"articulatedsteamlocomotive.
fornia,ontheSacramentoRenoline,wheredriftsupto200feet(61m)pileupinthepasses.
In1909,facedwithmovingeverincreasingtonnageovertheSierras,theSouthernPacificorderedtwoMalletcompound2882locomotivesfromBaldwin,Class
MC1,Nos.4000and4001.Thesewerereallytwoenginesinoneoneboilerservedtwopairsofcylindersdrivingindependentgroupsofwheels.Functionally,the
newlocomotivesliveduptoexpectations.Problemsarose,however,whentheywereoperatedthroughsnowshedsandtunnels.Thehotgasesoftheexhaustalmost
asphyxiatedtheenginecrew.
Specifications
SouthernPacificNo.4294,ClassAC12"CabinFront"Locomotive
Builder:BaldwinLocomotiveWorks(1944),Eddystone,Pennsylvania
Type:4882
Engineandtenderlength:125.5feet(38.2m)
Drivers:63inches(1,600mm)
Cylinders(4):24by32inches(610by810mm)
Engineweight:657,900pounds(298,417kg)
Engineandtenderweight:1,046,900pounds(474,861kg)
Boilerpressure:250psig(1,723.7kPa)
Tractiveeffort:124,300pounds(56,381kg)
Page279
CharlesBrowning,Jr.,engineeroftestsandchiefchemistintheSP'sSacramentoShops,madeadaringsuggestion:turnthelocomotivearoundandrunwiththecabin
front,withthecrewaheadoftheheatandsmoke.ThiswaspossiblebecausetheSPburnedoilinsteadofcoal.Withoil,itwouldnotmatterwhetherthetenderwas
adjacenttothecabandfirebox.HowardStillman,SPchiefmechanicalengineer,directedthedraftingofnewplanswithcabsinfront.
Baldwindelivered15ClassMC2locomotivesofthenewdesign,Nos.40024016,latein1909.Thesefollowedthebasicspecificationsoftheearlierlocomotives
butwereslightlyheavier.Theyallowedtheengineerandfiremantoseefartherdownthetrackandeliminatedtheproblemofheatandsmokeinthecab.(Notallcrew
membersapprovedsomebelievedtheywouldbemorevulnerableintheeventofacollision.Oneenginemanreportedlytoldhisroadforeman,''Idon'twanta
cabooseinmylapsomeday,"towhichtheroadforemanreplied,"Mister,ifyoudoyourjobright,thatwon'thappen.")AllbuttwelveofSP'ssubsequentarticulated
locomotiveswerebuiltwithcabsinfront.TheycametoserveasakindoftrademarkoftheSouthernPacific,theonlymajorrailroadintheUnitedStatestousethe
type.
In1927SPrebuiltNo.4041intoasimplearticulatedlocomotive,withallfourcylindersusinghighpressuresteam.Itwassosuccessfulthatplansweremadeto
converttheotherMalletstosimpleengines.Instead,asstateoftheartdetailsandapplianceswereaddedtotheplans,the4882ClassAC4emerged.Thisdesign
wasusedfor195locomotivesineightclasses,AC4throughAC8,andAC10throughAC12.Thesewerebuiltbetween1928and1944,andcarriedNos.4100
4294.Longandheavy,the4882swerethelargest,mostpowerfullocomotivesontheSouthernPacific.Theywereusedtohaulheavyfreightandpassengertrains
overthesteepgradesoftheSierraandCascademountains.Inall,Baldwinbuilt256cabinfrontlocomotivesfortheSouthernPacific.
ThelastsuchlocomotivetooperatewasNo.4274,onafarewellexcursionNovember30December1,1956.OnOctober19,1958,AC12No.4294,thelast
built(1944),wasplacedinthestationplazaatSacramento,nexttotheC.P.Huntington,asareminderofthedayswhentheyruledthesummits.Thetwo
locomotivesillustratedthebeginningandtheendofsteamontheSouthernPacific.BothhavesincebeenmovedtotheCaliforniaStateRailroadMuseum.
Location/Access
SouthernPacificNo.4294isnowonpermanentdisplayattheCaliforniaStateRailroadMuseum,whichoccupiesablocklongsitealongtheSacramentoRiverinOld
Sacramento.ExhibitsintheHistoryBuilding(111IStreet,Sacramento,CA95814)includetwentyonerestoredlocomotivesandrailroadcarsaswellasinterpretive
exhibitsonthehistoryofrailroadtravelinCaliforniaandtheWest.Hours:daily,10A.M.to5P.M.Admissionfee.Phone(916)4484466.
Page280
FurtherReading
G.M.Best,"TheSouthernPacificCompany,"TheRailwayandLocomotiveHistoricalSocietyBulletin94(March1956):7154.
JohnB.Hungerford,CabinFront:TheHalfCenturyStoryofanUnconventionalLocomotive(Reseda,Calif.:HungerfordPress,1959).
DisneylandMonorailSystem
Anaheim,California
DuringavisittoEuropeshortlyaftertheopeningofDisneylandin1955,DisneyengineerssawanexperimentalmonorailnearCologne,Germany.Developedby
SwedishindustrialistDr.AxelL.WennerGrenandbuiltbyAlwegCorporationin1957,the1.25mile(2km)linefeaturedlightweightcarsonrubbertiredwheels
travelingonaconcretebeamway.Disneyenvisionedasimilar,allelectric"highwayinthesky"thatwouldweavetogetherthemostambitiousexpansionprograminthe
youngpark'shistory.In1958DisneyandAlwegjoinedeffortstodevelopaworkingprototypeforDisneyland.
Theideaofarailwaywithonlyonerailinsteadoftwowasnotnew.EnglishengineerHenryRobinsonPalmerpatentedamonorailin1821thehorsedrawncarshung
downlikesaddlebagsonbothsidesofaframeworkcarryinganelevatedrail.FrenchmanC.F.M.T.Lartigueputasinglerailontopofaseriesoftriangulartrestles
andgavehiscarsverticalandlateralsupportanelectricLartiguelineopenedincentralFrancein1894.AdaptingtheLartiguedesign,F.B.Behrbuilta3mile(4.8
km)electriclinenearBrusselsin1897.Theworld'soldestoperatingmonorail,the8.25mile(13km)SchwebebahninWuppertal,Germany,openedin1901ituses
carshungfromanoverheadrail.
The2/3scalecircularlineatDisneyland,openedin1959,consistedofeighttenthsofamile(1.3km)oftrackandtwotrains.Thecarswereequippedwith600volt,
directcurrent,100horsepower(75kW)tractionmotors.Thecarsstraddledasingle,Ishaped,reinforcedconcretebeamway.Eachtruckhadsixrubbertired
wheelstwodrivingandbrakingwheelsontopofthebeamway,andtwoguidingandstabilizingwheelsoneachside.
TheDisneymonorailwoundaroundTomorrowland,overtheSubmarineLagoon,andpastareplicaoftheMatterhorn.UnliketheAlwegmonorail,whosebeamway
followedalongcurvewithoutgrades,theDisneyAlwegsystemwaspurposelydesignedtonegotiatesharpcurvesandclimbgradesofupto7percent,togivevisitors
aninterestingride.Topspeedwasabout20milesperhour(32km/hr).
In1961themonorailwasextendedtoalengthof2.5miles(4km),linkingtheparkwiththenearbyDisneylandHotel.Foritsmanylong,straightsections,
Page281
TheDisneylandmonorailwindspasttheMatterhorn
attheAnaheim,California,themepark.
thenewlineusedprestressedconcretegirderstosupportthebeamway.Topspeedincreasedto45milesanhour(72km/hr).
ThenewestDisneytrains,operatingatDisneylandandotherDisneyparks,featurefiberglassbodies,makingthemlighterandmoreenergyefficientthantheir
predecessors,whileanonboardcomputersystemcontrolstrainfunctionsandkeepsdailymaintenancerecords.DesignedbyWaltDisneyImagineering,thenewtrains
weremanufacturedbyMesserschmitt,Bolkow&BlohmofGermanyusingthesamebasicrunninggearastheoriginaltrains.
Location/Access
Disneylandislocatedat1313HarborBoulevard,Anaheim,CA92803phone(714)9994565.TaketheAnaheimexitoftheSantaAnaFreeway(I5).Hours:year
round:MondayFriday,10A.M.to7P.M.,andSaturdayandSunday,10A.M.to6P.M.extendedsummerhours:MondayFriday,9A.M.to10P.M.,Saturday
untilmidnight,andSundaytill10P.M.Admissionfee.
FurtherReading
"Disneyland:BuildingforFunIsSeriousWork,"EngineeringNewsRecord162(7May1959):3436.
"FunMonorailGrowsUptoRapidTransit,"EngineeringNewsRecord166(8June1961):3839.
Page282
ROADANDOFFROADTRANSPORTATION
Introduction
byR.MichaelHunt
Threeofthelandmarksinthissectionillustratetheinventionandapplicationofthe"crawler"track.Toanyonewhohaswatchedabulldozeratworkorseenmilitary
tanksracingacrossaruggedlandscape,thecrawlertrackmayseemaratherobviousdevice.Butitwasnotinventeduntilthebeginningofthetwentiethcenturyand
thenappearedalmostsimultaneouslyinMaineandCalifornia.
Considertheprocessofpracticalinvention.First,therehastobeaproblemthatneedstobesolvedorasignificantbenefittobegained.Then,thereneedstobe
someonewithapossiblesolution,whohassufficientpersistenceandresourcestobringthesolutiontoatleastthepointwhereitcanbedemonstrated.Andthe
technologybasemustbetherewiththematerials,processes,andtoolsrequired.Itisnoaccidentthattheperiodfromabout1875through1925wasthegoldenageof
mechanicalinvention.Bythen,themodernmaterials(e.g.,steelandaluminum)werebecomingreadilyavailable,analyticalmethodshadprogressedsothatthestrength
andperformanceofmachinescouldbeassessedinadvancewithoutthecutandtryapproachofearlieryears,machinetoolsandfactoriescouldproducepartsingreat
quantitywithgreatprecision,thebaronsofbusinesswerereadytoinvestheavilywhenfacedwiththeprospectoflargeprofits,andthetelegraphandtelephonekept
peopleinformedofthelatestdevelopmentswherevertheyhappened.Giventheneedfortherightinfrastructure,itisnotsurprisingthenthatsimilarinventionsoften
appearedindifferentplacesataboutthesametime.Inaddition,therewasnoalternativetomechanicaltechnologyinthateraifamachinehadtoperformcomplex
operations,thenimplementationhadtobebymechanicalmeans.
Tosetthestage,imaginethatitisnowthebeginningofthetwentiethcentury:GottliebDaimlerhasdemonstratedthataninternalcombustionenginemaybeusedto
moveavehicle,andHenryFordhasdemonstratedhis"Quadracycle."Butthesevehiclesarepunyandprimitive,littlemorethangasolineen
Page283
gined,fourwheeledbicycles.Forrealhauling,tractionenginessteerablesteamlocomotivesrunningonaroadareking.Buttheyarebigandveryheavy.
Woodisingreatdemand.Therisingexpectationsandincomesoftheworkingandmiddleclassescreateanenormousdemandforlumberforconstructionaswellas
woodforfurnitureandotherproducts.InthenorthwoodsofMaine,thetractionengineshaulingthelumberoutbogdownasthesnowfalls,thegroundthaws,orthe
rainscome.Tospreadtheloadonthereardrivingwheelsoveralargerareasothattheywillbelesspronetosinkintothetrails,AlvinLombardin1903introducesan
enginewithlongflexibletractionbeltsreplacingtherearwheels.Thefrontwheels,whichsteerthevehicle,arereplacedwithasled.By1915morethantwohundred
havebeensoldforlogging.ButLombarddoesnotexploitthecrawlertrack,andthehauleriseventuallyreplacedbythetruck.Ironically,itisthebulldozerthat
constructsgoodloggingroads,whichmakeshaulingbytruckpractical.
InCalifornia'sSanJoaquinvalley,thereismuchrichlandthatistoosofttobefarmedbyheavysteamtractionengines,evenwhenequippedwithlarge,widewheels.
In1904BenjaminHoltdevisestrackstoreplacethedrivingwheels,retainingthefrontwheelsforsteering.Intime,thesteamengineisreplacedbythegasolineengine,
thenthediesel,and"caterpillar"tractorsaresteeredbyspeedinguporslowingdownthetrackononesideofthevehiclerelativetotheother,soeliminatingthefront
wheels.By1920theessentialconfigurationevolvedtothedesignfamiliartoday,andthecompanycontinuesasCaterpillar,Inc.
Returningtothepresentday,thetransportersofCapeKennedyareauniqueapplicationofthecrawlertrack.Thelaunchrocketsareassembledverticallyand
launchedvertically.Thequestionishowtomoverocketsfromassemblytolaunchwhilekeepingthemvertical.Theansweristobuildthemonalargeplatformthatis
carefullyliftedandmaintainedlevelasitisslowlytransportedtothelaunchsite.Herethecrawlertreadsareonepossiblesolutiontosupportingtheweightand
providingthetraction.Theiradvantageisthattheyspreadtheloadoveralargeareasothatthecostoftheroadwayiskeptlow,andtheyaverageouttheeffectofany
slightbumps.
Thefourthlandmarkislessvisiblethanthecrawlertrack.Liftyourfootfromtheacceleratorpedalinagasolineenginedcarandyoufeeltheenginehelpingtoslowto
you.Thiseffectismuchreducedinadieselengine,withitsunrestricted,unthrottledairintake,placingmorerelianceonthebrakesofadieselpoweredvehiclesuchas
alargetruck.Brakesconvertthekinetic(moving)energyofavehicleintoheatandbecomelesseffectivewhenusedforlongperiodsbecausetheybecomehot.This
characteristicisunimportantinmostdrivingsituationsbecausethebrakescooldownbetweenuses,buttherecanbeasignificantlossofbrakingpower("fade")on
longdowngrades.TheJacobsbrakeaddressedthisneedbyalteringthevalvetiminginadieselenginesothattheenginecompressionprovidesbraking.Interestingly,
ClessieCummins'sinventionwasrecognizedbyacompanyoutsidetheengineindustryandnotbythebigplayers.
Page284
LombardSteamLogHauler
Patten,Maine
TheLombardsteamloghauleremancipatedhorsesfromthekillingworkofhaulingsledsoflogsoverroughroadsinthenorthwoodsandgreatlyexpandedthearea
fromwhichtimbercouldbeprofitablyharvested.DesignedandpatentedbyAlvinO.Lombard(18561937),thissteampoweredhaulerwasthefirstpracticalvehicle
employingthelag,orcrawler,treadthatwouldbecomestandardforenginedrivenagriculturalandconstructionequipment,andmilitarytanks.
LumberinginMainewaslimitedtotimbergrowingnearenoughtowatertopermititstransportationbyhorseoroxentostreamsorriversonwhichitcouldthenbe
floatedtosawmills.Onlythosevaritiesthatwouldfloatspruce,fir,cedar,andpinewereharvested,leavinguncountedacresofmaple,birch,beech,andash,
which,withtheequipmentthenavailable,couldnotbebroughttomarket.Withthedevelopmentoftheselfpropelledvehicleinthe1890s,thetimewasripefora
mechanicalmeansofhaulinglogs.Butaloghaulermustrunonsnow,ice,andmuddyroads,andthewheelsofthehorselesscarriagewouldnotprovidethenecessary
tractionorbearing.
JohnsonWoodbury,afarmerandmillwrightlivinginPatten,Maine,attemptedtosolvetheproblem.Hewasinspiredbyatreadmillusedtoprovidepowerfora
threshingmachine,theessentialfeatureofwhichwasanendlessbeltofwoodenlagsrunningovertwopairsoftruckstowhichthelagsweregeared.But
ThesteampoweredLombardloghauler,developedbyMainemechanic
AlvinO.Lombardin1900,greatlyexpandedtheareafromwhichtimber
couldbeharvestedprofitably.
Page285
withoutthefundsorfacilitiestodevelopatractorthatwouldrunonsnow,Woodbury'splanlanguished.HereputedlyrelatedhisideatoAlvinO.Lombard,a
Watervillemechanicwhoalreadyhadseveralinventionstohiscredit.Lombardwenttoworkwithsuchdiligencethat,legendhasit,heemergedfromhisshoptwo
dayslaterwithadrawingandaworkingmodelofatractionengineforhaulinglogs.HearrangedfortheWatervilleIronWorkstobuildaprototype,andon
ThanksgivingDay1900,thefirstmachinemadeitstrialrun.
Lombard'scontributionwasnottheenginebutthemeansoflocomotion.Patentedin1901(No.674,737),hisinventionconsistedofthreeparts:acarriageanda
tractionmemberoneachsideofthecarriage.Eachtractionmemberconsistedoftwocoggeddrivingwheelsaflexibletractionbelt,whichfitoverandmeshedwith
thedrivingwheelsandtwoantifrictionrollerbelts.Thetractionbeltsconsistedofaseriesofcoggedsectionswithribbedfaces.Thislagtractortreadkeptthemachine
fromslippingandsliding,andassuredsolidfootingforthehauler.
ThesteampoweredLombardhaulercouldmakeitswaythroughthewoodswith300tons(272t)oflogsataspeedof4to5milesperhour(6to8km/hr).Ithauled
logsontrainsofbobsleds,averaging8sledstoatrain,althoughongoodroadsitcouldhaultrainsof10or12.Coalwastheusualfuel,butonsmallerjobsmany
haulersburnedwood.ALombardcrewconsistedofan"engineer,"afireman,aconductor,andasteerer.
Followingsaleofthefirstloghaulerin1903toaloggerinWaterville,Maine,LombardsrapidlycameintogeneraluseintheloggingregionsofthenorthernUnited
States.In1904LombardgrantedalicensetothePhoenixManufacturingCompanyofEauClaire,Wisconsin,tomanufacturetheloghaulersinexchangeforaroyalty
feeof$1,000perengine.By1915,morethantwohundredLombardloghaulershadbeensold.Thefirstsuchmachineshadanuprightboilerandtwouprightengines
theseweresoonreplacedbyahorizontalboilerandengine.Later,gasolineenginesreplacedsteam.In1934Lombardbuiltadieselpoweredloghauler,butbythen
heavytruckshadmadetheloghaulerobsolete.Thefirstdieselloghaulerwasalsothelast.
AfewsurvivorsstillstandintheMainewoods,abandonedandrusting.Afewothersarepreservedinmuseums.
Location/Access
ALombardsteamloghauler,restoredtorunningcondition,isondisplayatthePattenLumberman'sMuseum,ShinPondRoad,Patten,Maine04765phone(207)
5282650.Hours:MemorialDayLaborDay:TuesdaySunday,10A.M.to4P.M.Admissionfee.(AgasolineLombardisintheMaineStateMuseuminAugusta.)
FurtherReading
WalterM.MacDougall,"Lombard'sIronMonster,"Yankee,March1965,72.
Page286
HoltCaterpillarTractor
Stockton,California
AlthoughAlvinO.LombardofMainewasthefirsttomanufacturesteamengineswithcrawlertracks(see"LombardSteamLogHauler,"p.284),hisinventionwas
limitedtologging.OntheWestCoast,BenjaminHolt(18491920),presidentoftheHoltManufacturingCompanyofStockton,California,developedthemodern,
allpurpose,tracktypetractortomeetthedemandsforpowercreatedbylargescalefarming.TheCaterpillartractorwouldrevolutionizeagriculture,theconstruction
industry,evenmilitarywarfare.
Duringthe1890s,Holtmanufacturedmammothsteampoweredtractionenginestoreplacehorsesinpullingfarmmachinery.Buttheheavymachinesmireddownin
thesoftsoilofCalifornia'sSanJoaquinDeltaconventionalwheelssimplyhadtoolittlegroundbearingsurface.Tosolvethisproblem,in1904Holthadhismechanics
removethereardrivewheelsononeofhisenginesandreplacethemwithapairoftracks9feetlongand24incheswide(274by610mm).Thetrackshoesconsisted
of2by4inch(50by100mm)woodenslatsboltedtoanendlesschaindrivenbysprockets.Theresultwastheworld'sfirstpracticaltracktypetractor.Watching
thetractorreturnfromitsfirstfieldtest,companyphotographerCharlesClementsobserved,"Itcrawlsjustlikeacaterpillar.""Caterpillaritis,"Holtreplied."That'sthe
nameforit.''
Thetracktypetractor'suniqueabilitytotraversedifficultterrainmadeitidealforfarming,logging,roadbuilding,andmovingdirtoncanalandirrigation
HoltCaterpillarTractor.
Page287
projects.FarmImplementNews(1905)describedHolt'sachievement,observingthat,onlandwherepeoplecouldnotwalkwithoutsinkingtotheirknees,"thenew
tractionenginewasoperatedwithoutaperceptibleimpressionintheground.
Thistractoflandhadbeenuselessforcropraisingforseveralyearsbecausenowaywasfoundtoplowit,buttheplatformwheelenginehasbroughtthelandintouse
again."
Aftertestingsixdifferentmodelsoftracktypesteamengines,Holtsolditsfirstmachinesin1906toaLouisianadeveloperforuseinclearinglandintheMississippi
Delta.Twoyearslater,LosAngelescityengineerWilliamE.MulhollandusedHolttractorstohelpbuildthe233mile(375km)LosAngelesAqueductacrossthe
MojaveDesert,firmlyestablishingtheCaterpillar'sreputation.DuringWorldWarI,theAmerican,British,French,andRussiangovernmentspurchasedthousandsof
Holtcrawlertractorsforhaulingartilleryandsupplies.BritishArmyGeneralErnestD.SwintoncreditedtheCaterpillartracktypetractorforgivinghimtheideafora
newweapon,thearmoredtank.
TheHolt"75"Caterpillartractor,builtin1920,isrepresentativeoftheearliestgasolinepowered,tracktypetractors.OfallthemodelsoftracktypetractorsHolt
builtbetween1904and1925,model75,designedfor"largerfarmsorbiggerpowerjobs,"accordingtoanearlyHoltadvertisement,wasthemostwidelyused.(The
number75indicatedtheunit'shorsepower.)Thetractor,withitsfourcylinderengine,wasusedonafarminSanJoaquinCounty.Inthemid1950s,HoltBros.,a
CaterpillardealershipinStockton,purchaseditfordisplayintheirshowroom.Itremainedthereuntil1974,whenitwaspresentedtothePioneerMuseum(nowthe
HagginMuseum)inStockton,California.
TheCaterpillarTractorCompany,organizedin1925,consolidatedtheHoltandBesttractorcompanies,longtimerivals.TodayCaterpillarInc.,withheadquartersin
Peoria,Illinois,isamultinationalcompany.Caterpillar'ssixtythousandemployeesworldwidedesign,manufacture,andmarketearthmoving,construction,and
materialshandlingmachinery,andenginesforawidevarietyofapplications.
Location/Access
TheHoltCaterpillarisondisplayintheHoltMemorialHallattheHagginMuseum,1201NorthPershingAvenue,Stockton,CA95203phone(209)4624116or
4621566.HoltMemorialHallillustratesthecontributionofStocktonindustrytoagriculturalandindustrialtechnology.Alsoondisplayarea1904HainesHouser
combineandBenjaminHolt'sexperimentalshop.Hours:TuesdaySunday,1:30P.M.to5P.M.closedMondays.
FurtherReading
ReynoldM.Wik,BenjaminHoltandCaterpillar:TracksandCombines(St.Joseph,Mo.:AmericanSocietyofAgriculturalEngineers,1984).
Page288
JacobsEngineBrakeRetarder
Bloomfield,Connecticut
Long,steepdownhillgradesprovideanxiousmomentsfortruckdriversandaddextrahoursbehindthewheel.TheadventoftheJacobsenginebrakeretarder
betterknownastheJakeBrakeputanendtotheanxietyand,atthesametime,safelyraisedaveragespeedsbyconvertingthepowerproducingdieselengineintoa
powerabsorbingaircompressor.
Theneedforanenginebrakeretarderwasdramaticallyandterrifyinglydemonstratedtoitsinventor,ClessieL.Cummins,in1931.Cumminsandtwoassociates
weretryingtoprovetheworthoftheautomotivedieselenginebydrivingaCumminsdieselpoweredtruckfromNewYorktoLosAngeles.DescendingCajonPass,
a35mile(56km)stretchofmountainousdowngradeonoldU.S.66leadingintoSanBernardino,California,thebrakeswouldnothold,andCumminscouldnotget
thetruckintoalowergear.Cumminsnarrowlymissedcollidingwithafreighttraincrossingtheroadaheadofhim.Thetrucksetanewcoasttocoastspeedrecord.
Itsdriver,meanwhile,vowedsomedaytomakeitsdieselengineworkgoingdownhilljustaswellasgoinguphill.
Itiseasytousethegasolineengineasabrakebysimplyclosingthethrottleandallowingthewheelstodrivetheenginetheenergythatthewheelshavetoprovideto
drawtheairpasttheclosedthrottleissufficienttoslowthevehicledownwithoutthedrivertouchingthebrakes.Adieselengine,however,hasnothrottle.
Theoretically,adieselenginecouldbeusedasabrakeiftheexhaustvalvewerekeptclosedduringwhatnormallywouldbetheexhauststroke,untilthepiston
reachedtheendofthestroke.Atthatpoint,theexhaustvalvewouldbe
TheJacobsenginebrakeretarder,betterknownastheJakeBrake.
Page289
TheEnginewithouttheJakeBrake
Duringthepiston'snormalcompressionstroke(2),aircompressedinthecylindersraisesinternaltemperaturetoalmost1,000F(537C).Atthis
point,fuelisinjectedandcombustionoccurs,raisingthetemperatureevenfurther.Pressurefromthisexpandedgasforcesthepistondown(3)
Theenginehasthusproducedthepositivepowerneededtoturnthecrankshaft.
TheEnginewiththeJakeBrake
ThekeytotheJakeBrake'sperformanceistheslavepiston.Hydraulicallyactuated,theslavepistonopenstheengine'sexhaustvalve(2A)
neartheendofthecompressionstroke.Thecompressedair,whichnormallyforcesthepistondowneventhoughnofuelisadded,isventedthrough
theexhaustsystem(2A).Byreleasingthisenergy,theJakeBrakepreventsanypositivepowerfrombeingexertedonthepiston.Thevehicle's
forwardmomentumprovidestheenergyneededtoreturnthepistontoitsbottomposition(3A),thuscompletingtheprocessofgeneratingmaximum
retardingpowerwithaJakeBrake.
Source:JacobsEngineBrakeRetarder,Bloomfield,Connecticut,October17,1985,commemorativebrochure(NewYork:TheAmericanSocietyof
MechanicalEngineers,n.d.).
Page290
opened,releasingtheaircompressedinthecylinder.Then,whenthepistondescendedonwhatnormallywouldbethefollowingpowerstroke,thepressureinthe
cylinderwouldbeinsufficienttopowerthevehiclewheels.
Toaccomplishthis,thenaturalmotionoftherockerarm,whichisarrangedtokeeptheexhaustvalveclosed,wouldhavetobeovercome.Earlierattemptsbyother
inventorstoproduceadieselenginebrakeinvolvedcomplicatedarrangementsthatalteredthevalvecontrollingmechanism.Cumminswantedtoavoidthisbytaking
advantageoftheexisting,andperfectlytimed,motionofthedieselengine.
Beginningin1955,Cummins,nowretired,studiedconceptsbasedonhydraulicallytransferringatimingsignalfromanenginedrivenpump.Butthesignalprovidedby
thismethodwasnotsufficientlyaccurate.In1957,duringasleeplessnight,Cumminsseizedonanidea:Whynottakeadvantageoftheaccuratetimingsignalprovided
bythecamthatdrivesthefuelinjectors?Atthemomentthatitwouldbenecessarytoopentheexhaustvalveinthebrakingmode,theinjectorcamforthatcylinder
wouldbepoisedtooperatetheinjector(butnottoinjectfuel).Cumminsfirstproposedtotransferthismotionmechanically,buthydraulictransferprovedmore
practical.
Howdoesitwork?Aswitchonthedashboardactivatesthebrake,openingtheexhaustvalveneartheendoftheupwardpistonstroke.Thestoredenergyinthe
cylinderisreleasedtotheatmospherethroughtheexhaustpipecreatingthecharacteristicpoppingnoisewhenatruckdescendsasteephillinsteadofbeing
transmittedtothewheelsofthevehicle(seesidebar).Whenthedrivernolongerrequiresbrakingaction,theswitchisoperatedagain,andthepressureisremoved
fromthehydraulicsystem.
ThefirstenginebrakeretarderoftheprototypedesignwasinstalledonaSheldonOilCompanytruckinSuisun,California,in1959.Whendeliveringoiltoanasphalt
plantatthefootoftheSierrasnearLakeTahoe,theveterandrivernormallywasforcedtopasstheturnofftotheplantandcomebackwhenthetruckhadslowed
enoughtoturnaround!Withtheenginebrake,thedriverneededtousehiswheelbrakesbrieflyonlytwotimesonthedescentandmadetheturnoffeasily.
CumminsEngineCompany(towhomClessieCumminswascontractuallyboundtoshowhisideas)andothermanufacturersof"threecam"dieselenginesturneddown
theopportunitytobuyorlicensetheidea.ButJacobsManufacturingCompany,aleadingmakerofdrillchuckslookingtodiversify,purchasedanoptiononthe
inventionand,followingfurthertesting,establishedanewdivisiontomanufacturethebrakein1960.ThefirstproductionunitsfortheCumminsNHseriesenginesleft
thefactoryin1961.
Today,JakebrakeretardersareavailableforallmajorU.S.makesofheavydutydieseltruckengines.TheyarealsostandardonseveralU.S.militaryvehicles.
Cummins'sideaformakingadieselengineworkdownhillaswellasuphillhascontributedtogreatercontrolandsaferoperationofheavytrucksworldwide.
Page291
Location/Access
TheJacobsenginebrakeretarderisdisplayedinthelobbyoftheJacobsManufacturingCompany,22EastDudleyTownRoad,Bloomfield,CT06002phone(203)
2431441.
FurtherReading
C.LyleCummins,Jr.,"AHistoryoftheJacobsEngineBrake,"DieselCarDigest6(Winter1981):1824.
C.LyleCummins,Jr.,andG.S.Haviland,"TheJacobsEngineBrakeANewConceptinVehicleRetarders,"paper#387A,presentedattheSocietyof
AutomotiveEngineersnationalmeeting,Portland,Oregon,August1961(availableSAEInternational,400CommonwealthDrive,Warrendale,PA15096).
CrawlerTransportersofLaunchComplex39
JohnF.KennedySpaceCenternearTitusville,Florida
OnMay25,1961,PresidentJohnF.KennedytoldCongress:"Ibelievethatthisnationshouldcommititselftoachievingthegoal,beforethisdecadeisout,oflanding
amanonthemoonandreturninghimsafelytoearth."CriticaltoAmerica'ssuccessfullandingonthemoonin1969wasthedevelopment,inthemid1960s,oftwo
crawlertransporters.These,theworld'slargestlandvehicles,solvedoneoftheNationalAeronauticalandSpaceAdministration'smostdifficultengineeringproblems:
howtomovethethirtysixstoryApolloSaturnspacevehiclefromtheVehicleAssemblyBuildingtothelaunchpadsoftheKennedySpaceCenter'sLaunchComplex
39.
Thetaskofselectinganddevelopingoneofthreetransportmethodsabargeandcanalsystem,arailsystem,oralandcrawlerfelltoDonaldBuchanan,the
mechanicalengineerwhowasthelaunchersystemsandumbilicaltowerdesignsectionchief.BucyrusErieCompanywasaskedtostudythecrawlerconceptafter
launchoperationsofficialsvisitedParadise,Kentucky,towatchaBucyrusEriecrawlershovel,usedforsurfaceminingcoal,inaction.InMay1962,BucyrusErie
madeitsfinalpresentationtotheNationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration(NASA).Theproposedcrawlerwouldtravel1mileperhour(1.6km/hr)under
load,whileahydrauliclevelingsystemwouldkeeptheplatformwithin10inches(254mm)ofthehorizontalwhenmovingona5percentgrade.Followingextensive
studiesofallthreeconcepts,Buchanandecidedonthecrawlertransporterbecauseofitsadvantagesofcostandflexibilityoverthebargeandrailsystems.
Withabidof$8million,MarionPowerShovelCompanywonacontracttodevelopandbuildtwocrawlertransporters.(Theawardwasnotwithoutcon
Page292
Largerthanabaseballinfield,thecrawlertransporter(here,withoutthethirtysixstory
ApolloSaturnspacevehicleitwasdesignedtotransport)makesitswayalongthe
specialroadbedofLaunchComplex39attheKennedySpaceCenter.CourtesyNASA.
troversyBucyrusEriebid$11million,closertotheeventual$13.6millionpricetag.)OhiobasedMarionhadexperiencebuildinglarge,selfpropelledstripmining
shovels,butthedesignandconstructionofalandvehicleexpectedtocarryaloadof8,800tons(8,000t)waswithoutprecedent.Eventhelargestminingshovelhada
chassisonly48feet(14.6m)squarebycomparison,thecrawlertransporterswouldbe131feetlongand114feetwide(39.9by34.7m).Thetrickiestfeatwas
balancingthethirtysixstoryApolloSaturnvehicle.Themotionofthetransporter,theheightoftheload,variationsintheleveloftheroadway,windallwould
combinetothrowthecargooffbalance.Marionhadtoadjustitsinitialdesigns,addingaseparatepowersystem,distinctfromthedieselenginesthatpoweredthe
treads,forloadleveling,jacking,steering,andventilating.
MarionbuiltthetwocrawlersinOhio,thentookthemapartforshipmenttoKennedySpaceCenter.Labordisputesdelayedthefirsttestofthevehiclefrom
November1964toJanuary1965.OnJanuary23,thecrawlertransportermovedunderitsownpowerforthefirsttime.Thegargantuantractorresembled"asteel
sandwichheldupatthecornersbyWorldWarItanks,"accordingtooneobserver.Itwaslargerthanabaseballinfieldandweighedcloseto3,000tons(2,720t).
Two2,750horsepower(2,051kW)dieselenginespowered16tractionmotors,whichmovedthe4doubletrackedtreads.Eachtreadhad57"shoes"eachshoe
mea
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sured1footby7.5feet(304mmby2,286mm)andweighed1ton(0.9t).Followingdelaystosolveaproblemwithbearingfriction,thefirstcrawlertransporterwas
readyforservicein1966.
Inthespaceshuttleera,thecrawlertransportershavebecometheworkhorsesofLaunchComplex39.Ateamofelevenengineersandtechniciansstationedinthe
crawlercab,ontheground,andinacentralcontrolroomoperatesthevehicle.Workingtogether,theypositionthecrawlerunderthemobilelaunchplatforminthe
VehicleAssemblyBuilding.Sixteenhydraulicjacks(fourateachcorner)raisethecrawlerupforcontactwiththemobilelauncher.Enroutetothelaunchpad,atripof
sevenhours,thecrawlertransporterdetectsanyunevennessinthespeciallydesigned"crawlerway,"orroadbedthelevelingsystemautomaticallymaintainsthemobile
launchplatformandlaunchvehiclewithinplusorminus10minutesofarci.e.,inthecaseoftheApolloSaturn,thetopofthe363foot(110m)spacevehicledid
notdeviatefromtheverticalbymorethanafoot(305mm).Onthelaunchpadramp,thesamesystemcompensatesforthe5percentgrade.
Oncethelauncherandspacevehiclearesetdownandboltedtothepadpedestals,thecrawlertransporterwithdrawstoasafedistance.Followinglaunch,the
operationisreversed,andthecrawlertransporterreturnsthemobilelaunchplatformtotheVehicleAssemblyBuilding.ThecrawlertransportersofLaunchComplex
39havecarriedalloftheApollo,Skylab,ApolloSoyuzTestProject,andspaceshuttlevehiclesfromtheVehicleAssemblyBuildingtothelaunchpad.
Location/Access
ThecrawlertransportersmaybeseenaspartofatwohourbustouroftheKennedySpaceCenterthatdepartsfromKSC'sVisitorCentereverytwentyminutes.
Informationandreservations:VisitorCenter,KennedySpaceCenter,Florida32899phone(407)4522121.
FurtherReading
CharlesD.BensonandWilliamBarnabyFaherty,Moonport:AHistoryofApolloLaunchFacilitiesandOperations,TheNASAHistorySeries(Washington,
D.C.:NationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration,1978).
Page294
AIRANDSPACETRANSPORTATION
Introduction
byJ.LawrenceLee
Whenonethinksofairlinesandspacecraft,itprobablyistheaeronauticalor,morerecently,aerospaceengineerwhofirstcomestomindasthedesignerofsuch
machines.Acloserlookoftenrevealsthatengineerspracticinginotherdisciplines,particularlymechanicalengineers,havemadeextensivecontributionstosuccessful
aircraftandspacecraft.Inseveralinstances,ithasbeenthemechanicalengineer'scontributionthatmadeaparticulardesignpractical,orevenpossible.
Initspurestsense,aeronauticalengineeringisconcernedwiththeflowofacompressiblefluidairaroundasolidobject.Itseekstoproduceavehicleofusefulsize
andproportion,maximizingitsliftandminimizingthedraguponit.Inasimilarmanner,aerospaceengineeringinitspurestformaddressestheadditionalrigorsofspace
travel.Tobuildapracticalvehicle,however,problemsmustbesolvedintheareasofstructuraldesign,materialsselection,avionics,andahostofmechanicaldevices
andsystems,suchasengines,landinggear,andcontrolsystems.TheHistoricMechanicalEngineeringLandmarksinthissectioncelebratesomeoftheflyingmachines
thatweremadepossiblelargelythroughbreakthroughsinmechanicaldesign.Thisisbynomeansintendedtobeacomprehensivelistoflandmarkaircraftand
spacecraftbutratherismeanttofocusonagroupofparticularmechanicalachievementsthathavecontributedgreatlytoourconquestofairandspace.
Probablythemostdistinctlymechanicaloftheflyingmachinesarehelicopters.Althoughtheyarenowcommon,theseversatilemachineswerevirtuallyunknownprior
toWorldWarII.ConceptualdesignsforsuchmachinesdatebacktotheRenaissance,butitwasIgorSikorsky'sVS300thatpioneeredthebasicdesignconcepts
forapracticalhelicopter.Thesecretofitssuccesswasinits
Page295
flexiblepowertransmissionandrotorcontrolmachinery.Similardesignscanbeseeninhelicoptersbeingproducedtoday.
Duringthe1960s,theworldwasamazedatpicturessentfromspacebySurveyor,Viking,andMarinerspacecraft,butfewknewthatthesevoyagesweremade
possiblebyaremarkablerocketenginecalledtheRL10.TheRL10poweredasecondstageboosterthatwaslaunchedatopanAtlasorTitanfirststagerocket
thus,itsoperationwasgenerallyoutofcamerarangeandusuallyunsung.Nevertheless,itwasamajoradvanceinrockettechnology,anditpavedthewayforlarger
hydrogenfueledengines,includingthespaceshuttlemainengines.
SomeofthemostpowerfulmachineseverbuilthavebeentherocketsusedtoboostspacecraftabovethelimitsofEarth'satmosphereintoorbitandbeyond.Rocket
boostersare,inreality,littlemorethanpowerfulengineswithlargefueltanks,buttheoperatingenvironmentsandexoticfuelsinvolvedmaketremendousdemandson
everycomponent.Thiswasstillayoungtechnologyinthe1950sand1960s,andtheengineerswhodesignedtheAtlasandSaturnVrocketswerecalleduponto
advancethattechnologyinverylargesteps.Thereweresomedramaticearlyfailures,butthesuccesswereextraordinarymomentsinengineeringaswellashuman
history.NoonewhowitnessedanAtlaslaunchingJohnGlennintoorbitaboardFriendship7ortheawesomespectacleofaSaturnVliftingApollo11anditscrew
towardthemooncouldpossiblyforgetit.
TheadvancesinairandspacetravelsincetheWrightbrothers'flightof1903havebeennothingshortofspectacular.Explorationoftheheavenswillundoubtedly
continuetostirourcuriosityandrenewtheexcitementofdiscoveryfordecades,perhapsevencenturies,tocome.Itistrulytheadventureofourage.Aswith
adventuresofthepast,newtechnologieswillberequiredtomakethesejourneyspossible,andengineerswillbecalledupontoprovidethem.Ifthelandmarks
describedhereareanyindicationofhowwellmechanicalengineerswillcontinuetomeetthesechallenges,thefutureofthisadventurelooksasbrightasarocket's
flame.
Page296
SikorskyVS300Helicopter
Dearborn,Michigan
TheFockeAchgelisFA61,firstflowninGermanyin1936,iswidelyconsideredtheworld'sfirstpracticalhelicopter.Withitstwosidebysiderotors,it
accomplishedmaneuversverticaltakeoffandlandinghoveringandforward,backward,andsidewaysflightnowtakenforgranted.ButIgorSikorsky'sVS300,
whichmadeitsmaidenflightfromthegroundsofVoughtSikorskyAircraftinStratford,Connecticut,onSeptember14,1939,openedthemodernphaseinthehistory
ofverticalflightandpavedthewayforproductionhelicoptersthatcouldperformusefulwork.Sikorsky'sarrangementofonemainrotorandonetailrotorquickly
becamethepredominanttype,puttingtheUnitedStatesintheleadinthefieldofverticalflight.
IgorSikorsky(18891972)madehisfirstattempttobuildahelicopterasayoungaviationdesignerinTsaristRussia.Hebuilttwoprototypesin1909and1910,but
forlackofpowerfulenginestheyprovedimpracticalandSikorskyturnedhistalentstofixedwingaircraft.AmonghistriumphswasthefamousIl'yaMuromets,the
world'sfirstfourenginebomber,in1914.
FollowingLenin'srisetopowerin1917,SikorskyleftRussia,settlingintheUnitedStatesin1919.Afterstrugglingtofindsteadyemployment,hebuiltasuccessful
aircraftcompanyfromhumblebeginningsonaLongIslandchicken
Tetheredtotheground,IgorSikorskytestshisVS300helicopter.
CourtesySmithsonianInstitution.
Page297
Specifications
SikorskyVS300(FinalVariant)
Manufacturer:
VoughtSikorskyAircraft,Stratford,Connecticut
Engine:1Franklin4AC199
Brakehorsepower:100
Fuselagelength:27feet,10inches(8.5m)
Fuselagewidth:4feet(1.2m)
Overallheight:8feet(2.4m)
Mainrotordiameter:28feet(8.5m)
Tailrotordiameter:7feet,8inches(2.3m)
Landinggeartread:10feet(3m)
Weight,empty:1,043.5pounds(473.3kg)
Weight,usefulload:247.5pounds(112.3kg)
Grossweight:1,325pounds(601kg)
Maximumspeed:59.8milesperhour(96.2km/hr)
Cruisespeed:49.5milesperhour(79.7km/hr)
No.built:1(6variants)
farm.Withtheadventoflightermaterialsandimprovedengines,Sikorsky,nowengineeringmanagerofVoughtSikorskyAircraft,adivisionofUnitedAircraft
Corporation,againturnedhisattentiontohelicopters.
Inthespringandsummerof1939,Sikorskydesignedandbuiltaresearchhelicoptertotesthistheories.OnSeptember14,1939,hemadethefirsttestflightofthe
VS300tensecondslongatanaltitudeofonlyafewinchesandtetheredtothegroundbyropeslesttheawkwardbirdleaptoohigh.Thecrudehelicopterhada
threeblademainrotorandasingletailrotor(tooffsettorque),anopenframeofweldedsteeltube,a75horsepower(56kW)Lycomingengine,andfourlanding
wheels.Thoughthehelicopterflew,ithadcontrolproblemsandshookviolently.Therefollowedtwoyearsoftrialanderrorexperimentationandfourdistinct
configurations.Asthedesignevolved,Sikorskyworkedtoestablishhelicopterflightendurancerecords,attractingspectatorsandthepress.OnMay6,1941,
Sikorskysetaworldhelicopterendurancerecordbystayingaloftfor1hour,32minutes,and26seconds.
Initsfinalform,theVS300hadasinglemainrotorwithfullcyclicpitchcontroli.e.,thepitchofeachbladecouldbechangedduringrotation,sothatbyincreasing
ordecreasingthepitchoftheblades,thehelicoptercouldtravelinanydirectionasingletailrotortocontroltorque,a100horsepower(75kW)Franklinengine,
andatricycleundercarriage.Inthisconfiguration,theVS300madeitsfirstflightonDecember8,1941,thedayaftertheattackonPearlHarbor.Inthemeantime,the
U.S.ArmyawardedVoughtSikorskyacontracttobuildanexperimentaltwoplace,closedcabinhelicopterwithalargerandmore
Page298
powerfulengine.ProductionoftheXR4,deliveredin1942,markedthebeginningofanewindustry.
Withtheirspecialabilitytohover,helicoptersquicklyprovedtheirusefulness,servingasairtaxis,performingrescuemissions(especiallyatsea),andassistinginthe
erectionandoperationofoffshoreoilandgasrigs.Inwartime,theyofferedtacticalmobility,carryingtroops,weapons,andmaterielintothebattlezoneandferrying
outcasualties.
OnOctober7,1943,IgorSikorskypresentedtheVS300theAmericanprototypeoftheseallbutindispensablemachinestoHenryFord'sEdisonInstitutein
Dearborn,Michigan.
Location/Access
TheSikorskyVS300isondisplayattheHenryFordMuseum,20900OakwoodBoulevard,Dearborn,MI48214phone(313)2711620.Hours:daily,9A.M.to
5P.M.Admissionfee.
FurtherReading
DorothyCochrane,VonHardesty,andRussellLee,TheAviationCareersofIgorSikorsky(Seattle:UniversityofWashingtonPressfortheNationalAirandSpace
Museum,1989).
AtlasLaunchVehicle
SanDiego,California
Originallydesignedtobeaweapon,theAtlaslaunchvehicleachievedgreaterdistinctionwhenthemilitaryveteranwasreconditionedtotakeanew,morepeaceful
pathasavitalpartoftheU.S.spaceprogram.
In1946theU.S.AirForceawardedacontracttotheConsolidatedVulteeAircraftCorporation(latertheConvairDivisionofGeneralDynamicsCorporation),San
Diego,todevelopalongrangemissile.Bymidyear,ateamofConvairengineersheadedbyKarelJ.''Charlie"BossarthadcompletedadesignfortheMX774
researchrocket,modeledaftertheGermanV2ofWorldWarII.TheV2wasaonestage,liquidfueledrocketwitharangeof200miles(322km),analtitudeof
50miles(80km),andspeedsof3,500milesperhour(5,632km/hr).Theword"accuracy"hardlyappliedtheV2oftenmisseditstargetbyasmuchas10miles(16
km).Convairhadtodomuchbetter.
Thebiggestproblemwasweight.Therecanbenounnecessarypoundsonaballisticmissileaimedatatargetthousandsofmilesaway.Bossartdecidedonaseparable
nosecone(warhead)andapressurestabilizedairframethatneedednointernalbracing.Toachievereliableignition,hedecidedonauniqueoneanda
Page299
AnAtlaslaunchvehicleliftsoffthelaunchpadat
CapeCanaveral,Florida,withamannedMercuryspacecraft.
AllfourMercuryorbitalmissions
during1962and1963utilizedAtlasrockets.
halfstagesystemconsistingofthreemainrocketenginesandtwoverniers,orsmallrocketsmountedneartherearofthepropellanttanktofinetunethemissile's
directionandvelocity.
Toimproveflightcontrol,engineersdecidedtogimbal,orswivel,theengines.Totrackandcontrolthemissile'scourseduringpoweredflight,aConvairelectronics
teamledbyJamesW.Crookscameupwiththeideaofaradioinertialsystemwithgroundbasedreceivingstations.ThreepartiallysuccessfultestlaunchesofMX
774sweremadeatWhiteSands,NewMexico,in1948beforetheprojectwascanceledduetofederalbelttightening.
In1951,followingtheoutbreakofwarinKorea,ConvairwasawardedanewcontractforthesecretMX1593.Bossartdubbedit"ProjectAtlas"aftertheTitanof
Greekmythologycompelledtosupporttheheavensonhisshouldersandreassembledhisteam.Theirchallenge:tobuildarocketcapableofdeliveringa3,500
pound(1,588kg)warhead6,325miles(10,179km)withanaccuracyof2to3miles(3to5km).Thetaskgrewmoreurgentwiththenews,inAugust1953,thatthe
SovietUnionhadtestedahydrogenbomb.
In1954cameathermonuclearbreakthrough:nuclearwarheadscouldbemadesmall,light,andpowerfulenoughtorideatoplongrangeballisticmissiles.
Page300
TheairforcebeganacrashprogramtobuildbothAtlasmissilesandanetworkofelevenStrategicAirCommandbasesfromMainetoCalifornia.
Bytheendoftheyear,ConvairhadredesignedtheAtlastoitspresentconfiguration.Itcalledforamissile75feet(23m)longand10feet(3m)indiameter.Ithad
threeliquidoxygenkerosenerocketenginesplusthetwoverniers.Toreduceweight,ithadaheliumpressurizedtankmadeofthingaugestainlesssteel.(TheAtlas
tank,withwallsthinnerthanadime,actuallyweighedlessthan2percentofthepropellantitcarried.)"TherehasneverbeenamissilelikeAtlas,"AviationWeek
reportedearlyin1955."Bigvehicleshavebeenbuiltbeforebutmostbigstructureshavebeenbasedonprogressiveexperiencewithsmallerones.Atlasisthefirst
andhasverylittletodrawonbutengineeringcourage."
Thefirststatictestswereconductedin1956.Followingtwodisappointingfailures,theAtlasmadeitsfirstsuccessfulflighttestonDecember17,1957,soaringfrom
CapeCanaveral,Florida,outovertheAtlanticsome600miles(966km).TheflightboostedAmericanconfidence:justweeksearlier,theSovietUnionhadlaunched
SputnikIandSputnikII,thefirstsatellitestoorbitEarth,provingitalreadyhaddevelopedasuccessfulintercontinentalballisticmissile(ICBM).
OnDecember18,1958,anAtlasmissileagainliftedofffromCapeCanaveral,itstruemissionacloselyguardedsecret.Thistime,itnoseditselfintoatrajectory
parallelwithEarthandpushedintoorbit.TheweaponofwarcarriedamessageofpeacethevoiceofPresidentDwightD.Eisenhower,beamedbyradiosignalto
Earth:"IconveytoyouandtoallmankindAmerica'swishforpeaceonearthandgoodwilltowardmeneverywhere."
Asearlyas1955,ConvairengineerKrafftEhrickerealizedthattheAtlaswasfullycapableofcastingsmallpayloadsintoorbitaroundtheearthitcouldevenproject
itselfintoasatelliteorbit.ButspaceplannersrealizedthatamorepowerfulupperstagewouldbeneededtosupplementthepayloadcarryingcapacityoftheAtlas
ICBM.Ehrickeproposedanewupperstagerocket,calledCentaur,poweredbyliquidhydrogen(see"RL10RocketEngine,"p.301).
AloneorincombinationwithCentaur,theAtlasproceededtoearnhonors,boostingthenation'sfirstcommunicationssatellitesintoorbit,thenoperatingsuccessfully
throughNASA'sMercuryprogram.OnFebruary20,1962,itboostedthefirstAmerican,astronautJohnH.Glenn,intoorbitaroundEarth.
Location/Access
AnAtlaslaunchvehicleisdisplayedatGillespieFieldsAirport,1960JoeCrossonDrive,ElCajon,CA92020phone(619)5963900.
FurtherReading
JohnL.Chapman,Atlas:TheStoryofaMissile(NewYork:Harper&Brothers,1960).
Page301
RL10RocketEngine
WestPalmBeach,Florida
TheRL10rocketengine,builtbyPratt&Whitney,wasthefirstintheworldtousehighenergyliquidhydrogenasafuel.OnNovember27,1963,apairofRL10s
successfullyboostedaCentaurlaunchvehicleintoorbitaroundtheearthinthefirstflightdemonstrationofthisspacepowerplant.ThesuccessoftheRL10rocket
engineledtothedevelopmentoflargerhydrogenfueledenginesthatmadepossibleAmerica'sgreatestspaceengineeringachievement,thelunarlandingofJuly1969.
Liquidhydrogenisanodorless,colorless,frigid(423F,252C),flammableliquidfirstproducedin1898byJamesDewar.Becauseofitshighheatofreactionwith
alloxidizersandthelowmolecularweightofitscombustionproducts,itprovidesmoreenergythananyotherfuel.Thisenergy,or"specificimpulse,"ismeasuredin
poundsofthrustperpoundofpropellantpersecondofburning.Sincethethrustdevelopedbyapropulsionsystemisessentiallyproportionaltotheexhaustgas
velocitywhich,inturn,dependsontheaveragemolecularweighthydrogenyieldshighergasvelocitiesforagiventemperatureandprovidesgreaterthrustthanany
otherknownliquidpropellant.Butthisadvantageinitiallywasoutweighedbyhydrogen'slowdensityonefourteenththatofwater,whichrequiredbulkyfuel
tanksandbythedifficultyanddangerofstoringandhandlingit.ManyquestionedtheadvisabilityofusingthehighlyhazardousfuelassociatedwiththeHindenburg
disasterof1937.
RL10RocketEngine.
Page302
Pratt&Whitney'sdevelopmentofhydrogenfueledrocketenginesbeganinthelate1950saspartoftheU.S.AirForce'ssecretSuntanprojecttodeterminethe
feasibilityofahydrogenfueledjetengine.Thehydrogenjetdidnotmaterialize,buttheliquidhydrogenresearchconductedaspartofthatprojectformedafoundation
forthenation'semergingspaceprogram.
TheSovietUnion'slaunchofthefirstsatellitein1957hadmadethescientificinvestigationofspaceahighnationalpriority.Inthefallof1958,theairforceawardeda
contracttothePratt&WhitneydivisionofUnitedAircraftCompany(laterUnitedTechnologies,Inc.)todevelopanupperstagerocketengineusingliquidhydrogen
fuel.Suchafuelwasfoundtobeabletoboosttwicethepayloadofpreviousspacepropulsionsystems.Twoyearslater,theNationalAeronauticsandSpace
Administration(NASA),towhichmanagementcontroloftheprojecthadbeentranferred,awardedPratt&WhitneyacontractfordevelopmentoftheRL10.The
firstenginemodelwassuccessfullytestedinNovember1961.
Outwardly,theRL10resemblesotherliquidfuelrocketengines.Inside,however,itembodiesnumerousadvanceddesignfeatures.Theliquidhydrogenperformstwo
importantfunctionsevenbeforeitismixedwithliquidoxygenandburnedtoproducethrust.First,itactsasacoolant,passingthroughaseriesoftubesformingthe
thrustchamber,wherethecombustiontemperatureisover5,000F(2,760C)duringengineoperation.Second,thehydrogen,whichhasbeenheatedduringits
passagethroughthethrustchamber,ispassedthroughaturbinetoprovidepowertopumphydrogenandoxygen(usedasanoxidizer)intothesystemandtodrive
otherenginemountedaccessories.
Followingitsfirstsuccessfullaunchin1963,theRL10rocketenginelaunchedanarrayofthenation'smostsophisticatedunmannedspacecraft,compilingaperfect
record:morethan150ofthese15,000pound(66.72kN)thrustengineswereusedinspacelaunchesincludingtheViking,Mariner,andPioneerspacecraft
withoutasingleenginefailure.PoweredbyRL10engines,AtlasCentaurrocketslaunchedsevenSurveyorspacecrafttolandon,photograph,andanalyzethe
moon'ssurfaceinpreparationfortheApollolandings.By1959,NASAwasthinkingaheadtoevenheftierpropulsionsystems(see"SaturnVRocket,"p.303).
Location/Access
ThePratt&WhitneyofficethathousestheRL10isaU.S.governmentsecuredfacilityandisnotopentothepublicatthistime.
FurtherReading
JohnL.Sloop,LiquidHydrogenasaPropulsionFuel,19451959,TheNASAHistorySeries(Washington,D.C.:NationalAeronauticsandSpace
Administration,1978).
GeorgeP.Sutton,RocketPropulsionElements:AnIntroductiontotheEngineeringofRockets,5thed.(NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons,1986).
Page303
SaturnVRocket
JohnF.KennedySpaceCenter,nearTitusville,FloridaLyndonB.JohnsonSpaceCenter,nearHouston,TexasMarshallSpaceFlightCenter,near
Huntsville,Alabama
SovietcosmonautYuriA.Gagarin'shistoricorbitoftheearthonApril12,1961,acceleratedtheraceforspace.UndertheleadershipofPresidentJohnF.Kennedy,
theUnitedStatesthatyearresolvedtoputamanonthemoonbytheendofthedecade,butnorocketinthenationwasequaltothetask.InJanuary1962,the
NationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministrationannouncedplanstodevelopanewlaunchvehiclethelargestandmostpowerfulevermadetobecalledSaturnV.
Anengineeringmasterpiece,theSaturnVrocketsuccessfullylaunchedsevenmannedandunmannedspacecraftbeforelaunchingtheApollospacecraftthatwould
touchdownontheSeaofTranquilityonJuly20,1969,markinghumanity'shistoricfirstlandingonthemoon.
ThedevelopmentoftheSaturnVrocket,ajointeffortofgovernmentandindustry,wasbasedontheF1andJ2rocketenginesdevelopedbytheRocketdyne
DivisionofNorthAmericanAviation,Inc.,beginningin1959.Thevehicleconsistedofthreestagesandaninstrumentunit,atopwhichsatthe45ton(40t)Apollo
spacecraftor(asforitslastlaunchin1973)the120ton(108t)Skylabworkshop:
ThefirststageofSaturnV,theSICStage,138feet(42.1m)highand33feet(10.1m)indiameter,providedtheboosttoanaltitudeofabout200,000feet(60,960
m),or38miles(61km),acceleratingthevehicleto7,700feet(2,347m)persecond,or5,250milesperhour(8,447km/hr).Itemployedaclusteroffive
RocketdyneF1enginesgenerating7.5millionpoundsofthrust(33,360kN).EachF1consumedabout2.5tons(2.27t)offuelandoxidizer(keroseneandliquid
oxygen)persecondthus,theboosterburnedalmost2,000tons(1,814t)ofpropellantin2.5minutes,itstotalburntime.
TheSIIStage,81.5feet(24.8m)highand33feet(10.1m)indiameter,providedthesecondstageboost.ItwaspoweredbyfiveRocketdyneJ2enginesburning
liquidhydrogenandusingliquidoxygenastheoxidizer.Duringits6minuteflight,thesecondstagedevelopednearly1millionpoundsofthrust(4,448kN),propelling
theSaturnVtoanaltitudeof114miles(183km)andacceleratingthevehicleto15,000milesperhour(21,100km/hr).
TheSIVBStage,58.6feet(17.9m)highand21.6feet(6.6m)indiameter,usedasingleRocketdyneJ2enginedeveloping200,000poundsofthrust(890kN).
Thiswascapableofreigniting,sothatthethrustcouldbeappliedtothepayloadintwoburns.Afirstburnof2.75minuteshurtledthespacecraftintoa118mile
(190km)highorbitofEarthataspeedof17,500milesperhour(28,100km/hr).Asecondburnof5.2minutesacceleratedthespacecraftoutof
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ASaturnVrocketliftsApollo11anditsthreeastronauts
towardthefirstmoonlandingfromtheKennedySpace
Center'sLaunchComplex39onJuly16,1969.
Earthorbitat25,000milesperhour(40,200km/hr)andintoatrajectorythatwouldtakeittothemoon.
Theinstrumentunit(IU),3feet(0.9m)highand21.6feet(6.6m)indiameter,satatopthethirdstage.Shapedlikearingorcollarandplacedaroundtheupperendof
thepropellanttankfortheSIVBStage,theIUcontainedtheguidanceandcontrolinstrumentationthatdirectedtheboostphaseoftheflight.
AtoptheIUsattheApollospacecraft,consistingoftheLunarModule,ServiceModule,CommandModule,andEscapeTower.Therocketandspacecraft,363feet
(110.6m)highoverall,wasassembledinsidetheKennedySpaceCenter'sVehicleAssemblyBuilding,theworld'slargestbuilding.Followingextensivetesting,itwas
carriederectonamobilelauncherbythehugecrawlertransporter(seep.291)tothelaunchpad1.5miles(2.4km)away.
AteamofengineersledbyWernhervonBraun(191277),directoroftheMarshallSpaceFlightCenter,Huntsville,Alabama,coordinateddevelopmentoftheSaturn
VforNASA.TheBoeingCompany,NorthAmericanAviation,Inc.,andtheDouglasAircraftCompanybuilttherocket'sfirst,second,andthirdstages,respectively.
IBMassembledtheinstrumentunit.
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ThefirstlaunchoftheSaturnVrocket(Apollo4)wasmadeonNovember9,1967,thefirstmannedlaunch(Apollo8),onDecember21,1968.Followingthelunar
landing(Apollo11)ofJuly1969,additionalSaturnVrocketspoweredsixmoreApollomissionsthroughDecember1972.InMay1973,thelastSaturnVrocketto
flylaunchedSkylab,America'sfirstspacestation,intoorbitaroundEarth.
TheSaturnVmaywellbethefirstandlastofitskind,forthepowerfulrocketwasexpendable.Thus,eachlaunchrepresentedthelossofhardwareestimatedtocost
$81million.NASA'sspaceshuttleprogramnowemploysareusableorbiterandsolidrocketboosters.
Location/Access
SaturnVrocketsareondisplay47miles(76km)eastofOrlando,Florida,attheJohnF.KennedySpaceCenter,Route405,NASACauseway,Orlando,FL
32899,phone(407)4522121theU.S.SpaceandRocketCenter,theworld'slargestspacemuseum,adjacenttotheMarshallSpaceFlightCenter,Route565
(Governor'sDrive),inHuntsville,Alabama,phone(205)8373400andtheLyndonB.JohnsonSpaceCenter,3miles(5km)eastofInterstate45,at1601NASA
Road,ClearLakeCity(nearHouston),TX77058,phone(713)4834321.Allareopendaily.
FurtherReading
CharlesD.BensonandWilliamBarnabyFaherty,Moonport:AHistoryofApolloLaunchFacilitiesandOperations,TheNASAHistorySeries(Washington,
D.C.:NationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration,1978).
RogerE.Bilstein,StagestoSaturn:ATechnologicalHistoryoftheApollo/SaturnLaunchVehicles,TheNASAHistorySeries(Washington,D.C.:National
AeronauticsandSpaceAdministration,1980).
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RESEARCHANDDEVELOPMENT
Introduction
Sinceengineeringisanartwithascientificfoundation,itisnotpossibletodesignaperfectproductonthedrawingboard.Thereis,atleast,requirementtotestitwith
theexpectationthatsomeadjustmentwillhavetobemade.Besidestheneedtotestcompletedsystems,itisnecessarytoprovidedataonmaterialpropertiesforuse
indesign.Theseactivitiescanbesubsumedundertheheading"ResearchandDevelopment,"or,asitisfrequentlycalled,R&D.
Engineeringresearchanddevelopmentusesmanyofthemeasurementdevicesandsharesmanyofthephilosophicalconceptsofthescientistconductingexperimental
research,suchasaconcernwiththeprecisionandaccuracyofmeasurement.However,engineeringexperimentationdiffersinoneimportant,andnotverywidely
recognized,respectfromscientificresearch.Intestinganengineeringconcept,thereisaneedtosimulatetherealitythedevicewillexperienceinuse.Ofcourse,tests
carriedoutundertheactualconditionsofservicewouldbeideal,butthiscaninvolveunacceptableexpenseandevendangertothetestpersonnel.Consequently,
engineersmakeconsiderableuseofwhattheycall"models."Probablythemostfamiliarexamplesofengineeringmodelsarethesmallreproductionsofactualaircraft
thataretestedinwindtunnels.OtherexamplesincludethesmallscalerepresentationoftheMississippiRivermaintainedbytheU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineersatits
ExperimentStationinVicksburg,Mississippi,smallscaleshipsthatareusedtoestimatetheenginerequirementsofanewshipdesign,andtransparentplastic
representationsofthehumanheartthatallowthebloodflowinthatorgantobestudied.Comparedtothesystemtheyaresimulating,thesemodelsshareanumberof
commonfeatures:theirsizemaybelargerorsmaller,thedurationofeventscanbeshorterorlonger,andthematerialsusedintheirconstructioncanbedifferent.
Thesefactors,togetherwiththecontroloverexperimentalconditionsthatworkinginthelaboratoryprovides,greatlyincreasestheconvenienceand
Page307
reducesthecostanddangerassociatedwithtestingtheactualdevice.Infact,OsborneReynolds(18421912),wholaidsomeofthefoundationsofmodeltesting,in
1887aftercompletingmodeltestsonthesiltingoftheestuaryoftheRiverMerseyatLiverpoolwrote,"thismethodofexperimentingseemstoaffordreadymeans
ofinvestigatinganddeterminingbeforehandtheeffectsofanyproposedestuaryorharborworksameanswhich,afterwhatIhaveseen,Ishouldfeelitmadnessto
neglectbeforeenteringinanycostlyunderstanding."
Theidea,then,inmodeltestingistoconstructadevice,togetherwithatestingsituation,thatsimulatesreality.Theperformanceofthemodelisthenstudiedandthe
performanceoftherealdevice,calledtheprototype,ispredictedfromthebehaviorofthemodel.Forexample,theforcerequiredtotowashipmodelthroughatank
ofwateratacertainspeedisusedtopredictthepoweroftheenginesrequiredtomovetheprototypeship.
Aswithmuchinengineering,theuseofmodelsmustsurelygobacktotheancients,buttheearliestapplicationsprobablyprovidedonlyqualitativeresults.Itseems
likelythatthefirstmodelstoprovidequantitativeinformationwerethemodelwaterwheelsandmodelwindmillvanestestedbyJohnSmeaton(17241792)in1752
and1753.
Assoonasquantitativeinformationmustbesuppliedbythemodel,itbecomesessentialtoknowhowtoconstructandoperateitinsuchawaythatitsobserved
performancecanberelatedtotheexpectedperformanceoftheprototype.Or,asSmeatonsaidin1759,"itisverynecessarytodistinguishthecircumstancesinwhich
amodeldiffersfromamachineinlargeotherwiseamodelismoreapttoleadusfromthetruththantowardit."
TherequirementsforassuringthatthemodelresultscouldbemeaningfullyrelatedtotheperformanceoftheprototypewereprobablyfirstlaiddownbyWilliam
Froude(181079)inabout1869.However,others,notablyOsborneReynolds,LordRayleigh(18921919),andEdgarBuckingham(18671940)havecontributed
tothemethodologyofmodeltesting.Today,theprinciplesoftestingengineeringmodelsarewellunderstood,buttheirsuccessfulapplicationtoparticularsituations
requiresconsiderableinsightintothephysicalprocessesthatareinvolved.
Modeltestingisusuallyimportantintheearlystagesofdevelopinganengineeringdevice.Ultimately,theperformanceofafullscaleprototypemustbeevaluated.
Sometimes,asinthecaseofships,thisstepisomittedbecauseofexpense,butwheresafetyismoreimportantthancost,prototypetestingmustprecedethe
productionofthefinisheditem.ThelandmarksprogramhasrecognizedtheVallecitosBoilingWaterReactor,andtheExperimentalBreederReactorIinIdahoas
examplesoftheprototypetestingstageoftheresearchanddevelopmentprocess.
Atthedesignstage,informationonmaterialandcomponentperformanceandlifeisrequired.TheCooperativeFuelResearch(CFR)enginewasdeveloped
Page308
forsuchatask.Oneoftheroutineteststowhichautomobilegasolineissubjectedisa''knock"test.Thisevaluatesthetendencyofthefueltoburnnoisilyinanengine
cylinderwithaconsequentlossofpowerandanincreaseindriverannoyance.Whilethephenomenonofknockwasidentifiedintheearlyyearsofthiscentury,ifnot
somewhatearlier,ittookthirtyyearsbeforeengineerscouldagreeonanacceptablemethodofmeasuringitunderstandardconditions.
Mechanicalengineering,astheprecedingillustrates,hasitsspecialresearchneeds,butitisfrequentlysomemightsayalwaysacontributortoscientific
experiments.Successfulapparatusforscientificresearchrequirestheapplicationoftheprinciplesofengineeringdesign.Thelandmarksdescribedinthischapter
includetwoexamplesofthissort,namely,theStanfordLinearAcceleratorandthe100inchHookerTelescopeattheMountWilsonObservatory.Inbothexamples,
componentsofsubstantialsizehadtobemadeandassembledtoexceptionallyclosetolerances.Inthecaseofthetelescope,theproductionofthemirrorandthe
cuttingoftheteethforthedrivinggearareoutstandingexamplesoftheengineer'sart.TheStanfordLinearAcceleratorpresentedimportantengineeringproblemsinthe
designofsystemstohandlelowtemperatureliquidheliumandtoproducereliablevacuumsinlargespaces,amongotherchallenges.
Inmechanicalengineering,itisprobablytruetosaythatitisinresearchanddevelopmentthatthehumansideoftheprofessionisclearest.Thephysicallabor,the
anxiety,theneedtoplacateimportantpersonsandirritableemployersallarepersistentandinescapablepartsofresearchanddevelopment.Fromtheoutside,
engineering,nodoubt,lookslikearationalmannerofmathematicsandscience,butintruthitisataleofblood,sweat,andtears.
Page309
AldenResearchLaboratoryRotatingBoom
Holden,Massachusetts
Rotatingbooms,or"whirlingarms,"hadbeenaroundformorethan160yearsbythetimetheoneattheAldenLaboratorywasbuilt.Thefirstboomisbelievedto
havebeendevisedduringthe1740sbyBenjaminRobinsinEnglandforstudyingtheairresistanceofprojectiles.Intheearly1750s,JohnSmeaton,theeminent
Englishmechanicalandcivilengineer,usedonetotestwindmillsandinthe1760s,inFrance,JeanCharlesBordausedawhirlingarmtotestthemovementofvarious
shapesinwater.
ProfessorCharlesMetcalfAllen(18711950),directoroftheAldenHydraulicLaboratoryfrom1896to1950,neededamovingteststandforhydraulicexperiments
andforratingcurrentmetersusedformeasuringflowsinriversandstreams.AssistedbytwostudentsattheWorcesterPolytechnicInstitute(WPI),Allendesigneda
boomin1908.
TheoriginalboomattheAldenLaboratorywasbuiltofwoodonasubmergedrockfoundationinapondnexttothelaboratory.Itconsistedofa42foot(13m)
testingarmbalancedbya21foot(6m)armloadedwithcounterweights.A24inch(609mm)Herculeshydraulicturbineonshoresuppliedpower,whichwas
transmittedtotheboombyropedrive,producingtipspeedsupto10feet(3m)persecond.
In1910theoriginalboomwasreplacedbyan84foot(26m),equalarmboommadeofsteel.Followingtheboom'sreconstruction,ProfessorDavidGallup
TheAldenResearchLaboratoryrotatingboomisstillusedforhydromechanical
testing.PhotographbyJetLowe,LibraryofCongressCollections.
Page310
ofWPItestedaircraftpropellersbymountinga75horsepower(56kW)electricmotoratthecenteroftheboom,whichtransmittedpowerthroughalongdriveshaft
andangledrivetoapropellermountedattheendoftheboom.Thepropeller'sthrustcausedtheboomassemblytorotate,whileadragdeviceinthewatercalculated
thepowerdissipatedtheexperimentwasimportantasoneofthefirstnonstationaryteststomeasurepropellerefficiency.DuringWorldWarI,MajorVictorE.
EdwardsusedtherotatingboomtoconductdragtestsonartilleryshellsthetestsprovedvaluableforhissubsequentstudiesofartilleryshellballisticsattheAberdeen
ProvingGround(seep.315).
In1936theturbinedrivewasreplacedbyanelectricmotoratthecenteroftheboom,doublingthemaximumtipspeedto20feet(6m)persecond.Sincethen,the
boomhasbeenusedperiodicallyfortestingcurrentmeters,ships'logs(formeasuringoceanictravel),pitottubes(formeasuringtheflowoffluids),minesweeper
paravanes(forcuttingcablesonmines),andDarrieusrotors(verticalaxiswindturbines)withoutanyfurthermajorchanges.
Location/Access
TherotatingtestboomislocatedoutsideandacrossthestreetfromtheAldenResearchLaboratory,Inc.,30ShrewsburyStreet,Holden,MA01604.
FurtherReading
CharlesM.Allen,"CircularCurrentMeterRatingStation,"WorcesterPolytechnicInstituteJournal(May1909):22128.
C.W.Hubbard,"InvestigationofErrorsofPitotTubes,"TransactionsoftheAmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers61(1939):477506.
100inchHookerTelescope,MountWilsonObservatory
nearPasadena,California
Onaclearnight,theunaidedeyecanseeabout5,000stars.Withanew100inch(2,540mm)telescope,GeorgeElleryHale(18681938),founderandfirstdirector
oftheMountWilsonObservatorynearPasadena,California,hopedtosee100millionmore.Infact,thelightgraspofthe100inch(2,540mm)Hookertelescope
almosttwiceasgreatastheobservatory's60inch(1,520mm)reflectorand2,500timesgreaterthanthe"opticktube"withwhichGalileobeganthemoderneraof
astronomyin1609completelyrevisedourideasabouttheuniverse.From1918until1948,whenitwaseclipsedbythePalomar200inch(5,080mm)reflector,the
100inch(2,540mm)Hookertelescopedominateddis
Page311
Since1918,the100inchHookerTelescopeatPasadena'sMountWilsonObservatory
hashelpedunlockthesecretsoftheexpandinguniverse.
CourtesyMountWilsonObservatory.
coveriesinastronomyworldwide,revealingforthefirsttimeadynamicandevolvinguniverseandprovingconclusivelythatourownMilkyWayisbutoneofcountless
othergalaxies.
In1902HalepersuadedtheCarnegieInstitutionofWashington,aprivatefoundationforscientificresearch,tobuildanobservatoryonthe5,900foot(1,800m)
summitofMountWilson.Thesiteofferedlongperiodsofclear,calmweatherandthepossibilityofestablishingshops,laboratories,andofficesinthecityofPasadena,
withineasyreachoffoundries,supplyhouses,andsourcesofelectricpower.Haleassembledateamofastronomers,engineers,andtechnicianstodesignand
constructthetelescopesfortheMountWilsonObservatorytonewstandardsofperformance.Thefirstwassetupin1904.
In1906JohnD.HookerofLosAngelesmadeagifttotheobservatorytounderwriteatelescopemirrorof100inches(2,540mm)aperture.TheSt.GobainPlate
GlassCompanyofParismadethe100inch(2,540mm)glassdisk,whichis13inches(330mm)thickandweighsalmost5tons(4.5t)GeorgeWillisRicheyground
themirrorintheobservatory'sopticalshopinPasadena.
Tosupportthehugemirrorwithoutflexure,instrumentdesignerFrancisG.Peasedevisedatelescopemountingofexceptionalsize.TheForeRiverShipYardin
Quincy,Massachusetts,fabricatedthelargestpiecesofthemountingsmalleronesweremadeintheobservatory'sownmachineshop.D.H.Burnham&
Page312
CompanyofChicagodesignedtherotatingdomeprotectingthetelescopethe500ton(454t)dome,100feet(30m)indiameter,ismountedonwheelsthatrunon
circulartracks.
Torotatethetelescopeonsidereal(solar)time,awormgear18feet(5.5m)indiameterismountedonthesouthendofthepolaraxle.Thegear,ofcastironwith
hollowspokes,wasfabricatedintwohalvesandboltedtogetheralongthediameter.Itmesheswithatoolsteelwormdrivenbyagovernorcontrolled,weightdriven
mechanicalclock.Sincetrackingerrorsgreaterthanonetentharcsecondcannotbetolerated,cuttingtheteethofthewormgearrequiredgreatprecision.Clement
Jacomini,chiefinstrumentmaker,cuttheteethwiththegearinplaceonthetelescope.Usingamicroscopeandadiamondscriber,hefirstdividedthegearinto1,440
equalsegments,thengashedtheteethonebyone.
Equippedwiththelargestandbestreflectorintheworld,theMountWilsonObservatoryquicklybecametheworldcenterforthestudyofastrophysics.Oneofthe
mostimportantdiscoverieswasthattheintrinsicluminosity,ortotallightoutput,ofastarcouldbefoundbyinspectingtherecordmadewhenstarlightisdispersedinto
aspectrumbyaprismordiffractiongrating.Thediscoveryopenedthewaytounderstandingtheevolutionofthestarsandtheirages.In1929,withitsaid,thegreat
EdwinPowellHubble(18891953)madeperhapsthemostimportantscientificdiscoveryofthetwentiethcentury:thatweliveinanexpandinguniverse,thatthe
observedvelocitiesofgalaxiesincreaseprogressivelywitheverincreasingdistances.Hubbledescribedhisgroundbreakingwork,madepossiblebytheHooker
telescope,inTheRealmoftheNebulae(1936).
TheHookertelescopewasclosedinJuly1985becauseoflightpollution,butitreopenedinrecentyears,underthemanagementoftheMountWilsonInstitute,witha
newadaptiveopticssystem.
Location/Access
TheVisitors'Galleryisopentothepubliconweekendsyearround.FromApriltoOctober,toursaregivenat1P.M.onSaturdaysandSundays.Grouptourscanbe
arrangeduponapplicationtotheMountWilsonInstitute,740HolladayRoad,Pasadena,CA91106phone(818)7933100.
FurtherReading
IsaacAsimov,EyesontheUniverse:AHistoryoftheTelescope(Boston:HoughtonMifflinCompany,1975).
GeorgeElleryHale,TenYears'WorkofaMountainObservatory(Washington,D.C.:CarnegieInstitutionofWashington,1915).
,SignalsfromtheStars(NewYork:CharlesScribner'sSons,1931).
DennisOverbye,LonelyHeartsoftheCosmos:TheScientificQuestfortheSecretoftheUniverse(NewYork:HarperCollins,1991).
Page313
CooperativeFuelResearchEngine
Waukesha,Wisconsin
Theoctaneratingofgasolineisfamiliartomostmotorists.Butfewknowhowitismeasured,andfewerstillknowhowitcametobe.Astheautomobilegrewin
popularityafter1920,motoristswerefrequentlybedeviledby"knock,"athumpingorrattlingnoiseintheenginecausedbyprematurecombustion,whichwasnotonly
annoyingbutalsoharmfultotheengine.
Intheearly1920s,theAmericanPetroleumInstituteandtheSocietyofAutomotiveEngineersformedtheCooperativeFuelResearch(CFR)Committeetostudythe
characteristicsofcombustioningasolinepoweredengines.Afterseveralyears'study,thecommittee,comprisedofrepresentativesoftheautomotiveandpetroleum
industriesaswellasoftheacademiccommunityandtheBureauofStandards,concludedthatastandardsinglecylindertestenginewasneededasafirststepto
developingauniformmethodofratingfuelsforknock.
InDecember1928,theCFRCommitteeauthorizedtheWaukeshaMotorCompanyofWaukesha,Wisconsin,tobuildaprototypetestengine.Fortyfivedayslater,
onJanuary14,1929,thefirstCooperativeFuelResearchtestenginewasdeliveredtoDetroitfordisplayattheannualmeetingoftheSocietyofAutomotive
Engineers.
TheCFRCommitteestipulatedthatthetestenginemeetthreequalifications:thatitbeuniversal,rugged,andlowcost.EngineersatWaukeshaMotormetthefirst
demandbydesigningtheenginetopermitconversionfromafixedcompressionLheadcylindertoavariablecompressionoverheadvalvecylinderwithoutdisturbing
anypartofthecrankcaseorcamshaftdrive.Theenginemanufacturermetthesecondqualificationbydesigningaheavy,counterweighted,largebearingcrankshaft
theengine'sbearingdimensionsareampleenoughforaheavydutyengine60percentlargeroperatingatthreetimesthespeed.Finally,theengine'suniversalityandthe
engineers'choiceofacylinderdimensionofcommonsize3by4inches(82by114mm),approximatingthatoftheaveragepassengercarhelpedkeepdown
thecostoftheengine.
TheCFRenginewasquicklyacceptedasthestandardtestengineoftheautomotiveindustry.Itprovidedarecognizedstandardfordefiningfuelqualityandledtothe
rapidevolutionandimprovementofbothfuelsandengines.ByNovember1931,onehundredCFRtestengineshadbeensoldtopetroleumandautomotive
companiesforuseinresearchandforroutineproductioncontrol.
FollowingintroductionofthefirstCFRengines,ontherecommendationofcommitteemembers,Waukeshaengineersredesignedthevariablecompressioncylinder
andmodifiedthecoolingsystem,valvegear,ignitionsystem,andaccessibilityofcertainparts.Suchwasthequalityoftheoriginaldesign,however,thattheenginewas
easilymodified.
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CooperativeFuelResearchEngine.
TheCFRenginemeasuresthedetonation,orknocklimit,ofagivenfuel,andtherebydeterminesitsoctanerating.Itisdesignedtosubjectagivenfuelairmixturetoa
widerangeofcompressionratios,providepreciselytimedignition,andallowaccuratedeterminationofengineperformanceasafunctionoffueltype,compression
ratio,sparktiming,andmixtureconcentrationorleanness.Thedegreeofintensityofknockisregisteredbyabouncingpinindicatorconnectedtoaknockmeteronthe
engine'scontrolpanel.*Alongwiththetestengine,theCFRCommitteeadoptedacommonreferencefuelandauniformprocedureforlaboratorytesting.
Manyoutstandingengineerscontributedtothecreationofthisuniqueengine.AmongthemwereHarryL.Horning,WaukeshaMotorpresident,andArthurW.Pope,
Jr.,Waukeshachiefresearchengineer,bothofwhomservedontheCFRCommittee.HowardM.Wiles,ayoungresearcherwhosethesisprojectatIowaState
Universityhadconcernedthedesignandconstructionofavariable
*Thebouncingpinisaslendersteelrodwhoselowerendrestsonthepistonofacylinderpressuresensor.Whendetonationoccurs,thepinisthrownfreeofthepiston,its
upperendstrikingandclosingelectricalcontacts.Anelectricalcircuitconvertsthedurationandfrequencyofcontactclosureintoareadingonthedialoftheknockmeter.
Page315
compressionsinglecylinderengine,wasresponsibleformachiningandassemblingthefirstCFRengine,makingmanyofthepartsonasmallbenchlatheinthe
Waukeshaexperimentallab.ItwasWileswhounderstoodthesignificanceofthefirstCFRengineandhadthevisiontopreserveit.
Duringthe1930s,WaukeshaEngineproducedacetaneunitfortestingthedetonationcharacteristicsofdieselfueland,duringWorldWarII,asuperchargedversion
forratingaviationfuel.Waukesha,nowadivisionofDresserIndustries,hasproducedandsoldmorethanfivethousandfuelresearchenginesworldwide.TheCFR
engineof1929isstillwidelyusedforratingfuelsaswellasforbasicresearchonexhaustemissionsandalternatefuels.
Location/Access
ThefirstCFRengineisondisplayattheProductTrainingCenter,whichisacrossthestreetfromtheheadquartersofWaukeshaEngineDivision,1000WestSt.Paul
Street,Waukesha,WI53186.
FurtherReading
H.L.Horning,"TheCooperativeFuelResearchCommitteeEngine,"SocietyofAutomotiveEngineersJournal28(June1931):63741.
AerodynamicsRange,AberdeenProvingGround
Aberdeen,Maryland
Thiswastheworld'sfirstlargescaleballisticrangeforproducingdataontheaerodynamiccharacteristicsofmissilesinfreeflight.TheAerodynamicsRangemadeit
possible,forthefirsttime,toaccuratelyrecordnotonlyprojectilemotionbutalsothedetailed,transientflowstructureabouttheround.Usinginnovativelaunch
techniquesandhighspeedphotography,ballisticengineerswereabletodevelopimportantdataonprojectile,missile,andaircraftaerodynamicsinallflightregimes,
fromsubsonicthroughhypersonicvelocities.Ballisticstudiesconductedhereinthe1940sstillformabaselineformodernprojectiledesign.
RobertH.KentandAlexanderC.CharterspioneeredadvancedballisticmeasurementtechniquesattheAberdeenProvingGroundbeginninginthe1930s.World
WarIIprovidedanincentivefortheU.S.Armytoincorporatethatresearchintothedesignandconstructionofanewaerodynamicsrangeatthearmy'sBallistic
ResearchLaboratory(BRL).Completedin1943,theAerodynamicsRangemadeitpossibletostudy,indetail,theaerodynamicsofbodiesinsupersonicfreeflight.
DuringWorldWarII,engineersattheBRLusedtheAerodynamicsRangetotestnewdesignsofshells,rockets,guidedmissiles,andbombs.
Page316
Freeflightaerodynamicsrange,AberdeenProvingGround,Aberdeen,Maryland.
Studiesconductedhereinthe1940sstillserveasabaselineformodernprojectiledesign.
TheAerodynamicsRangeisanenclosedfacilityinstrumentedtolaunchamissileinfreeflightandrecorditsmotionover285feet(87m)ofthetrajectory.Itconsistsof
thefiringroomcontainingthelaunchertheblastchamber,isolatingtheinstrumentareafromthemuzzleblasttherangegallery,containingapparatusforrecordingthe
flightofthemissileandthecontrolroom,fromwhichoperationsanddatarecordingareconducted.
Obtaininginformationaboutaerodynamicforcesdemandsunusualprecisioninthemeasurementoftime,distance,andangle.Thiswasachievedbyspark
photographyfreezingmotiononfilmbyusingashort,intenseflashoflightfromanopenspark.Sparkphotographygivesdistanceprecisionto0.001foot(0.3048
mm),angularprecisionto2minutesofarc,andtimeintervalprecisionto0.1microsecond.
Amissileislaunchedfromagunmountedinthefiringroomwithitsmuzzleintheblastchamber.Thegunispositionedsothatthemissiletrajectorytraversesthefieldof
thesparkphotographystationsthestationsprovidepositiondataonthemissileatfortyfivedifferentpointsalongthetrajectory.Whenthemissileisfired,theenclosed
rangegalleryisdark.Asthemissileapproacheseachstation,itbreaksalightbeam,triggeringsparksoflightonemillionthofasecondindurationandofsufficient
intensitytoexposeaphotographicplate.Thelightsilhouettestheimageofthemissile,itsshockwaves,andthefiducialmarksofthestationonthephotographicplates.
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Theresultingphotographs,calledshadowgraphs,revealthemissile'strajectoryinminutedetail.Toanalyzetherangedata,itisnecessarytoknowthevelocityofthe
soundandthedensityoftheairatthetimetheroundwasfired.Therangeisairconditionedtokeepthesefactorsreasonablyconstant.Temperature,humidity,andair
pressurereadingsaretakenimmediatelyaftereachroundisfired.
ThesizeoftheAerodynamicsRangelimitsitsusetotestingmissiles40mmandlessindiameter,travelingataminimumvelocityof600feet(183m)persecond.
TheselimitationsledtodevelopmentoftheBRLTransonicRangein1954.TheAerodynamicsRangecontinuesinservice,however,producinghighqualitydataon
ballistics.Ithasservedasaprototypeforsimilarfacilitieselsewhere,includingthoseattheNavalOrdnanceLaboratoryinWhiteOak,Maryland,andEglinAirForce
Base,Florida.
Location/Access
TheAberdeenProvingGroundislocatedattheU.S.ArmyTest&EvaluationCommand,RyanBuilding,Aberdeen,MD210055055phone(410)2784173.
Opendailyforgrouptours.Phone(410)2781151.
FurtherReading
A.C.Charters,"FreeFlightRangeMethods,"inHighSpeedProblemsofAircraftandExperimentalMethods,editedbyA.F.Donovan,H.R.Lawrence,F.E.
Goddard,andR.Gilruth,HighSpeedAerodynamicsandJetPropulsion,vol.8(Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress,1961.
IcingResearchTunnel,NASALewisResearchCenter
Cleveland,Ohio
Sincethefirstflightin1903,iceformationonaircrafthaspresentedaserioushazard.Butwiththegrowthofcommercialandmilitaryaviation,theproblemoficing
becamecritical.Icebuildsupquicklyonaircraftsurfaces,addingweightandimpairingaerodynamicefficiency,evenleading,insevereconditions,toacrash.
EarlyinWorldWarII,theNationalAdvisoryCommitteeforAeronautics(NACA)directedthatanicingresearchtunnelbeaddedtoplansforanaltitudewindtunnel
beingbuiltaspartofanew$18millionaircraftengineresearchcenterinCleveland.(NACA'sthreeresearchcentersatLangley,VirginiaSunnyvale,Californiaand
ClevelandlaterbecamethenucleusoftheNationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration.TheClevelandlaboratorywasrenamedtheLewisResearchCenter,in
honorofGeorgeW.Lewis,NACAdirectorofresearchfrom1924to1947.)
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Developedin1950,theNACA(nowNASA)icingresearchtunnel
spraysystemwascapableofsimulatinganaturalicingcloud.
TheNACAicingresearchtunnel(IRT),designedbyAlfredYoungandCharlesZelanko,andcompletedin1944atacostof$670,000,followedontheheelsof
almosttwodecadesofresearchintotheproblemofaircrafticing.Itisasinglereturn,closedthroattunnelwithatestsection6feet(1,820mm)high,9feet(2,740
mm)wide,and20feet(6,096mm)long.Itissimilartoothersubsonicwindtunnelsaircraftcomponentsplacedinthetestsectionofthetunnelcanbesubjectedto
windsupto300milesperhour(483km/hr)tosimulateflightconditions.ButtheIRThasseveraluniquefeatures.
Airtemperatureinthetestsectioncanbevariedfrom30Fto45F(1.1Cto42.7C).Aheatexchangermaintainsauniformairspeedanduniformair
temperature(1F,0.56C)forthedurationofthetest,whilearefrigerationplant,togetherwithspraynozzles,duplicatetheicingconditionsliquidcontent,droplet
size,andairtemperaturethataircraftmightencounter.Theliquidwatercontentcanbevariedfromabout0.2to3.0g/m3dropletsize,from5toabout40microns.
(Amicronequalsonethousandthofamillimeter.)The2,100ton(1,905t)refrigerationplant,designedbyCarrierCorporationtoserveboththeicingtunnelandthe
adjacentaltitudewindtunnel,wasthelargestintheworld.(HVACengineersstillpointtoitasamongthemostdifficultandexactingrefrigerationsystemsever
designed.)
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Simulatingtheatmosphericconditionsofanicingcloudpresentedafarmoredifficultengineeringproblem.In1943nooneknewthesizeofnaturalclouddropletsor
theirliquidwatercontent.Inacooperativeflightresearchprogram,NACA,theU.S.AirForce,andcommercialairlinesgraduallycollectedthenecessarydataby
usingpressuretype,icingratemetersanddeliberatelyflyingintosevereconditions.
Butduplicatinganaturalicingcloudwasanothermatter.ThefirsticingtestwasperformedonJune9,1944,butnotuntil1950,afterfiveyearsofpainstakingresearch
andtrialanderrortesting,wastheIRTspraysystemabletoproducedropletssmallenoughtoreproducerealisticicingpatternsonaircraftcomponents.
VernonGraydirectedtheeffortsofNACAfluidsystemsengineerHalbertWhitakertoredesignthetunnel'sspraysystem.Throughtrialanderror,thetwoperfecteda
designconsistingofabatteryofsome80spraynozzlesmountedon6horizontalbars.Thesystemproducedanicingcloudabout4by4feet(1,220by1,220mm)in
size.
Withtheabilitytosimulatenaturalicingconditions,theIRTwasnowaviableresearchtool.Engines,propellers,inductionsystems,andothercomponentsweretested
underavarietyofcontrolledicingconditions,leadingtothedevelopmentofthermalantiicingandthermalcyclicdeicingsystemsthatvirtuallyeliminatedicingasa
majormenacetoairtransportation.
Ironically,theevolutionofjetaircraft,whosegreaterpowerallowedthemtoflyaboveicingcloudsratherthanthroughthem,ledLewisLaboratorytophaseoutits
icingresearchprogramin1957.Inresponsetoindustrydemand,however,NASAreinstituteditstunneltestingprogramin1978.Theicingtunnelwasrenovatedand
itsinstrumentationupdated.Today,privateindustrycontractswithNASAtoruntestsonhardwareunderdevelopment.
Location/Access
TheNASALewisResearchCenter,21000BrookparkRoad,Cleveland,OH44135,isadjacenttoClevelandHopkinsInternationalAirport,about20miles(32km)
southwestofdowntownCleveland.ToursofitspowersystemsandpropulsionresearchfacilitiesaregivenonWednesdaysfrom2to3P.M.advancedreservations
arerequested,andvisitorsmustbeatleastsixteenyearsold.TheNASALewisVisitorCenterhouseseightexhibitgallerieswithdisplayspertainingtothenation's
spaceprogram.Phone(216)4332001.Hours:MondayFriday,9A.M.to4P.M.Saturday,10A.M.to3P.M.Sunday,1to5P.M.Nocharge.
FurtherReading
VirginiaP.Dawson,EnginesandInnovation:LewisLaboratoryandAmericanPropulsionTechnology,TheNASAHistorySeries(Washington,D.C.:National
AeronauticsandSpaceAdministration,1991).
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RotatingarmModeltestFacility
Hoboken,NewJersey
Intheearly1930s,Dr.KennethS.M.Davidson(18981958)couldfrequentlybeseentowingmodelyachtsthroughtheswimmingpoolatStevensInstituteof
Technology.Davidson,aprofessorofmechanicalengineeringandanavidyachtracer,wastryingtofindoutwhysomeboatswerefasterthanothers.
In1935,withgrantsfromtheResearchCorporationofAmericaandinterestedsportsmen,DavidsonbuiltasteeltowingtankontheStevenscampus.Thetank's
dimensions100feet(30m)long,9feet(2.74m)wide,and4feet(1.37m)deepmadeitessentialthatthetestmodelsheusedbecorrespondinglysmall.(Since
thedaysofWilliamFroude,whointhe1870spioneeredthemeasurementoffrictionalresistanceofmodelshipsastheyweretowedthroughwaterinatank,only
largeandcostlymodelbasinshadbeenemployedtopredictshipperformance.)Usingmodelsabout5feet(1,524mm)inlength,Davidsondevelopedthespecial
techniquesthatarerequiredtoobtainreliabledatausingsmallmodels.
By1939,studiesofpowerdrivenvesselshadtakentheleadoversailingyachtsattheExperimentalTowingTank,requiringthedevelopmentofnewtestmethodsand
apparatus.ContractswiththeU.S.NavyandtheNationalAdvisoryCommitteeforAeronauticsgavenewimpetustothetank,whichadvancedfromthestudyofonly
steady,straightlinemotiontoabroaderconcept:steering,turning,directionalstability,pitching,androllingcharacteristicsofvarioushulltypes.Between1942and
1945,thetankengineersputasideitsworkwithmerchantvesselsandsailingyachtstofocusentirelyonwarproblems,includingthedevelopmentofvarioustypesof
militarylandingcraft.
In1942theExperimentalTowingTankwasaugmentedwiththeinstallationofanewtankfortheinvestigationofsteeringandturning.TankNo.2was
Recordeddataisstudiedwhileatechnicianmakesadjustments
toacargoshipmodel(rear)undergoingtestsinthe
RotatingarmModeltestFacility.
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financedbytheOfficeofScientificResearchandDevelopment.Builtofconcrete,itis75feet(7m)squareand4feet(1.4m)deep,withadockforstartingmodels
inonecorner.Initially,modelstestedinthistankwereselfpropelledormanuallyoperated.In1945,withfinancialassistancefromtheU.S.Navy,laboratorystaff
membersWalterFriedandAlfredMuleydesignedauniquerotatingtestarmforthenewtank.
Thetestarmisahollowaluminumtube,bracedandcantileveredfromacentralverticalsupportingcolumn.Thearmis34feet(10.36m)longwithtracksrunningits
lengthformovingthetowingcarriagetothedesiredradius.Thearm,drivenbyanelectricmotoratthetopofthecolumn,iscapableofrotatinguptosixrevolutions
perminute,correspondingtoatangentialspeedof22feet(6.7m)persecondattheendofthearm.Measuringdevicesonthecarriageindicatethemechanicalforces
actingonthemodelinmotionandtransmitthedataelectricallytoacentralcontrolstationthedatahelppredictdynamicstability,maneuverability,andcontrolof
surfaceships,submersibles,andairships.Athirdtank,sponsoredbytheBureauofAeronautics,wascompletedin1944.BythisdatethestaffoftheExperimental
TowingTankhadgrowntosixtythree,almostonethirdofwhomwerewomen.
Pioneeringworkconductedherehasaddedimmenselytoourunderstandingofthehydrodynamicsofshipcontrol.Themaneuverabilityofvesselscannowbe
quantified,andhullsdesignedandmodifiedtoachievethedesiredperformance.Therotatingarmhasbeenappliedtohundredsofmilitaryandcommercialprojects,
includingconceptionanddevelopmentoftherevolutionary200foot(61m)Albacoresubmarineanddevelopmentofcomputerdrivensimulatorstopredictship
trajectories.Testsofafamilyofshiphulls,meanwhile,havehelpeddefinetheinfluenceofruddersize,blockcoefficient,draft,breadth,andsectionshapeupon
maneuveringqualities.
Althoughthemodeltestfacilityhasbeenupgradedovertheyears,itsbasicprinciplesremainunchanged.FollowingDavidson'sdeathin1958,theExperimental
TowingTankwasrenamedinhishonor.
Location/Access
DavidsonLaboratory,StevensInstituteofTechnology,CastlePointStation,711HudsonStreet,Hoboken,NJ07030phone(201)2165300.Hours:weekdays,9
A.M.to5P.M.
FurtherReading
KennethS.M.Davidson,''TheGrowingImportanceofSmallModelsforStudiesinNavalArchitecture,"TransactionsTheSocietyofNavalArchitectsand
MarineEngineers49(1941):91121.
,"TurningandCourseKeepingQualities,"TransactionsTheSocietyofNavalArchitectsandMarineEngineers54(1946):152200.
TheExperimentalTowingTankTenYearReport(Hoboken,N.J.:StevensInstituteofTechnology,1946).
Page322
McKinleyClimaticLaboratory
EglinAirForceBase,Florida
TheMcKinleyClimaticLaboratoryhasanunequaledabilitytosimulateawiderangeofclimaticconditions,producingArcticcold,desertheat,andtropicalhumidity
toorder.Since1947,hundredsofdifferentaircraftandthousandsofitemsofmilitaryequipmenthavebeentestedinthis"weatherwonderland"thatishowBrigadier
GeneralC.A.Brandt,firstdirectorofthelaboratory,describeditprovidinginformationvitaltotheirsafeandreliableperformanceunderextremeconditions.
TheArmyAirCorpsestablishedacoldweathertestingstationatLaddFieldinFairbanks,Alaska,in1940,buttestingwasdifficultbecauseofunpredictableweather,
andtheresultsoftenwerequestionable.ColonelAshleyC.McKinleyproposedconstructionofanallweathertestingfacilitythatwouldpermittestingundercontrolled
conditionsyearround,andin1943CongressassigneddevelopmentofacoldweathertestingprogramtotheUnitedStatesAirProvingGroundCommandatEglin
Field,Florida.TheClimaticHangar,asitwasfirstcalled,wascompletedin1947.ItwasrenamedinhonorofMcKinleyin1971.
TheMcKinleyClimaticLaboratoryconsistsofamainhangarandseveralsmallertestroomslocatedinseparatebuildingsnearby.Thehangar,withanunobstructed
floorspaceof201by252feet(61by77m)andaceiling70feet(21m)highatthecenter,encloses2.9millioncubicfeet(82,070m3)ofspace.Itwascapableof
accommodatingfiveB29satthesametime.Onlyasmalladdition,completedin1969,wasnecessarytotesttheC5A.Thehangardoors,eachweighing200tons
(181t),moveonstandardgaugerailroadtrackselectricsurfaceheatersmaintainathermostaticallycontrolledtemperatureabovefreezingtopreventthedoorsfrom
freezingintheclosedposition.
Theweatherlaboratoryincludedanengineandequipmenttestroom,30by133feet(9.1by40.5m)and25feet(7.6m)high,abletosimulatesandandduststorms
severalsmallertestrooms,includingtropicmarine,desert,jungle,cold,andhottestroomsanallweatherroomandanaltitudechamber.Thehangarandtestrooms
canproducetemperaturesrangingfrom70F(57C)to165F(74C),aswellashumidity(from10to95percent),rain(upto12inches,or305mm,perhour),
freezingrain,fog,snow,dust,sand,wind(upto100milesanhour,or161km/hr),andartificialsunlight.
Theentirefacilityiselectricallypowered.RefrigerationisproducedbythreecentrifugalchillersystemsusingR12refrigerant.Eachsystemconsistsofone1,000
horsepower(746kW)lowstagecompressor,one1,250horsepower(932kW)highstagecompressor,acondenser,threebiphasetanks,andliquidfilledcooling
coils.Thehighstagecompressors,eachwithfourcentrifugalwheels,arenormallyusedfortestconditionsrequiringtemperaturesdownto0F(17.78C).Forlower
Page323
TheMcKinleyClimaticLaboratory,locatedatEglinAirForceBase,
Florida,isa"weatherwonderland,"producingArcticcold,desertheat,
andtropicalhumiditytoorder.CourtesyEglinAirForceBase.
temperatures,thelowstage,threewheelunitsarecompoundedwiththehighstagemachines.Twoventilationsystemsdeliverconditionedoutsideair(heatedor
cooled)tothehangartoreplaceairexhaustedduringengineoperations.
Thesizeofthehangarallowedengineerstotestaircraftinmostoperatingsituations,exceptflyingitself.Flaps,landinggear,bombdoors,bombreleases,gunturrets,
cameras,andothermechanicalequipmentallcouldbeoperatedandassessedforfieldreadiness.Thefirstlargescalecoldtestinginthenewlaboratory,conductedin
May1947,subjectedaFairchildC82,BoeingB29,LockheedP80,NorthAmericanP51,RepublicP47,SikorskyR5Dhelicopter,trucks,tanks,clothing,and
otheritemstoatemperatureof70F(57C).
TheMcKinleyClimaticLaboratoryputcoldweathertestingonascientificbasis,advancingthesciencesofclimaticsimulationandtesting,refrigeration,andinsulation.
Today,inadditiontomilitaryuse,thelaboratoryconductsawidevarietyofnonmilitarytestingvitaltothenationalinterest.Thesehaveincluded:fortheNational
AeronauticalandSpaceAdministration,testsofinsulationonthespaceshuttlefueltankfortheFederalAviationAdministration,testsofdeicingfluidsforaircraft
wingsandvisibilityinstrumentsinfogfortheTennesseeValleyAuthority,testsoftheeffectoffreezingrainonelectricalcontactsfortheNationalScienceFoundation,
testsofballoonsupportedinstrumentationsystems
Page324
forcloudstudiesandfortheU.S.CoastGuard,developmentaltestingofthe65ADolphinhelicopterandArcticsurvivaltrainingforpersonnel.Thisisstilltheonly
facilityofitskind.Evensnowtiresforautomobileshavebeentestedhere.
Location/Access
ThemaingateofEglinAirForceBaseisonU.S.98northeastofFortWaltonBeach.ToursofthelaboratorymaybescheduledbycallingthePublicAffairsOfficeat
(904)8823931,orwriteto101WestDStreet,Suite110,EglinAFB,FL32542.
FurtherReading
C.W.Kniffen,"TheAAF'sClimaticHangar,"RefrigeratingEngineering54(August1947):12830.
"HangarforAeroplaneTestsinExtremeClimaticConditions,"Engineering(London)166(9July1948):2527.
ExperimentalBreederReactorI
Arco,Idaho
Imagineafurnacethatcanchangeburningfuelintomorefuel,enoughtoreplacethefuelitburnsplusalittlebitmore.Thisdescribesaprocesscalledfuelbreeding,
firstdemonstratedtobetechnicallyfeasiblebytheExperimentalBreederReactorI(EBRI)in1953.DevelopedandoperatedbyscientistsoftheArgonneNational
Laboratorybetween1947to1963,EBRIwasalsothefirstnuclearreactortoproduceusableamountsofelectricity,demonstratingtotheworldthattheatomic
nucleuscouldserveasasourceofpower.
DuringWorldWarIIscientistsandengineers,ledbyEnricoFermi,hadworkedfeverishlytoachieveacontrollednuclearchainreactionasasteptowarddeveloping
America'sfirstnuclearweapons.Theybecameconvincedthatbreedingmorefuelthanisconsumedinanuclearreactorwasatheoreticalpossibility,buttheurgencyof
wardictatedthatfullattentionbegiventotheweaponsprogram,sointerestinthebreederreactorhadtobeputasidetemporarily.Butbreederresearchflourished
afterthewarastheUnitedStatesAtomicEnergyCommission(AEC),establishedbyCongressin1946,exploredthepossibilitiesofcivilianusesofatomicpower.
In1947theAECapprovedtheconstructionofaprototypefastneutronbreederreactorthatwoulddemonstratepowergenerationandattempttoprovethetheoryof
fuelbreeding.Thetaskseemedcritical,giventhescarcityoffissionablematerial(knownuraniumreservesthenweremuchlower)andincreasedDefenseDepartment
demands.Theexperimentalreactor,designatedEBRI,
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CutawaydrawingoftheEBRIandsupportingsystems.
wouldusefissionableuranium235asfueltoconvertrelativelystableuranium238intofissionableplutonium239.Itwouldbecooledbyliquidsodiumpotassium.
(Thermalreactorsuselightorheavywaterasacoolant,butwatermoderatestheneutrons,therebydecreasingthebreedingratio,atraitundesirableinbreeder
reactors.)AteamledbyphysicistWalterH.Zinn,astudentofFermi'sandfirstdirectoroftheArgonneNationalLaboratory,plannedthefastreactor,oneofseveral
projectstobebuiltsimultaneouslyatanewtestingstationinaremotedesertregionofeasternIdaho.
EBRI,builtbytheBechtelCorporation,wascompletedin1951.LateinMay,Zinnarrivedforthefirstattempttoreachcriticalityapainstakingprocedurebecause
Zinncouldonlyguessatthenumberofpencillikerodsofuranium235thatwouldbeneeded.NotuntilAugust24,withalittlemorethan114pounds(52kg)offuel,
didZinnbringthereactortothepointofcriticality.Followingseveralmonthsoflowpowerrunsandtestsofthecontrolsystem,onDecember20Zinngatheredhis
teamforahistoricexperiment:forthefirsttime,theywouldattempttoproduceusefulamountsofelectricityfromnuclearpower.Gradually,Zinnincreasedthe
powerto250,to340,to410kilowatts.Thechainreactionwasproducingheatinthe"blanket"ofnaturaluraniumsurroundingthecore.At1:23P.M.,Zinnnotedin
thelogbook:"Loaddissipaterconnectedtogenerator.Electricityflowsfromatomicenergy."SecurityconcernsdictatedamorecrypticmessagebesenttotheAEC's
directorofreactordevelopment:''Ourboystartedhisjourneytoday,"Zinnwroteinatelegram."Alliswell.Hewasabletoundertakethetripwithoutassistance.
MerryXmas."
EBRIoperatedatapowerlevelofabout1.2megawattsthermal,producing
Page326
250kilowattsofelectricity,enoughtomeetthereactorbuilding'sneeds.ButEBRI'sprimarymissionwasnottoprovethatelectricitycouldbegeneratedbyanuclear
reactortherewasnothingnewingeneratingelectricpowerfromheatbutwhethermorenuclearfuelcouldbecreatedthanthereactorconsumed.Theexperimental
reactorcontinuedtorunatdesignpoweruntilaleakintheheatexchangercausedatemporaryshutdowninJune1952.Whilerepairswerebeingmade,someofthe
fuelrodswereremovedforanalysis.InOctober,thefirstresultsfromtheArgonnelaboratorysuggestedthatthereactorwouldprovethepossibilityofbreeding.
Encouraged,scientiststurnedtotheproblemofdesigningimprovedcoresthatwouldincreasethebreedingratio,sothatthereactorcouldnotonlysustainitsown
operationbutproducemorefuel.InJune1953,EBRIprovedthatbreedingwaspossiblewhenchemistsseparatedafewmilligramsofplutoniumfromtheuranium
fuel.
Threeothercoresweretestedoverthenextdecade.Thelastofthese,calledMarkIV,usedplutoniumtoproduce1.27newatomsofplutoniumforeachatom
consumed.EBRIhadprovedthetechnicalfeasibilityofnuclearfuelbreeding,promisingtoextendahundredfoldormorethenation'suraniumresources.Following
completionoftheMarkIVtestsin1963,EBRIwasshutdownanddecommissioned.In1966itwasdesignatedaNationalHistoricLandmarkbytheU.S.
DepartmentoftheInterior.
Location/Access
EBRIislocatedattheIdahoNationalEngineeringLaboratory.
FurtherReading
RichardG.HewlettandFrancisDuncan,AHistoryoftheUnitedStatesAtomicEnergyCommission,vol.2,AtomicShield(UniversityPark,Pa.:The
PennsylvaniaStateUniversityPress,1969).
WilliamLanouette,"DreamMachine,"TheAtlanticMonthly,April1983,3552.
AssociationofAmericanRailroads'RailroadwheelDynamometer
Pueblo,Colorado
TheAssociationofAmericanRailroads'railroadwheeldynamometertestsrailroadwheelsundercontrolledconditionsexceedingthoseofnormalservice.Itcanapply
amaximumbrakeshoeforceof40,000pounds(18,150kg)andcantestwheelsatspeedsupto178milesperhour(286km/hr)andunderloadsofupto127,000
pounds(57,606kg),thelargestequivalentinertiawheelloadinrailroadpractice.Itsabilitysimultaneouslytoapplylateralandverticalloadsofup

teachers
Page327
AARRailroadwheelDynamometerfrommotorend.
to15,000poundsand60,000pounds(6,800kgand27,215kg),respectively,makesthismachineuniqueamongrailroadwheeldynamometers.
Therailroadwheelsupportsthelocomotiveorcarasitrollsalongtherail,guidingitthroughcurvesandswitcheswithitsflange.Thewheelalsoactsasabrakedrum
whenthebrakesareapplied,thebrakeshoespressagainstthewheeltreadand,throughtheirrubbingfriction,sloworstopthetrain.Thisfrictionalsocausestherim
ofthewheeltoheatandexpand,generatingadditionalstressesintherimandplate.Asrunningspeedsandweightsonwheelsdoubledanddoubledagaininthelate
nineteenthcentury,mechanicalandthermalstressesoftencausedcrackstodevelopinthecastironwheelsand,sometimes,disastrouswheelfailures.Theproblemled
railwaymechanicalengineersandmetallurgiststobeginformalstudiesofwheelfailures,andwheelandbrakeshoedesign,materials,andmanufacture.
Totestfullsizewheelsandbrakeshoesundercontrolledconditions,SouthernPacificRailroaddesignedandbuiltwhatisbelievedtobethefirstfullscalewheeland
brakedynamometerin1891.In1893theMasterCarBuilders'Association(forerunnerofthemechanicaldivisionoftheAssociationofAmericanRailroads)
commissionedafullscalebrakeshoetestingmachineinordertoestablishanindustrywidestandardforfrictionandwearforthemanymakesofbrakeshoesthenin
use.Ascarsbecameheavierandoperatingspeedshigher,whichincreasedbrakingheatandputevengreaterdemandsontheintegrityofthewheels,other
dynamometerswerebuilttostudybrakinganditseffectonshoesandwheels.
Page328
Intheearly1950s,toevaluatetheperformanceofitswroughtsteelwheelsandaxles,andcastironbrakeshoes,U.S.SteelCorporation(USS)createdpreliminary
designspecificationsforarailroadwheeldynamometerwithcapabilitiesfarbeyondthoseofexistingbrakingdynamometers.Thesteelmakercontractedwith
AdamsonUnitedCompanyofAkron,Ohio,tobuildthespecialdynamometerforuseattheUSSoperatedAppliedResearchLaboratoryinMonroeville,
Pennsylvania.JosephM.Wandrisco,USSchiefresearchengineerforrailroadproducts,wasresponsiblefordesignspecifications.RexC.Seanor,chiefengineerof
AdamsonUnited,oversawitsconstruction.
In1983theAssociationofAmericanRailroadspurchasedthedynamometerfromU.S.SteelandmovedittoitsChicagotechnicalcenter.AARwantedtoevaluate
theeffectsofgradeordragbrakingandrollingloadsoninternalstressesinvariousfreightcarwheeldesigns.Italsoneededadynamometertotestcompositionand
metalbrakeshoesforcertificationandqualitycontrol.ItwasmovedtoPueblo,Colorado,in1996.
Thedynamometercantestwheelsunderavarietyofbrakingandrollingcontactloadingconditions.Itcanconductgrade,stop,andstaticbrakingtestswithahigh
degreeofprecision,andcantestaxlesasrotatingcantileverbeams.Theflangedstubaxle,onwhichthetestwheelismounted,isequippedwithstraingaugesto
measuretorqueduringbraking.
Thedynamometer'sreplaceable,frictiondrivenrailiscontinuosringofheattreatedrailsteelboltedtoafabricatedwheel.Therailwheelcanbeoscillatedlaterallyto
simulatecurvingandlateralinstability.Tenthickandfourthin64inch(1,620mm)diametersteelflywheeldiskscanbeboltedtotheflangedrotorshafttoproduce
theinertiaeffectofdynamicwheelloadsupto27,000pounds(12,250kg),greaterthanthatofanyotherrailroaddynamometer.
Themachineispoweredbya200horsepower(149kW)directcurrentmillmotortospeedsrangingfrom0to1,500rpm(0to178mph,or286km/hr,fora40
inch,or1,020mmwheel).A250kWgenerator,drivenbya400horsepower(298kW)synchronousmotor,suppliespowertothemotor,suppliespowertothe
motor.In1987thedynamometerwascomputerizedtoallowautomaticcontrolandthedigitaldisplayoftestinputandresults.
Location/Access
ThedynamometermaybevieweduponapplicationtotheAssociationofAmericanRailroads,TransportationTechnicalCenter,TestCenterRoad,P.O.Box11130,
Pueblo,CO810010130phone(719)5840541.
FurtherReading
G.F.CarpenterandT.E.Johnson,"AARDynamometer,"Proceedingsofthe1988JointASMEIEEERailroadConference,Pittsburgh,Pa.,April1314,
1988,1039.
Page329
VallecitosBoilingWaterReactor
nearPlesanton,California
TheVallecitosBoilingWaterReactor(VBWR)wasthefirstprivatelybuiltnuclearpowerplanttosupplypowerinmegawattamountstoanelectricutilitygrid.
Althoughthisdevelopmentalplant'scapacitywassmall(5megawatts)anditslifebrief(onlysixyears),testsconductedherehelpedpavethewayforthelargernuclear
plantsthatfollowed.
TheVallecitosBoilingWaterReactorwasbuiltbyGeneralElectricandBechtelCorporationin1956and1957forjointoperationbyGEandthePacificGas&
ElectricCompany.Itwentcriticalthatis,itachievedacontrolled,selfsustainingnuclearreactioninAugust1957andwasconnectedwiththePG&Egridthe
followingOctober.Untilitwasshutdownin1963,theVBWRhelpeddevelopandtestboilingwaterreactorfuel,corecomponents,controls,andsystems,and
providedavaluabletraininggroundforengineers,physicists,andoperators.
Followingthediscoveryofnuclearfissionin1939,scientistsknewthatfission(thesplittingofatoms)releasedfarmoreenergythancommonchemicalreactions,such
asburningcoal.Buttogetusefulheatfromfission,engineershadtofindwaystomaketheuraniumfuelstableathightemperaturesandtotransfertheheatproduced.
Theideaofextractingheatbyboilingwater,anobviouschoice,ledtoconstructionofanexperimentalboilingwaterreactorattheArgonneNationalLaboratory,
whichprovedthesoundnessoftheidea.
Intheearly1950s,CommonwealthEdisonCompany,incooperationwithNuclearPowerGroup,Inc.,signedacontractwithGeneralElectricandBechteltodesign
andbuildthe180megawattDresdenNuclearPowerStationinIllinois.TheVallecitosreactorwasdesignedtoserveasapilotplantfortheDresdenproject.There,
GEwouldtestnuclearstability,alternativecontrolsystems,instrumentation,heattransfer,andotheraspectsofboilingwaterreactoroperation.
ThecoreoftheVBWR,containingthefuelelements,wasenclosedinavessel7feet(2,133mm)indiameterand20feet(6,096mm)high,linedwithstainlesssteel.
Theinitialfuelelementsconsistedofamixtureoffullyenricheduraniumoxideandstainlesssteelpowdercladinstainlesssteelthiswaslaterreplacedwithaprototype
elementfortheDresdenplantconsistingofenricheduraniumoxidepelletscladinzirconium.Inadditiontothereactor,thepressurevesselcontainedthecoolant
(water)andcontrolrods(rodsofneutronabsorbingmaterialinsertedintothereactortocontroltherateofthereaction).
Thereactorwashousedinavaportightsteelcylinder48feet(14.63m)indiameterand100feet(30.48m)high,withhemisphericalends.A4foot(1,219mm)
thickconcreteflooratgradelevelseparatedthereactorvessel,steamgenerator,pumps,andpiping(whichwereallbelowground)fromtheupperservicearea.The
turbinegeneratorandauxiliarieswerehousedinatwostorybuilding
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VallecitosBoilingWaterReactor,June1957.
CourtesyPacificGas&ElectricCompany.
adjacenttothereactor.Interestingly,theturbine,astandardmarineunitmodifiedtoacceptsaturatedsteam,startedlifeaboardanAmericanbuilttanker.
Vallecitosprovedanidealtestfacility.Itsradiationenvironmentwaterat550F(287C)and1,000psig(6,895kPa)wasidenticaltothatinlargerboilingwater
reactors,whileitsoperatingschedulecouldbereadilyadjustedtotheneedsofengineerstestingalternativeoperatingcycles,somethingthatcouldnothavebeendone
ataplantdedicatedentirelytoproducingelectricity.
WhentheVallecitosreactorwasshutdownin1963,ithadgenerated391,000megawatthoursofthermalenergy.ItsgeneratorhadbeenconnectedtothePG&E
gridfor16,614hoursandhaddelivered40,400netmegawatthoursofelectricityallwithoutasinglelosttimeaccident.Moreimportantly,theplanthadprovided
reliableperformancedataonboilingwaterreactorsanddemonstratedthesafetyofnuclearpower.
Location/Access
TheVallecitosreactorislocatedatGE'sVallecitosNuclearCenternearPleasanton,California,approximately40miles(64km)southeastofSanFranciscoandisnot
opentothepublic.Thereactor,pressurevessel,andlaboratorieswerestilltherein1987,butthefuel,turbinegenerator,andinstrumentationhadbeenremoved.
FurtherReading
L.Kornblith,Jr.,andW.A.Raymond,"OperatingExperiencewiththeVallecitosBoilingWaterReactor,"ElectricalEngineering78(April1959):33438.
Page331
StanfordLinearAcceleratorCenter
Stanford,California
Highenergyparticlephysicsliesontheborderlinebetweenphysicsandengineering,andthedevelopmentofparticleacceleratorsthe"atomsmashers"ofthepopular
presstohigherenergieshasdependedontheproductionofreliableandaccuratemachines,eachlargerandmorepowerfulthanitspredecessor.
Particleacceleratorsaremachinesusedtogiveenergytobeamsofelectricallychargedsubatomicparticles.Themostpowerfulacceleratorsareusedinresearchto
discoverthefundamentalcomponentsofmatterandtostudytheirbehavior.Inalinearaccelerator,or"linac,"nuclearparticlesareinjectedintooneendand
acceleratedtoveryhighenergiesbyanoscillatingelectricfield.
Modernlinacswerepioneeredbytwogroups:oneatStanford,workingwithelectronsandanotherattheUniversityofCaliforniaBerkeley,workingwithprotons.At
Stanford,W.W.Hansen'sinterestinXrayproblemsledhimtolookfornewwaysofobtaininghighvoltageelectronsbeginninginthe1930s.Encouragedbythe
successoftwo12foot(3.7m)accelerators,dubbedtheMarkIandMarkII,Hansenandhiscolleaguesproposedconstructionofabillionvolt(or1GeV,forgiga
electronvolts)accelerator.FundedbytheOfficeofNavalResearchandcompletedin1952,this300foot(91.4m)longmachine,designatedtheMarkIII,proved
apowerfultoolfornuclearresearchandservedasamodelforelectronacceleratorsworldwide.
TheStanfordLinearAcceleratorCenter(SLAC),operatedunderacontractwiththeU.S.DepartmentofEnergy,wasestablishedin1961asanationallaboratoryfor
researchinparticlephysicsandthedevelopmentofnewtechniquesinhighenergyacceleratorsandelementaryparticledetectors.ThebasicresearchtoolsatSLAC
haverequiredtheapplicationoftechnologiesinvolvinghighvacuumsystems,lowtemperatures,highspeedelectronics,precisionsmallscalemechanicalfabrication,
specialmagnets,andunconventionalmaterials.
The2mile(3.2km)longlinearaccelerator,whichbeganoperationsforphysicsresearchin1966,canprovideelectronandpositronbeamsatenergiesupto50
GeV,makingthisthemostpowerfullinacintheworld.Constructionoftravelingwaveacceleratorslikethisonerequiresmachineworkofthehighestprecision.The
acceleratorisalignedtobestraightwithin0.020inch(0.5mm).Ifanysectionoftheacceleratorisoutofalignment,theelectromagneticfieldsproducedinthewallsby
thepassingbeamcanseverelylimittheintensity.
Theacceleratingwaveguide,alongconductingtubeaboutfourinches(10.2cm)indiameter,wasassembledfromcylindersanddisksformingindividualmicrowave
cavities.Thesecavities,madeofhighpuritycopper,weremachinedtoaprecisionwithin0.20inch(5.08mm),then,toholdhighvacuum,brazedina
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Oneendofa40foot(12m)sectionoftheaccelerator,showinga
retractableFresnelalignmenttarget.Electronsareinjectedinto
oneendandacceleratedtohighenergiesbypulsedmicrowaves.
Therectangularwaveguidenearthetopconveysmicrowavepowerto
theaccelerator.
hydrogenfurnaceinto10foot(3m)sections.Eachcavitywasthen"tuned"byslightlydeformingtheoutsideusinghydraulicrams.Therearenearly100,000ofthese
cavitiesintheaccelerator.
Theproblemof"beambreakup"wassolvedbymountingfour10foot(3m)acceleratorsectionsonalargealuminumpipeandaligningthemwithanopticaltransitin
thelaboratory.These40foot(12.1m)longsectionswerethentransportedtotheundergroundtunnelandconnectedtogether.Fresneltargets,builtintheendof
eachsection,interceptedalaserbeamtravelingdownthecenterofthepipe.Eachsectionwasthenalignedseparatelyusingitsownjackingscrews.
A"switchyard"ofmagneticelementsattheendoftheacceleratorcandirectthebeamstoanyofseveralexperimentalareas,includingthreemagneticspectrometers
capabletoanalyzingmomentaupto1.6,8,and20GeV.OtherSLACfacilitiesincludeSPEAR,anelectronpositronstorageringfacilityengagedinresearchwith
collidingbeams,eachofenergyupto3.7GeV(SPEARwasusedinthediscoveryofthepsiparticle,forwhichresearchersreceivedthe1976Nobel
Page333
Prize)PEP,alargecollidingbeamstorageringcompletedin1980andtheSLACLinearCollider(SLC),whichbeganoperatingin1988.Thelattermachinereaches
centerofmassenergiesupto100GeV,wheretherecentlydiscoveredZ,theneutralmediatoroftheweakinteraction,canbeproduced.
Inrecentyears,SLAChasshifteditsprincipalfocusfromfixedtargetexperimentstothestudyofelectronpositronannihilationtoformhadrons,leptons,andphotons.
ResearchersatSLACcontinuetouncovernewmodesofdisintegrationandnewcomplexitiesinthepropertiesofmatter.
Location/Access
TheStanfordLinearAcceleratorCenterislocatedinthesceniceasternfoothillsoftheSantCruzMountains,westofthemaincampusandabout30miles(48km)
southofSanFrancisco(2575SanHillsRoad,MenloPark,CA94025).Itisopentothepublicfortours.ContactthePublicInformationOffice:phone(415)926
2204.
FurtherReading
M.Chodorow,etal.,"StandfordHighEnergyElectronAccelerator(MarkIII),"TheReviewofScientificInstruments26(February1955):134204.
LeonLedermanwithDickTeresi,TheGodParticle(BostonandNewYork:HoughtonMifflinCompany,1993).
M.StanleyLivingstonandJohnP.Blewett,ParticleAccelerators(NewYork:McGrawHillBookCompany,Inc.,1962).
Page334
COMMUNICATIONSANDDATAPROCESSING
Introduction
byWilliamJ.Warren
Ourideaslivethroughcommunication.Ouraccesstotheaccumulatedknowledgeoftheworlddependsonourabilitytostoreandretrieveit.Gutenberg'sprinting
pressmadepossiblemultiplereproductionofworkspreviouslycopiedonlylaboriouslybyhand.Thus,thethoughtsofscholarswereopenedtoanyonewiththeskills
toreadthem.
Commercehasalsobeenheavilydependentoncommunications.Boththetypewriterandthetelephonerevolutionizedthebusinessoffice.Rapid,precise
communicationisanexpectednormratherthanaluxury.
Demandforquickaccesstothenewsofthedayledtothedevelopmentofmanydevices.ThePaigeCompositorwasdesignedtoautomatethelaboriousprocessof
handsettingtype.Whileitworked,therapiddevelopmentofotherdevicesquicklysupplantedit.Neverthelessitwasanimportantstepintheprocess.
Edison'sphonographgaveustheopportunitytoenjoygreatmusicalartistsinourownhomes.Italsoleddownthepathofdatastoragebyotherthanwrittenmeans.
Asthevolumeofwrittencommunicationincreased,sodidtheneedsofthedeliverysystem.Lickingandhandcancelingstampsforthousandsofpiecesofmailbecame
impracticalforbothbusinessusersandtheU.S.PostOffice.ThePitneyBowespostagemeterwasanearlyprecursoroftoday'sautomatedmaildeliveryservice.
Oneofthegreatestimpactsoncommunicationsinthelastfiftyyearswastheinventionofthephotocopyingmachine.Quickmultipleimagesalloweddistributionofan
avalancheofinformationtoallremotelyinterestedparties.Officefilesbulgedwithpaper.Morereasonablestorageandretrievalsystemswereneeded.Fromthat
necessitycametheIBMRAMACdiskfile.Storingmillionsof
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bitsofinformationonmultiplediskswithlightningfastretrievalledtotheusefulcomputer.Programsanddataequivalenttoroomsoffilescouldbestoredwithina
desktopboxandaccessedintheblinkofaneye.
Fastandinexpensivecommunicationshaveallowedthedevelopmentoftoday'sworld.Mechanicalengineersarestillintheforefrontofmakingcommunicationseasier
andmoreprecise.
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EdisonPhonograph
WestOrange,NewJersey
ThomasAlvaEdison(18471931)stumbledacrossthephonographin1877whileengagedinresearchonthetelegraphathislaboratoryinMenloPark,NewJersey.
Theyounginventor's''automatictelegraph"recordedincomingMorsemessagesbyembossingthedotsanddashesonrevolvingdiscsofpaper.Edisonwasintrigued
todiscoverthataneedleattachedtoavibratingdiaphragmwouldindentpatternsontoamovingsurfaceandthatathighspeeds"alightmusical,rhythmicalsound,
resemblinghumantalkheardindistinctly"sometimesemanatedfromtheinstrument.
OnNovember29thatyear,Edisonproducedasketchofamachinetorecordandreproducethehumanvoice."Insteadofusingadisc,"helaterrecalled,"Idesigned
alittlemachineusingacylinderprovidedwithgroovesaroundthesurface.Overthiswastobeplacedtinfoil,whicheasilyreceivedandrecordedthemovementsofthe
diaphragm.Asketchwasmadeandthepieceworkprice$18wasmarkedonthesketch."
EdisongavethesketchtoJohnKruesi,oneofhistopmachinists,whobuiltthemachinedespitehisskepticism.Thefirstphonographwasasolidbrassandcastiron
instrument,witha3inch(90mm)groovedcylinderona1foot(305mm)longshaftandahandcranktoturnit.Ateachendofthecylinderwasadiaphragmwith
astylus,mountedinanadjustabletube.
OnDecember6,1877,withhisassistantsathisside,Edisonputtinfoilaroundthecylinderandturnedthehandleoftheshaftwhileshoutingintooneofthediaphragms:
Maryhadalittlelamb,
Itsfleecewaswhiteassnow,
AndeverywherethatMarywent
Thelambwassuretogo.
Heturnedtheshaftbacktothestartingpoint,drewawaythefirstdiaphragm,adjustedtheothertoreproducesound,andagainturnedthehandle.Allwereamazedto
hearEdisonrecitethenurseryrhyme"almostperfectly."Edisonlaterdeclared,"Iwasneversotakenabackinallmylife.Everybodywasastonished.Iwasalways
afraidofthingsthatworkedthefirsttime."EdisonfieldapatentforthephonographonDecember15,1877.
ThenewtalkingmachinereceivedworldwidenotorietyandwonfameforEdisonasthegreatestinventoroftheage.Butafterhisinitialsuccess,Edisonputitasidefor
tenyearstoworkonthefirstpracticalincandescentlightandelectricaldistributionsystem.WhenhemovedtoanewlaboratoryinWestOrangein1887,Edison
resumedsustainedexperimentalworkonhis"favoriteinvention"andestablishedtwofactoriestomeetgrowingpopulardemandforthedeviceby1914,
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ThomasEdisonandhisnewtalkingmachine,ca.1877.
Edison'sphonographbusinessexceeded$7millioninvolumeannually.Edisoncontinuedtoworkonthetechnicalimprovementofthephonographfortherestofhis
life,amassing195patents.
Edison'ssimpleandunprecedentedinstrumentallowed,forthefirsttime,thepermanentrecordingandreproductionofsoundandbroughtmusic,heretoforetheluxury
oftheprivilegedclass,intotheeverydaylifeofthecommonperson.Fromthismachineevolvedgreatindustrieswhoseproductshaveincreasedtheenjoymentoflife
forpeopleworldwide.
Location/Access
Edison'sexperimentalphonographisondisplayinThomasEdison'slaboratory,partoftheEdisonNationalHistoricSiteadministeredbytheNationalParkService,
MainStreetatLakesideAvenue,WestOrange,NewJersey07052phone(201)7365050.LaboratorytoursaregivenWednesdaythroughSunday,9:30A.M.to
4:30P.M.Admissionfee(exceptforseniorcitizensandchildrenundersixteen).
FurtherReading
MatthewJosephson,Edison:ABiography(NewYork:McGrawHillBookCompany,Inc.,1959).
AndreMillard,EdisonandtheBusinessofInnovation,JohnsHopkinsStudiesintheHistoryofTechnology(Baltimore:TheJohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1990).
Page338
PaigeCompositor
Hartford,Connecticut
ThePaigecompositor,ortypesettingmachine,namedafterinventorJamesW.Paige(18411917)ofRochester,NewYork,wasthefirstmachineabletoset,justify,
anddistributetypesimultaneouslyandautomaticallyfromacommoncase.Itshistoryiscomplicated,anditishardtoassignadefinitedatetoitsinvention.Paige's
originalideaforthetypesettingmachine,developedin1873,madenoprovisionforjustification,whichwasdevelopedbyCharlesR.North,askilledmechanic
employedbyPaige.In1877PaigetookhisinventiontotheFarnhamTypesetterCompanyinHartford,whichgraduallydevelopedthegiganticcompositor.
ThePaigecompositorhasbeencalledagentlegiant.Itis9feet(2,743mm)longandweighs5,000pounds(2,268kg).Withsome18,000separateparts,800shaft
bearings,andanalmostuncountablenumberofsprings,itisthemostelaboratemachineeverbuilttosettypefortheprinter.Forallitsbulkandcomplexity,however,
thecolossuscouldsetonlyagate(5point)type.
Thekeyboardof109characterswasarrangedsothatwholewordscouldbeassembledwithasinglestroke.Askilledoperator,usingallfingersofbothhands,could
setandjustify9,000to12,000ems(aunitoftype)perhour.Astheoperatorbroughtdownthewords,themachineautomaticallymeasuredthespaceoccupiedby
eachworddividedthespaceleftinthelinebythenumberofspacesrequiredforwardedthetypetothejustifyingmechanism,wherespacesoftheproperthickness
wereautomaticallyinsertedandpushedthecorrectlyjustifiedlineontothereceivinggalleyorraceway.
ThePaigecompositorcouldset,justify,anddistributetype
automatically,butitwasalmostimmediatelyeclipsedbythe
Linotypemachine.
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Distributionwasaccomplishedindependently.Threecolumnsofdeadtypecouldbeplacedinthedistributorgalley,locatedbeneaththemachine,atasingletime.
There,themachineejectedbroken,inverted,orotherwisedefectivecharactersbeforeadvancingthemtothecomposingsection.
ThefirstcompletedPaigecompositor,builtatthePratt&WhitneyworksinHartford,wasunveiledin1887.Afterfurtherexperimentationandprotracteddelays
owingtoinsufficientcapital,asecondmachinewasannouncedin1894.Butbythen,OttmarMergenthaler(185499)hadperfectedhisLinotypemachine,which,
insteadofreusingfoundrycasttype,castnewtypeforeachapplication.ThePaigemachine'sbackers,amongthemSamuelClemens(MarkTwain),reputedlylost
morethan$2millionintheillfatedventure.Itsinventor,meanwhile,diedpenniless.
OnlytwoPaigecompositorswerebuilt.Thefirst,of1887,istheonlysurvivor.MergenthalerLinotypeCompanygavetheother,of1894,toCornellUniversity,which
donateditforscrapduringWorldWarII.ThePaigemadeonlyabriefcommercialappearance,whenitwastestedintheofficesoftheChicagoHeraldin1894.
Location/Access
ThePaigecompositorof1887isdisplayedattheMarkTwainHouse,351FarmingtonAvenue,Hartford,CT06105phone(203)4936411.Hours:JuneOctober:
daily,9:30A.M.to4:30P.M.NovemberMay:TuesdaySaturday,9:30A.M.to4P.M.,andSunday1to4P.M.Admissionfee.
FurtherReading
LucienAlphonseLegrosandJohnCameronGrant,TypographicalPrintingSurfaces:TheTechnologyandMechanismofTheirProduction(London:Longmans,
Green,andCo.,1916).
PitneyBowesModel"M"PostageMeter
Stamford,Connecticut
Theintrospectiveinventorenvisionedamachinethatcouldprintstampsonenvelopes,doingawaywiththecostlyandtimeconsumingprocessofbuying,licking,and
sticking,andprotectingbusinessesfromstamptheft.ArthurHillPitney(18711933),aChicagowallpaperstoreclerk,evidentlyknewnothingofahalfdozenearlier
attemptstobuildapostalmeterwhenhedevisedhis"postagestampdevice"in1901.Postalofficialsgreetedhisinventionwithskepticism,butPitneyobtaineda
patent(No.710,997)thefollowingyearandshortlythereafterformedthePitneyPostalMachineCompanytodeveloptheidea.
Pitney'sinventionconsistedofaprintingmechanismmountedinaframe,
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PitneyBowespostagemeter,ca.1920.
CourtesyPitneyBowes.
withaseriesof"numberingwheels"forconsecutivelynumberingeachprintedimpression.Thedevicefeaturedahandcrankandanautomaticlocktoprevent
tampering.Thelockwouldprovidesecurityforpostalrevenues.Themeterwastobesetbythepostmasterandsealedonceapredeterminednumberofenvelopes
hadbeenposted,themachinewastobereturnedtothepostmaster,whowouldbreakthesealandresetthemachineforfurtheroperation.
PitneywasinvitedtoWashingtontodemonstratehisdevicetoaspecialcommitteeofthePostOfficeDepartment.TheU.S.PostOfficetestedPitney'simproved
machineitwasnowelectricallyoperated,automaticallysealingandstackingenvelopesaswellasprintingtheindiciafromNovember1903toJanuary1904.But
despitethetest'ssuccess,postalofficialsdidnothingaboutPitney'sdevice,insteadauthorizingbulkmailidenticalinsize,weight,andcontenttobemailedwithout
stamps.ThePostOfficehadacceptedPitney'sideaofaprintedindiciatakingtheplaceoftheadhesivestampbuthadoverlookedtheessenceofPitney'sinvention:
therecording,selflockingpostagemeterthatwouldallowthepostingoffirstclassmailwithoutlickingstamps.
In1912PitneydevisedawaytodetachtheprintingandregisteringmechanismfromthemailhandlingmachinerysothatitcouldbebroughttothePostOfficefor
resettinginsteadofhavingthepostalrepresentativetraveltoit.ThenewsystemwastestedfromJanuarytoMay1914attheAddressographCompanyofChicago
andotherfirmswithsensationalresults.ButwarinEuropedelayedthelegislationPitneyneededtomoveforwardwithhisinvention.
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In1919apessimisticArthurPitneybroughthisinventiontoWalterBowes(18821957),amanufacturerofpostofficecancelingmachines.Pitney'spatentrightswere
abouttoexpire,andhehadinvestedsome$90,000inthemachinewithlittletoshowforit.PitneyandBowesdecidedtojoinforces.Pitney,theinventor,wouldwork
toimprovehisbrainchild,whileBowes,thepromoter,concentratedhisenergyinWashington,lobbyingforpassageofthenecessarylegislationtoallowfirstclassmail
tobecarriedwithoutpostagestampsaffixed.
CongressfinallyapprovedsuchabillinMarch1920.ThePitneyBowesPostageMeterCompanywasformedthefollowingmonth.InAugust,WalterH.Wheeler,
Jr.,Bowes'stwentythreeyearoldstepson,successfullydemonstratedtheModel"M"postagemeter.PostOfficeauthorizationcamethefollowingmonth.The
PitneyBowespostagemeterwasputintocommercialuseforthefirsttimeattheStamford,Connecticut,PostOfficeonNovember16,1920.
By1924,PitneyBoweshadinstalledoverathousandpostagemetersin112U.S.cities.By1940,oneofeveryfiveletterswasmeteredmail.Adeskmodelpostage
meter,introducedin1949,allowedeventhesmallestcompaniestoenjoytheadvantagesofmeteredmail.
Today,withoveramillionpostalmetersinuse,meteredmailaccountsforthelargestsinglesourceofpostalrevenue.And,becauseiteliminatestheculling,facing,and
cancelingof47billionpiecesofadhesivestampedmail,meteredmailrepresentsenormouscostsavingstothepostalservice.TodayPitneyBowesisamultinational
businessequipment,supplies,andfinancialservicescompany.
Location/Access
AreconstructionoftheModel"M"postagemeterisondisplayinthemainlobbyofPitneyBowes,OneElmcroftRoad,Stamford,CT06926.
FurtherReading
WilliamCahn,TheStoryofPitneyBowes(NewYork:HarperandBrothers,1961).
Xerography
Columbus,Ohio
ThestoryofthedevelopmentofXerographyisreallythreestories:one,ofasolitarywizardwhorecognizedaneed,thendevotedhislifetoseekingtechnicalsolutions
andfinancialsupporttofulfillitanother,ofaninnotativeresearchorganizationwiththeforesighttoinvestinthatideaandthetechnicaltalenttoengineeritandfinally,
ofasmall,entrepreneurialcompanywiththecouragetodefyconventionandriskitsassetstobringanewconceptandpioneeringtechnologytothemarketplace.
Page342
XeroxModelDcopier,oneofthefirstproductionunits,atBattelle'sColumbus
laboratories.PhotographbyJetLowe,LibraryofCongressCollections.
ChesterF.Carlson(1906),aNewYorkpatentattorneywithadegreeinphysics,conceivedtheideaofa"dry"officecopierin1935.Inthecourseofhispatent
work,Carlsonfrequentlyneededcopiesofpatentspecificationsanddrawingsandwasdissatisfiedwiththeavailablemethodsofphotographyortracing.Carlson's
startingpointwastheNewYorkPublicLibrary,wherehespenteveningsandweekendsreadingeverythinghecouldaboutphotoconductivityandelectrostatics.
Carlson'sconceptwastoprovideanelectricalchargeonametalplatecoatedwithmeltedsulfur.
CarlsonatfirstexperimentedinthekitchenofhishomeinAstoria,Queens.HesoonhiredOttoKornei,ayoungAustrianphysicist,tohelphim,andthetwosetup
shopaboveabarandgrillinAstoria.There,in1938,theysucceededinproducingtheworld'sfirstdry,electrostaticcopy.Carlsoninkedatersemessage"10.22.
38ASTORIA"(thedateandplaceoftheexperiment)ontoaglassslide,rubbedasulfurcoatedplatevigorouslywithahandkerchieftostimulateanelectricalcharge
onitssurface,puttheslideoverit,andexposeditbyaimingthelightofafloodlampthroughtheslide.Next,hedustedtheplatewithlycopodiumpowder(fromthe
sporesofacreepingevergreenplant)andplacedapieceofwaxedpaperontheplate.Theimagewasinstantlytransferredtothepaper.
Forthenextseveralyears,Carlsontriedunsuccessfullytodevelophisinventionbygettingoutsidehelpinperfectingandmarketingit.Finally,in1944,Battelle
MemorialInstitute,aleadingindependentresearchanddevelopmentorganization,signedacontractwithCarlson.BattelleagreedtodevelopCarlson's
Page343
TheXerographicProcess
ThesurfaceoftheXerographicdrumconsistsofabaseofaluminiumoverwhichislaidathinlayerofaluminumoxide.Ontopofthisisalayerofa
seleniumalloy.Seleniumisaphotoconductori.e.,itwillconductonlywhenexposedtolight.
1.Thedrumischargedelectrostaticallyinthedarkbyrotatingitunderacorotron,abarewiretowhichahighpositivevoltageisapplied.
2.Theimageoftheoriginaltobecopiedisprojectedontothedrumbyaseriesoflensesandmirrors.Thewhiteareasoftheoriginalreflectthelight,
destroyingthechargeonthedrum,whiletheblackareasdonotreflectandthereforeleavethechargeintact,forminganimageinstaticelectricity
onthedrum.
3.Adeveloper,oramixtureofacarrierandtonerpowder,ispouredoverthedrum.Thecarrierconsistsoftinyplasticcoatedglassbeads,about
0.0098inch(0.25mm)indiameterthetonerisafineblackpowdercomposedofathermoplasticresinandcarbon.Bothsubstancesare
triboelectricthatis,theygeneratestaticelectricitywhenrubbedtogether.Thecarrierreceivesapositivechargethetoner,anegativecharge.
Thus,thecarrierbeadsbecomecoveredwithalayeroftoner,andthereisnowanimageintoneronthedrum.
4.Thetonerisheldonthedrumbythepositivecharge.Toremovethetonerfromthedrumontothepaper,thepaperneedsahigherpositivecharge.
Thisisaccomplishedbyanothercorotron,whichchargesthepaperasitispressedagainstthedrumthetonernowclingstothepaper.
5.Thecopynowpassesunderaradiantheaterorthroughheatedpressurerollers.Thetonermeltsintothefiberofthepapertogive,whencool,a
permanentdrycopy.
6.Thecopyisnowfinished,butthedrummustbecleanedbeforemakingthenextcopy.ThedrumisdischargedbymeansofanegativeorAC
corotron,followedbywipingandexposuretolight,whichneutralizesanychargeleftonit.
copyingprocesshecalledit"electrophotography"andtogiveCarlson25percentofallprofitsorroyalties.
TheBattellescientistsmateriallyadvancedCarlson'swork.Amajorstepforwardwasthediscoverythatthenonmetallicelementseleniumworkedbetterthanthe
sulfur.Justasimportant,theBattelleresearchersmadeimportantimprovementsinthedevelopmentofthepowderimage.Thepowder(toner)became
Page344
apigmentedresinthatcouldbefusedtothepaperitscombinationwithcoarserparticlesmadeitpossibletodevelopaclean,sharpimage(seesidebar).
Battellenowsoughtapartnertosupportfurtherresearchandeventuallytoproduceandmarkettheproduct.Nobodywantedit,includingsuchgiantsas
AddressographMultigraphandLockheed.ButHaloidCompany,asmallRochester,NewYorkbasedmanufacturerofphotographicpaperandsupplies,was
lookingforsomethingtoliftthefirmaboveitsneighborandrival,EastmanKodak,andenteredthefirstofseveralagreementswithBattellein1946.Following
consultationwithaGreekscholaratOhioStateUniversity,thecumbersome"electrophotography"waschangedtoXerography,fromtheGreekxeros,"dry,"and
graphein,"towrite."ThenewwordwasclearlydescriptiveofCarlson'srevolutionarydrygraphicsinvention.
XerographywaspubliclydemonstratedforthefirsttimeonOctober22,1948,exactlytenyearsafterCarlsonhadreproducedhisfirstimage,atameetingofthe
OpticalSocietyofAmericainDetroit.Haloidintroduceditsfirstcommercialcopier,theModelA,thefollowingyear,butthemachinewascrudeandcomplicatedto
use."Copyflo,"thefirstcompletelyautomatedXerographicmachine,wasunveiledin1955.Itwasthefirstcopiertousearotatingdruminsteadofaplateasthe
photoconductivesurface.
HaloidchangeditsnametoHaloidXeroxin1958and,tomovetheproducttomarket,triedtofindnewcapital.Thefirmofferedtosharetheprojectwithother,
largercompanies,includingBell&HowellandIBM,butwasrebuffedforlackofinterest.HaloidXeroxtookagamble,riskingallofitsassetstodevelopthe"Xerox
914"copier(socalledbecauseofitsabilitytocopysheetsupto9by14inches,or228by335mm).Theworld'sfirstdryofficecopierwasahugesuccessdespiteits
bulk(themachinewasaslargeasanofficedesk)andcost($29,500).
In1961HaloidXeroxbecameXeroxCorporation.Revenuessurgedasthecompanytriedtokeeppacewithphenomenaldemandforitsproduct.Xerox
Corporationwas,fornowatleast,theunrivaledmasterofanewindustry.AndChesterCarlsonwasamultimillionaire.
Location/Access
Battelle'sColumbusLaboratories(505KingAvenue,Columbus,OH432012693)exhibitsamodelofoneofChesterCarlson'sfirstXerographicdevicesandthe
firstcommercialcopier,theModelA,initslobby.Phone(614)4246424.
FurtherReading
JohnH.Dessauer,MyYearsWithXerox:TheBillionsNobodyWanted(GardenCity,N.Y.:Doubleday&Company,Inc.,1971).
J.Mort,TheAnatomyofXerography:ItsInventionandEvolution(Jefferson,N.C.:McFarland&Company,Inc.,1989).
Page345
IBM350RAMACDiskFile
SanJose,California
AnIBM305RAMACcomputerdeliveredtotheZellerbachPaperCompanyinSanFranciscoin1956usheredinaneweraofmagneticdiskstorageandinteractive
computerapplications,inauguratingwhatwouldcometobecalledtheInformationAge.Themagneticdiskwaswidelyandrapidlyacceptedforairlinereservation
systems,inventorycontrol,banking,andwordprocessing,tonameonlyafewapplicationstriggeringahugedemandfordiskstoragedevicesandlaunchinganew
industry.
Thestoragecomponentofthe305RAMAC(forRandomAccessMethodofAccountingandControl)wastheIBM350diskfile,developedin1955byateamof
IBMengineersworkinginasmallresearchlaboratoryinSanJose.(Initsearlydevelopment,themagneticdiskfilewascalledthe305.Itbecamethe350whenthe
305system,whichincludedacentralprocessor,acardreader,andaprinter,wasannounced.)Consistingoffiftymagneticallycodedmetalplattersstackedoneatop
theotherandrotatedbyacommondriveshaft,theIBM350diskfileheldanastonishing5millionbytesofdata.
Earlyin1952,IBMaskedReynoldB.Johnson,aformerhighschoolscienceteacherwhohadbeenhiredbyIBMtodevelopatestscoringmachine,tosetup
TheIBM350RAMACdiskfileusheredintheeraofmagneticdiskstorage.
Page346
asmallresearchlaboratoryontheWestCoast.Thenewlaboratorywastoresearchnonimpactprintinganddatareduction.Inshortorder,Johnsonleasedand
renovatedasmallconcreteblockbuildinginSanJose,advertisedforengineerstostaffthefacility,andbeganinterviewingapplicants.ByJuly1952,IBM'snewSan
JoseResearchandDevelopmentLaboratorycomprisedastaffofthirty.
In1952therewereonlythreewaysofstoringinformationforusebydataprocessingequipment:punchedcards,magnetictape,and,toalesserextent,magnetic
drums.Thenewlaboratory'sfirstassignmentwastoautomatethepunchedcard''tubfiles"large,rectangulartrayscontainingmastercardsarrangedinsequenceby
customernumber,itemnumber,size,color,etc.tomaketheinformationtheycontainedmorereadilyaccessible.
Despitetheskepticismofhiscolleagues,Johnsondecidedtoconcentrateonmagneticdisks.Afteraperiodoftrialanderror,engineerssettledonaluminiumlaminates
clampedunderpressureandheatedabovetheannealingtemperature.Amagneticcoating,madefromapaintbase,wasappliedontotheinnersurfaceoftherapidly
rotatingdisks,thenspreadevenly.Anairbearingwould"float"areadingandwritingarmabovethesurfaceofthedisks.Meanwhile,researchersworkedonan
electricalservodrivesystemtoprovidedisktodiskandtracktotrackaccessingmotions.OnFebruary10,1954,theSanJoseteamachievedthefirstsuccessful
transferofinformationfromcardstodisksandback.TheunwieldyRubeGoldbergcontraptiontheyhadbuiltwassoonreevaluatedandredesignedtheshaftholding
thediskswasmadeupright,forexample,ratherthanhorizontalandinNovembertheteamwasauthorizedtodevelopthe305RAMACsystemtousethenew
magneticdisktechnology.
SincetheintroductionoftheRAMAC350file,ofcourse,magneticdiskshavebeenvastlyimproved.Today'smicrominiaturereadwriteheadsusethinfilm
technology,permittingvastlyincreasedstoragedensityandmuchfasteraccesstime.Acomparisonbetweenthe350fileandamodemdiskfile,theIBM3380,tells
thestory:The350'sfifty24inch(609mm)disksrevolvedataspeedof1,200rpm,witharesultingdatarateof100,000bitspersecondthe3380,usingnine14
inch(355mm)disks,revolvesat3,600rpm,withadatarateof24millionbitspersecond.The350diskfilestored2,000bitsofinformationpersquareinch(25.4
mm)the3380packs12millionbitsinthesameamountofspace.
Location/Access
AhistoricaldisplayislocatedinthelobbyofIBM'sBuilding12,5600CottleRoad,SanJose,CA95193phone(408)2569450.
Page347
BIOMEDICALENGINEERING
Introduction
Engineersarecurrentlyapplyingtheirskillsandknowledgetosolvesomeofthemanyproblemsassociatedwithlivingsystems.Theseactivitieshavebeendescribedby
anumberoftitles,includingbiophysics,bionics,bioengineering,biomedicalengineeringandclinicalengineering.Ingeneral,thisterminologyisusedratherlooselyand
indiscriminately,butnodoubt,practitionersofthesevarioussubdisciplineswouldprefertodifferentiateamongthevariousterms.Itisnotappropriateheretogointoa
lengthydiscussiononthedifferences,realorotherwise,amongthetitles,sowehavechosentolumptogetheralltheseactivitiesinwhichengineersareassistinginthe
solutionofproblemsassociatedwithlivingsystems.
AlthoughbiomedicalengineeringisanareathathasreallyblossomedsincethecloseofWorldWarII,itsroots,infact,gobacktotheeighteenthcenturyoreven
earlier.Admittedly,theearliestexamplesofthepracticeofbiomedicalengineeringwerebythosewhohadbeentrainedasphysiciansratherthanengineers,but,
nevertheless,theywereapplyingengineeringprinciplestolivingsystems.
LuigiGalvani(173798),anItalianphysician,forexample,wasthediscovererofbioelectricity,whichhashadaprofoundeffectonclarifyingourunderstandingofthe
natureofthenervoussystem,andonthediagnosisandtreatmentofdiseasesoftheheartandbrain,organsthatareboththecenterofintenseelectricalactivity.J.L.
Poiseuille(17991869),whenhewasamedicalstudent,madethefirstattempttomeasurebloodpressureusingtheengineer'straditionalmercuryfilledUtube.
HermannvonHelmholtz(182194)wasaphysicianwhoturnedhimselfintoaphysicistbyhisstudiesofthelawofconservationofenergy,ofacoustics,andof
electricity.
Atthepresenttime,engineersaredirectlyinvolvedinfundamentalresearchonthepropertiesofboneandsofttissueandjoints.Theyhavecontributedtothe
Page348
developmentofartificialorgans,prosthesessuchashipreplacements,instrumentationsuchastheCATscanner,assistancedevicessuchascardiacpacemakers,and
computeraidstopersonswithcommunicationandmobilitylimitations.Thebloodheatexchangerisaperfectexampleoftheapplicationofwelldevelopedengineering
techniquestothesolutionofanimportantmedicalneed,namely,howtotemporarilyreplacethepumpingandoxygenatingmechanismofthehumanbodywhilethe
heartisreplacedordefectscorrected.
Engineersbelievestronglythattheiractivitiesareintendedtobeofbenefittosociety,andcertainlythisintentionappearstobemostdirectlyattainedintheareaof
biomedicalengineering.
Page349
BloodHeatExchanger
Amherst,NewYork
Thebloodheatexchangermarkedasignificantadvanceinthetreatmentofpatientswhoundergoopenheartsurgerybyshorteningthetimerequiredtocoolpatients
beforesurgeryandtorewarmthemafterward.Itwasdevelopedjointlyin1957byresearchengineersattheHarrisonRadiatorDivisionofGeneralMotors
Corporation,Lockport,NewYork,andphysiciansintheDepartmentofSurgery,DukeUniversitySchoolofMedicine,Durham,NorthCarolina.
Loweringthepatient'stemperatureslowsmetabolicactivityandreducesthebody'soxygenneeds,permittinglowerbloodflowratesthroughtheartificialheartlung
machine,protectingthebrainandothervitalorgansandlesseningthedamagetodelicatebloodcells.Formerly,patientswerecooledwithicepacksorrefrigerated
blanketsaftertheinductionofanesthesia,whichrequiredanhourormoreandwasdifficulttocontrolfollowingsurgery,ittookfourtofivehourstorewarmthem.
Withthebloodheatexchanger,thebodytemperaturecouldbesafelyloweredinfiveminutes,carefullycontrolledduringsurgery,thenraisedinjusttentofifteen
minutes.Fasterandmoreaccuratelycontrolledcoolingandwarmingallowednotableimprovementsinsurgicalmanagement,includingtheeliminationofprolonged
anesthesia.
Inthemid1950s,ateamofphysiciansatDukeledbyDr.IvanW.Brown,Jr.,conductedresearchonhypothermia,i.e.,chillingthebodytosubnormaltemperatures.
Brownthoughtthereshouldbeawaytocoolorrewarmthebloodwhileitwasbeingpumpedthroughtheextracorporealcircuitthebloodvesselsthemselveswould
thenrapidlycoolthepatientbeforesurgeryandrewarmthepatientafterward.HeaskedengineersatHarrisonRadiatorforhelpinthedesignanddevelopmentofa
bloodheatexchanger.AtenmonthcooperativeresearchprogrambetweentheDukephysiciansandHarrisonresearchengineers,ledbyGM'sW.O.Emmons,
resultedinamarvelofingenuity.
Bloodisasuspensionoflivingcellsinasolutionplasmacomprisedofsixtyoddproteins,complexmolecules,andenzymes.Thedelicatenatureofblood
BloodHeatExchanger.
Page350
andtheintendedfunctionoftheheatexchangerdictatedanarrayofstringentspecifications.Thedevicehadtobecapableofthoroughcleaningandinspection,freeof
bubbletrappingcrevices,simpletoassemble,andsafefromintrusionofforeignmatterintothebloodstream.Alltheserequirementsposeduniqueproblemsinthe
bloodheatexchanger'sdesignanddevelopment.
Thebloodheatexchangerwasdesignedbydeterminingtheamountofheattobedissipated,establishingawaterflowratetodothejob,and,finally,determiningthe
materialandtheshapeofthedevice.Madeofstainlesssteelthroughout,itconsistedofanoutercylindricaljacketthatwas15inches(382mm)longand2inches
(57mm)indiameter,throughwhich24straight,thinwalled(0.035inch,or0.889mm)tubes0.18inch(4.6mm)ininsidediameterranlongitudinally.Theendsofthe
tubeswereweldedintoaheaderplateateachend,andthesurfacesincontactwithbloodwerehighlypolished.
Oneachendoftheexchangerwasastainlesssteelcapfashionedwithabeadedtubetowhichtheplasticbloodinflowandoutflowtubingwasattached.Theinsideof
eachcapwasconicallyshapedtoprovideslopingsurfacesateachendoftheexchangertoavoidtrappinganygasbubbles.ThecapsweretightenedagainstSilastic
Oringsbyaspecialclampclosuretominimizethepossibilityofleaksandtofacilitatecleaning.
Theheatexchangerwasmountedinaverticalpositiononafloorstand.Nearthebottomoftheexchangerjacketwasawaterinletthroughwhichcoldorwarmwater
enteredandflowedupwardtoasimilaroutletatthetopoftheexchanger.Baffleplatesinsidethejacketoftheexchangerinsuredthoroughcirculationofthecoolingor
warmingwateraroundthethintubescarryingtheblood.Thewaterintakewasconnectedbyashortlengthofhosetoanautomaticthermoregulatedwatermixing
valve,intowhichhotandcoldtapwaterwasadmittedbyconventionalrubbergardenhoses.
Theuseofthebloodheatexchangerforopenheartsurgeryquicklybecamestandardpractice.Today,thesemachinesareusedonheartlungandartificialkidney
circuitsworldwide,althoughtheoriginalBrownHarrisonexchangerhasbeensupersededbycheaper,disposablemodels.
Location/Access
ThefirstcommercialbloodheatexchangerisondisplayatCapenHallontheAmherstCampusoftheStateUniversityofNewYorkatBuffalo,Amherst,NY14260
phone(716)6452000.
FurtherReading
IvanW.Brown,Jr.,M.D.WirtW.Smith,M.D.andW.O.Emmons,"AnEfficientBloodHeatExchangerforUsewithExtracorporealCirculation,"Surgery44
(August1958):37277.
WilliardO.EmmonsandDemetrioB.Sacca,"TheDesignandDevelopmentofaBloodHeatExchangerforOpenHeartSurgery,"GeneralMotorsEngineering
Journal5(JulySeptember1958):3841.
Page351
FURTHERREADING
Thefollowingisalistofbooksforreaderswhowouldliketoextendtheirgeneralknowledgeofthehistoryofmechanicalengineeringbeyondthetopicscoveredinthis
volume:
A.F.Burstall,AHistoryofMechanicalEngineering(London:FaberandFaber,1963reprint,Cambridge,Mass.:TheMITPress,1965).
T.K.DerryandT.I.Williams,AShortHistoryofTechnology(NewYorkandOxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1961reprint,NewYork:DoverPublications,
1993).
EngineeringHeritage,2vols.(London:Heinemann[fortheInstitutionofMechanicalEngineers],1963and1966).
R.B.GordonandP.M.Malone,TheTextureofIndustry(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1994).
L.C.Hunter,AHistoryofIndustrialPowerintheUnitedStates,17801930,vols.1and2(Charlottesville,Va.:TheUniversityPressofVirginia[forthe
EleutherianMillsHagleyFoundation],1979and1985).
L.C.HunterandL.Bryant,AHistoryofIndustrialPowerintheUnitedStates,17801930,vol.3(Cambridge,Mass.:TheMITPress,1991).
R.S.Kirby,S.Withington,A.B.Darling,andF.G.Kilgour,EngineeringinHistory(NewYork:McGrawHill,1956reprint,NewYork:DoverPublications,
1988).
L.McNeil,ed.,AnEncyclopediaoftheHistoryofTechnology(London:Routledge,1990).
C.Singer,E.J.Holmyard,andA.R.Hall,eds.,AHistoryofTechnology,5vols.(Oxford:ClarendonPress,195458).
Page353
INDEX
Note:Introductoryessaysseteachlandmarkincontextwithotherswithinthesamechapter.Althoughadditionalinformationmaybeavailableintheseintroductions,
theywerenotindexedindetailinordertoavoidduplication.
A
AAR.SeeAssociationofAmericanRailroads
ABBCombustionEngineering,170
AberdeenProvingGround,31517
Abt,Roman,25253
accelerator,33133
accidents:
air,301
boiler,6,202
mill,179
nuclear,36
rail,263
ship,222
Adams,Calvin,155
Adams,JohnQuincy,238
AdamsonUnitedCompany,328
AddressographCompany,340
aerospace,29193,294300,31517.
Seealsoaircraft,aviation
Agamemon(ship),229
AgeofSteamRailroadMuseum,264
agriculture:
andcrawlertechnology,284,286
anddieseltractors,56
anddrainage,18991
implementsusedin,15556.
Seealsofood
airconditioning,2089,
Seealsoclimaticcontrol,environmentalcontrol,HVAC,refrigeration
aircraft:
manufacturingof,141,171,174,176
andstationarypower,98
testingof,310,31419,321,322.
Seealsointernalcombustionengines
Alabama,19193,3035
Alameda(California)refinery,130
Alaska,13234
AlaskaRailroad,133
Albacore(submarine),321
Alcoahydraulicforgingpress,17172
AldenHydraulicLaboratory,309
AldenResearchLaboratoryrotatingboom,30910
AlleghenyCounty,PortAuthorityof,248
AlleghenyRiver(Pennsylvania),24649
Allen,CharlesMetcalf,309
AllianceMachineCompany,192
Allis,EdwardP.,CompanyofMilwaukee,12,17,2122.
SeealsoAllisChalmersCompanyofMilwaukee
AllisChalmersCompanyofMilwaukee,2122
dieselpump,56
mill,158
motor,20
pumpturbine,75
turbine,65,68,94.
SeealsoAllis,EdwardP.,CompanyofMilwaukee
Allner,FrederickA.,113
alloys,super,174,176
alternatingcurrentelectrification,26062
AluminumCompanyofAmerica,171
AluminumCorporationofAmerica,173
AlwegCorporation,280
America(ship),14
AmericanCastIronPipeCompany,19193
AmericanCompany,123
AmericanDistrictSteamCompany,201
AmericanFreedomTrain,267
AmericanInstituteofElectricalEngineers.SeeInstituteofElectricalandElectronicEngineers
AmericanIronandSteelInstitute,120
AmericanMalleableCastingsAssociation,156
AmericanMerchantMarineMuseum,219
AmericanMotorsCompany,224
AmericanPetroleumInstitute,313
AmericanPrecisionMuseum,15355
AmericanRiver(California),62
AmericanSocietyforTestingandMaterials(ASTM),169
AmericanSocietyofCivilEngineers,33,6061,207
Ames,EdwardT.,60
AmesIronWorks,83
AmesManufacturingCompany,154
AmmonoosicRiver(NewHampshire),245
Anderson,John,88,90
AndersonBarngroverManufacturingCompany,18082
Anderson,Probst&White,93
AndrewsStation(California),12930
AIdemonstrator(rail),26667
Apollo,29293,302,3035
ApolloSoyuzTestProject,293
AppalachiaLake(NorthCalifornia),75
Appert,Nicolas,180
AppletonEdisonLightCompany,6061
AppletonPaperandPulpCompany,60
AppliedResearchLaboratory,328
Archimedeanscrewpump,1112
ArgonneNationalLaboratory,32526,329
Arizona,6869,2089
ArizonaPublicServiceCompany,6869
Armengaud,Ren,99
armories,142,14648,15355
Armstrong,E.J.,83
AssociationofAmericanRailroads,32628
Atlantic(rail),239
Atlaslaunchvehicle,298300
Aurora&ChicagoRailroad,24243
Australia,4346
autoclave,176
automotive,16566,2067,28891,31315
aviation,29295,29698.
Seealsoaerospace,aircraft
B
Babcock&WilcoxCompany,79,93,203
boilersby,226,261
BaldwinLocomotiveWorks,27173,27779
Page354
BallisticResearchLaboratory,315
ballistics,30910,31517
Baltimore&Ohiorailroad,23840
Barber,John,97
Barthel,OliverE.,224
basicoxygensteelmakingvessel,13638
BathIronWorks,232
BattelleMemorialInstitute,176,342,34
BayState(ship),219
Beach,AlfredEly,258
BeaconStreetPlant(Detroit),2035
bearing:
air,346
thrust,19,37,11112,11314
Beauregard,P.G.T.,241
Beaver,William,104
Bechtel,K.K.,162
BechtelCorporation,325,329
Becuna,USS(ship),224
Bedford(ship),144
Behr,F.B.,280
BelleIsle:
gasturbine,98100
station,98
Belluschi,Pietro,20910
Belmont,August,258
BethlehemIronCompany,160
BethlehemSteelCompany,16,17,133
bicycle,153,165,281
"BigBrutus"mineshovel,13839
BigelowHornsbyboilers,261
BigSulphurCreek(California),1089
BirminghamSpecial(rail),277
Bissell,GeorgeH.,125
BlackstoneRiver(RhodeIsland),150,152
BlackSwamp(Ohio),189
Blackwalltunnel(London),206
Blanchard,Thomas,146,154
bloodheatexchanger,34950
Bloomsburg(rail),25557
boats.Seeshipsandboats
BoeingCompany,174,304
BoilderCodeCommitteeofASMEInternational,170
boilers:
Babcock&Wilcox,79,93
Belpairefirebox,15
coalfired,77
drum,16971
EdgeMoor,89
highpressure,91
Lancashire,47
Stirling,22,87
watertube,87,89,91,2023,226,261
Bollman,Wendel,239
bonding,gaspressure,17476
BonnevillePowerAuthority,114
booms,30910
Borda,JeanCharles,309
Bossart,KarelJ.,298
Boston&AlbanyRailroad,267
BostonWaterandSewerCommission,15
bottlemachine,16264
BoulevardPlant(Detroit),205
Boulton,Matthew,44
Boulton&Wattrotativesteamengine,4346
Bourdon,Franois,159
Bowes,Walter,341
Boyden,Seth,155
Boyden,UriahAtherton,38
Boydenhydraulicturbines,3739
brakes,28891,32628
Brandt,C.A.,322
Braun,Wernhervon,304
breederreactor,32426
Brewer,Watson&Company,125
BrillhartPumpingStation,2223
Brown,IvanW.,349
BrownBoveri&Company,98,99
BrownHarrisonexchanger,34950
Browning,Charles,Jr.,279
Brunel,IsambardKingdom,159,216
Brunel,MarcIsambard,206
Buchanan,Donald,291
BuckeyeCompany,190
Buckeyesteamtractionditcher,18991
Buckingham,Edgar,307
Buckland,Cyrus,147
BucyrusErieCompany,138,29192
Budd,EdwardG.,ManufacturingCompany,269
Budd,Ralph,269
Buell,Abel,155
BuffaloForgeCompany,199
BullsBridgepowerstation(Arizona),69,71
BureauofAeronautics,321
Burlington.SeeChicago,Burlington&QuincyRailroad
Burnham,D.H.,&Company,31112
C
cablerailway,251
CajonPass(California),288
calciumcarbide,6667
California:
LosAngelesarea,12930,28081,31012
Sacramentoarea,6263,27577
SanDiego,298300
SanFranciscoarea,1112,10810,19597,22932,24952,28687,32930
SanFrancisco/SantaClaraValley,16162,18082,25557,33133,34546
CaliforniaStarOilWorksCompany,12930
CaliforniaStateRailroadMuseum,279
Calley,John,4
Calumet&HeclaMiningCompany,16,193
Campbell,Whittier&Company,245
canals:
ditcher,190
diversion,62
drainage,18
Erie,201
Morris,3537
power,2930,33,39,66,71
pump,89
Candlewood,Lake(Arizona),7071
canning,18082
CarbidePowerCompany(Michigan),67
CargillSaltCompany,12
Carlson,ChesterF.,342
Carnegie(rail),263
CarnegieInstitution,311
Carnot,Nicolas,LonardSadi,210
Carr,Ferdinand,199
Carrier,WillsH.,199,2089
CarrierCorporation,318
Carroll,Charles,238
Cary,Bess,22426
castings:
centrifugal,193
HIP,176
iron,15557
caterpillar.SeeHoltCaterpillartractor
Caterpillar,Inc.,28687
Cavalier(rail),276
Centaurlaunchvehicle,300,3012
CentralHeatingCompany,204
CentralMilitaryTractrailroad,242
CentralPower&LightCompany(Pennsylvania),73
CentralValleypowerproject(California),63
CenturyofProgressExposition(1934),270
ceramics,17476
Chabannes,Marquisde,198
ChapinMinepumpingengine,1214
Charters,AlexanderC.,315
chassisfactory,16566
ChatanikaRiver(Alaska),133
Page355
Chesapeake&DelawareCanal,89
Chesapeake&OhioCanal,238
ChestnutHillPumpingStation(Boston),1415
ChestnutStreetpumpingengine(Erie,Pennsylvania),1718
CheyenneMountainZoo,254
Chicago.SeeIllinois,Chicagoarea
Indiana,Chicagoarea
Chicago&NorthWestern,242
Chicago,Burlington&QuincyRailroad,24243,26870
ChicagoHerald,339
ChildsIrvinghydroelectricproject,6869
China,19597
Chiswell,John,14849
Cincinnati,NewOrleans,&TexasPacific,274
citrusjuiceextractor,18284
CityofNewYork(rail),242
CivilWar,16,34,144,147,246
andindustry,124,154
andoilprices,128
andrailtransportation,241
andwoolengoods,158
Clark,ErastusW.,155
ClayStreetHillRailroadCompany,250
Clemens,Samuel,339
Clements,Charles,286
Clergue,FrancisH.,65
Clermont(ship),151
ClevelandCrane&CarCompany,192
climaticcontrol,31719,32224
ClimaticHangar.SeeMcKinleyClimaticLaboratory
Climaxlocomotive,25557
ClimaxManufacturingCompany,255
coal:
blastfurnace,11617
combustion(rail),242
excavationof,13839
feeders,Lopulco,89
pulverized,88,94
CoalbrookdaleFurnace,121
cogeneration,205
CogginsMine,131
cograilway,24446,25254
CohoesIndustrialTerminal,Inc.,39
ColdWar,136,171
Coleman,Robert,122
Colorado,25254,32628
ColoradoRailwayMuseum,254
Colt,Peter,27,29
Coltrevolver,27
ColumbianExposition(1893),79
ColumbiaRiver(Washington),134
CommonwealthBuilding(Oregon),20912
CommonwealthEdisonCompany:
ofIllinois,329
ofIndiana,93
ofNewYork,8486
compositematerials,174
compositor,33839
computerindustry,34546
Connecticut:
Hartfordarea,5556,6971,28891,33839
southwest,26062,33941
ConnecticutLight&PowerCompany,6971
ConnecticutRiver(Massachusetts),33,146
Conrail,273
containerization,19597
Conti,PieroGinori,106
continuousrotarypressuresterilizer,18082
Convair,29899
conveyors,46,90
Coolidge,W.D.,141
Cooper,Peter,124,239
CooperativeFuelResearchengine,31315
Corlett,Ewan,217
Corliss,GeorgeH.,5051
Corlissengines,14,80
ascablecarpowerhouse,251
andCentennialEngine,41
andReynolds,2122
andWorthington,2223.
SeealsoHarrisCorlisssteamengine
CorlissSteamEngineCompany,49
CornellUniversity,111
CorningGlassWorks,167
Corningribbonmachine,16768
CornishPumpandMiningMuseum,14
CornwallIronFurnace,12123
CornwallOreBanks,12122
CosCobPowerStation,26162
CottonStatesandInternationalExposition(1895),48
CoventryCanalCompany,5
C.P.Huntington(rail),279
cranes,137,19193,19597
crawlertransporters,29193,304
Creighton,W.H.P.,20
Creusotsteamhammer,15960
Crooks,JamesW.,299
Crosby,Dixi,125
CrownAmerica,Inc.,203
CruiserOlympiaAssociation,223
Cummins,ClessieL.,288,290
Cumminsdieselengines,254
CumminsEngineCompany,290
Curtis,CharlesG.,84
Curtissteamturbinegenerators,8486,87
CurtissWrightaircraft,27
D
Daimler,Gottlieb,282
dams:
Bonneville,134
Boulder,162
Folsom,62
GrandCoulee,134,162
Hiwassee,74
DartmouthMuseum,5
Davidson,KennethS.M.,32021
DavidsonDitch(Alaska),133
DavidsonLaboratory,32021
Davis,Phineas,239
Dayton,Russell,175
defense,136,148,153,324
DeLavalSteamTurbineCompany,234
DelawareRiver(NewJersey
Pennsylvania),35
Delmonico(rail),242
Depression,162,195,270
DetroitEdison"A"Station(Michigan),80
DetroitEdisonCompany,2045
DetroitEdisondistrictheatingsystem,2035
DetroitUnitedRailwayCompany,204
Dewar,James,301
DicksonManufacturingCompany,81
dieforgingpresses,hydraulic,17172,17374
Diescher,Samuel,247
diesel,18586,213,285,292
brake,28891
fuelinjectionpump,5556
testing,31315.Seealsolocomotive,dieselelectric
Diesel,Rudolf,5354,268
Dilworth,RichardM.,27374
directcurrentelectrification,261
Disneylandmonorailsystem,28081
ditcher,18991
Dixiana(rail),25557
Doerell(minewarden),187
DominionFoundries&Steel,138
Dornbrook,Fred,8889
Page356
DouglasAircraftCompany,304
Drake,EdwinL.,125,127
Drakeoilwell,12528
dredge,13234
DresdenNuclearPowerStation(Illinois),329
DresserIndustries,315
DryLake(Arizona),68
DuaneStreetStation(Michigan),81
DukePowerCompany,65
DukeUniversitySchoolofMedicine,349
DuPageCountyForestPreserveDistrict,180
Dupont,134
duPontdeNemours,E.I.,&Company,134
Duquesneincline,24649
DuquesneInclinedPlaneCompany,247
DuquesneLightCompany(Pittsburgh),103
DuwamishRiver,86
dynamometer,railroadwheel,32628
dynamos,76,7880,8082,154
E
EastWellsStreetPowerPlant,8890
Edgar,CharlesL.,91
Edgar,CharlesL.,Station,9092,169
Edison,ThomasAlva,64,76,167,336.
SeealsoVulcanStreetPowerPlant
EdisonElectricIlluminatingCompany,81,90,169
EdisonElectricLightCompany,78
EdisonGeneralElectricCompany,81
Edison"Jumbo"dynamo,7880
EdisonNationalHistoricSite,337
Edisonphonograph,33637
EdisonSaultElectricCompany,67
Edwards,VictorE.,310
EglinAirForceBase,317,32224
Ehricke,Krafft,300
Eisenhower,DwightD.,101,1034,233,300
electricalpowerproduction,77,7880,8486,2035
ElectricOperatingConstructionCompany,68
electrification:
alternatingcurrent,26062
directcurrent,261
ElectroMotiveFTfreightservicedieselelectriclocomotive,27375
ElkCottonMills,202
ElkRiverCoal&LumberCompany,256
Ellicott'sMills,238
Elliott,WilliamBell,108
EltoOutboardMotorCompany,225
EMD103demonstratorlocomotive,27375
EmeryRice,TV,engine,21819
Emmet,WilliamLeRoy,8485
Emmons,W.O.,349
EmpireMachineCompany,167
EncinalTerminals(California),19697
Endres,JohnJ.,247
EnfieldArmory,154
England,35,45,21617,21922
environmentalcontrol,198212
EppingCarpenterCompany,2122
EquitableBuildingheatpump,20912
EquitableSavings&LoanAssociation,210
Erie,Lake(Ohio),189
ErieCanalMuseum,10,201
ErieCityWaterAuthority,18
Erskine,Robert,124
EuropeanBottleMachineCompany,164
Evans,Oliver,6
Eveleth,Jonathan,G.,125
Everglades(Florida),190
Evinrude,Ole,22426
Evinrudeoutboardmotor,22426
excavation,12634,13839
ExhibitionPark(NewcastleuponTyne),222
ExperimentalBreederReactorI,32426
ExperimentalTowingTank,32021
ExperimentStation(Mississippi),306
ExpositionCottonMillsofAtlanta,48
F
FairbanksExplorationCompany,13234
FairmountWaterworks,57
Falkland(ship),144
FarnhamTypesetterCompany,338
FederalAviationAdministration,323
Fermi,Enrico,104,135,325
FernndezyMartnez,JosRamn,46
Ferries&CliffHouseRailway,24952
Ferris,G.W.G.,247
Field,Darby,244
Fink,Albert,239
firehydrantsystem,10
FirstIronWorksAssociation,120
FiskStreetStation(NewYork),84
FlatironPowerandPumpingPlant(Colorado),74
Flemingengine,203
Florida:
eastcoast,29193,3012,3035
northeast,2122,32224
westcoast,18284
FMCcitrusjuiceextractor,18284
FMCCorporation,18182,18284
FockeAchgelisFa61,296
FolsomLakeStateRecreationalArea,62
FolsomPowerhouseNo.1,6263
food,17779
bottlemakingfor,16264
canningof,180
grain,17980
juice,18284
salt,1112
sugarcane,4648
Ford,GeraldR.,28
Ford,Henry,79,282
Ford,Henry,Museum,7880,8082,168,298
ForeRiverShipYard,311
forging,11920,123,14041,15052
hammer,159
hydraulicpress,17172,17374
foundries,15557,172
andcastironpipe,19192
Holyoke,34
Fourneyron,Benot,3738
FoxRiver(Wisconsin),60
France,15960,180
Francis,JamesB.,2931,3233
Franklin,Benjamin,198
FranklinInstitute,9,38
Freeman,MiltonH.,206
Fried,Walter,321
Fries,HenryElias,64
FriesManufacturing&PowerCompany,6365
Froude,William,307,320
fuel:
automobile,31315
breeding,32426
cells,77
liquidhydrogen,3012,303
manufacturing,135,174.
Seealso,coal,diesel,nuclear,oil
furnaces:
blast,115,119,12123
electricinduction,156
Horry,67
openhearth,11
resistance,176
reverberatory,151
fusionweldedtestboilerdrum,16971
G
Gagarin,YuriA.,303
Galileo,310
Gallup,David,310
Page357
Galvani,Luigi,347
Garand,JohnC.,148
gears,255,312
GeneralDynamicsCorporation,298
GeneralElectricCompany,62,138,141
Curtisturbines,8486
gasturbines,99100
generators,62,83
locomotives,96,254,27173
andnuclearpower,134,32930
steamturbines,7677
turbinegenerators,93,109
GeneralMachineryCorporation,232
GeneralMotorsCorporation,254,268,273,349
GeorgetownSteamPlant,8688
Georgia,4851,2023
GeorgiaInstituteofTechnology,49
geothermalpower,10610
Germany,18788
GeysersUnitI,10810
GG1electriclocomotiveNo.4800,27173
Gilbert,George,255
Gilbreth,FrankB.,86
GillespieFieldsAirport(California),300
GlasgowUniversity,45
glassmanufacturing,16264,16768
Glengyle(rail),26264
gold,13032,13234
GoldDredgeNo.8,13233
Goliad(rail),264
Graff,Frederick,67
GrandCentralPalace(1924),79
GrandCentralTerminal(NewYork),26061
Grant,J.D.,108
Graue,Frederick,179
GraueMillandMuseum,180
Gray,DavidE.,168
Gray,johnE.,104
Gray,Vernon,319
GreatBritain,SS(ship),159,21617
GreatEastern,SS(ship),216
GreatEggHarborRiver(NewJersey),191
GreatFallsDevelopmentCorporation,28
GreatFallsHistoricDistrict,28
GreatFallsracewayandpowersystem,2729
GreatLakeswaterway,193
GreatWestern,SS(ship),216
GreatWesternSteamshipCompany,217
Gren,AxelL.Wenner,280
Grubb,Peter,121
H
HaciendaLaEsperanzasugarmill,4648
HadleyFallsCompany,34
HagginMuseum,287
Hale,GeorgeEllery,310
Hallidie,Andrew,24950
HaloidCompany,344
Hamilton,Alexander,27
Hamiltonengine,203
hammers,140,15960,17172,17374
Hammersmith,SeeSaugusIronworks
HancockHistoricalMuseum,190
HanfordBReactor,13436
HanfordScienceCenter,136
Hansen,W.W.,331
HarmonyManufacturingCompany,37,39
HarmonyMills,3739
HarpersFerry,238,240
Harris,WilliamA.,49
Harris,WilliamA.,Company,48
HarrisCorlisssteamengine,4851
HarrisonRadiatorDivision,249
HarvardUniversity,38
Harwood,Herbert,240
Hasenclever,Peter,123
health,18,34950
heating,201,2035,20912.
Seealsoairconditioning,refrigeration
heavypressprogram,171,173
HedgesWalshWeidnerCompany,169
Heisler,CharlesL.,257
Heislerlocomotive,25557
helicopter,113,29698
Helmholtz,Hermannvon,347
Hendy,Joshua,161
Hendy,Joshua,IronWorks,16162
HenryFordMuseum,7880,8082,168,298
Herschel,Clemens,34
HetchHetchy&YosemiteValleyRailroad,256
Hewitt,AbramS.,124
Hill,JamesB.,189
HIP.Seehotisostaticprocessingvessels
HistoricAmericanBuildingSurvey,179
HistoricAmericanEngineeringRecord,alsodocumentedby:
electricalpower,6567,8688
environmentalcontrol,2067
excavation,19395
manufacturing,15053,15758,17374
mechanicalpower,2729,3739,4648
pump,57,89,1415
rail,23840,24952,25859
HiwasseeDamUnit2reversiblepumpturbine,7475
HiwasseeRiver(NorthCarolina),74
Hodge,Edwin,175
hoist,192,19395,247.
Seealsomanengine,MorrisCanalScotch(reaction)turbine
Holland,CliffordMilburn,206
Holland,JohnPhilip,29
Hollandsubmarine,27
HollandTunnelventilationsystem,2067
Holly,Bridsill,10,201,204
HollyManufacturingCompany,10
HollySteamCombinationCompany,201
Hollysystem:
ofdistrictheating,201
offireprotectionandwatersupply,10
Holmes,HowardCarleton,24940
Holt,Benjamin,286
HoltCaterpillartractor,28687
HoltManufacturingCompany,286
Holtwoodhydroelectricstation,113
HolyokeHeritageStatePark,34
Holyokewaterpowersystem,3334
Holzwarth,Hans,9596
Hooker,JohnD.,311
Hookertelescope,31012
Hopatcong,Lake(NewJersey),35
Hornblower,Jonathan,17
Horning,HarryL.,314
horsepower,originof,44
hotisostaticprocessingvessels,17476
Houdrycatalyticconverters,99
HousatonicRiver(Connecticut),6971
Howd,SamuelB.,30
Hubble,EdwinPowell,312
HudsonRiver(NewJerseyNewYork),206
Page358
Huey,ArthurS.,Station(NewYork).SeeBelleIsleStation
HunterianMuseum,45
Huntington,C.P.(rail),279
hurricanes,2223
HVAC,318
hydraulic:
brakeretarder,28990
dieforgingpresses,17172,17374
experiments,34,309
levelingsystem,291,293
screwpumps,1112
turbines,57,34,3739
hydrodynamicstesting,32021
hydroelectric:
plants,6061,6365,6567,6869
pumpedstorage,6971,7475
turbines,7273,114
hydropneumaticpressuresystem,172
I
IBM,304,34546
IBM350
RAMACdiskfile,34546
IcingResearchTunnel,31719
Idaho,32426
IdahoNationalEngineeringLaboratory,326
IdolsStation(NorthCarolina),6365
Illinois,Chicagoarea,17980,24243,26870
II'yaMuromets(aircraft),296
incline,35,245,24649
Indiana,Chicagoarea,9293
IndustrialRevolution,142,198
InformationAge,345
InstituteofElectricalandElectronicEngineers,6061,79
Insull,Samuel,84,92
InterboroughRapidTransitsystem,25859
intercontinentalballisticmissiles,299300
internalcombustionengines,5256,95100,22426,254
brakeretarderfor,28891
andfuelresearch,31315
InternationalStandardsOrganization,197
iron:
charcoal,122
hammer,159
malleable,120,15557
IronAge,115
IronManMuseum,162
ironworks,1415,11921,123,15557,16162
IRTsystem.SeeInterboroughRapidTransitsystem
Italy,106
J
Jackson,Thomas,149
JacksonFerryshottower,14850
Jacksonville,Cityof,WaterDivision,22
Jacobsenginebrakeretarder,28891
Jacob'sLadder,24546
JacobsManufacturingCompany,28891
Jacomini,Clement,312
Jakebrake,28891
Jamestown(rail),263
Jaurietfirebox,242
Jefferson,Thomas,238
JeremiahO'Brien,SS(ship),22932
JohnBeanSprayCompany,182
JohnF.KennedySpaceCenter,29193,3035
Johnson,LyndonB.,SpaceCenter,3035
Johnson,John,189
Jones,JohnPaul,144
Jouglet,A.,199
Joy,David,81
juiceextractor,18284
''Jumbo"dynamo,Edison,7880
K
Kaiser,HenryJ.,162
KaiserWilhelmII(ship),229
Kansas,13839
Kaplan,Viktor,72
Kaplan,turbine,7273
Kelvin,Lord.SeeThomson,SirWilliam
Kendall,Nicanor,153
Kennedy,JohnF.,291,303
Kennedy,JohnF.,SpaceCenter,29193,3035
Kent,RobertH.,315
KentMachineCompany,164
Kerrcoalchute,242
Kettering,CharlesF.,268
Kingsbury,Albert,113
Kingsburythrustbearing,11314
KitteryHistoricalandNavalMuseum,145
Knight,Jonathan,238
Kooistra,J.F.,209
Kornei,Otto,342
Kortum,Karl,219
Kroeker,J.Donald,210
Kruesi,John,336
KruppWorks,68
L
labor:
child,31,164
immigrant,31,252
improvedconditions,209
prison,62
reductionin,165,167,195
savingsin,167,181,190,197
skilled,120
slave,46,149
women,29,321.
Seealsohealth,safety
LaddField(Alaska),322
LaEsperanzasugarmill,4648
lakes:
Appalachia,75
Candlewood,7071
Dry,68
Erie,189
Great(waterway),193
Hopatcong,35
Michigan,93
Stehr,68
Superior,122,193
LakesidePowerPlant(Wisconsin),90
LakeWalkplant(Texas),73
lamp,incandescent,78,167
land,EmoryScott,229
landreclamation,189
Larderello,Italy,106
Lartigue,C.F.M.T.,280
lathes,146,154
Lawrence,RichardS.,153
Leader,Richard,120
Leavitt,ErasmusD.,Jr.,1415,1617
LevittRiedlerpumpingengine,1415
Lee,James,3537
legislation,260,341
Lemale,Charles,99
L'Enfant,PierreCharles,27
Lenoir,J.J.E.,52
LeslieSaltCompany,11
Lewis,GeorgeW.,317
Lewis&Claflin,64
Libbey,167
Libbey,EdwardDrummond,163
Libertyships,162,22932
lighting,6061,76,163,16768
LimaLocomotiveWorks,255,26568
Lima"SuperPower"steamlocomotive,26568
Linotype,33839
Livermore,HoratioP.,62
LocomotivePulverizedFuelCompany,89
locomotives:
Baldwintank,253:
"cabinfront"articulatedsteam,27780
dieselelectric,254,26871,27375
doubletruck,261
electric,260,27173
firstcommoncarriersteamservice,238
Page359
gearedsteamengines,25557
laststandardgaugesteam,27577
Mallet,27879
Mogul,243
steamcogwheel,245
superpowersteam,26568
Loewy,Raymond,272
LoewyConstructionCompany,173
Lombard,AlvinO.,28485
Lombardsteamloghauler,28485
LondonCrystalPalaceExhibition(1851),154
Long,StephenH.,238
LosAngelesAqueduct,287
LosAngelesPetroleumCompany,129
Louisiana,1820,24042
PurchaseExposition(1904),79
LowellHydraulicExperiments,33
LowellManufacturingCompany,16
LowellNationalHistoricalPark,31
LowellPowerCanalSystem,2932,38
lubrication,11112
LudingtonMine(Michigan),13
lumberindustry,28485
Lycomingengine,297
Lyman,GeorgeW.,33
LyndonB.JohnsonSpaceCenter,3035
LyonsStation(California),129
M
machines,"simple,"185
machineshops,34,151,15355,165,24243
machinetools,15053,15355,176
MagmaCopperMine,2089
MagmaPowerCompany,109
magneticdisks,345
Maine,14445,28485
MaineStateMuseum,285
MainStreetPumpingStation(Jacksonville),22
Makepeace,C.R.,&Company,64
MalleableFoundersSociety,156
manengine,18788
ManhattanProject,134
Manitou&PikesPeakCogRailway,245,25254
ManitouSpringsstation,254
manufacturing,14076
Americansystemof,142,15355
fuel,313
glass,16264,16768
rail,273,327
salt,1112
watertransportation,230,232,22526.
Seealsolabor,textileindustry
MarcusHookrefinery,99
Mariner(spacecraft),302
marinetypetripleexpansionenginedrivendynamo,8082
MarionPowerShovelCompany,29192
MaritimeAdministration,233
MarkTwainHouse,339
MarkTwainZephyr(rail),270
Marsh,Sylvester,24445,253
MarshallSpaceFlightCenter,3035
MarshfieldBaseStation(NewHampshire),246
Maryland:
Baltimorearea,23840,31517
Delawarearea,89
Massachusetts:
Bostonarea,1415,9092,11921
central,17374,30910
northofBoston,2932
western,3334,14648.
SeealsoLowellentries
MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology,268
MassachusettsNauticalTrainingSchool,219
MasterCarBuilders'Association,327
MastodonMill.SeeHarmonyMills
materialshandling,18597
andmanufacturing168,181,183,232
andpeoplemovers,28081.
Seealsocranes,mills
MatsonNavigationCompany,19597
McCormick,JohnB.,34
McDonald,Forrest,90
McKinley,AshleyC.,322
McKinley,ClimaticLaboratory,32224
McLean,Malcolm,195
McLouthSteelProductsCorporation,13668
McQuaid(rail),264
MecklenburgIronWorks,131
medicaltechnology,34750
MelpomenePumpingStationNo.1(NewOrleans),20
MenomineeRangeHistoricalFoundation,14
Mercuryspacecraft,299
Mergenthaler,Ottmar,339
MergenthalerLinotypeCompany,339
Merrick,SamuelV.,8
Merrick&Son,89
MerrimackRiver,2931
MerseyIronWorks,216
Messerschmitt,Bolkow&Blohm,281
MestaMachineCompany,172
Metcalf,E.C.,156
MetropolitanEdisonCompany,72
MianusRiver(Connecticut),26162
Michell,A.G.M.,112
Michigan:
Detroitarea,7880,8082,13638,16768,2035,29698
northern,1214,6567,19395
Michigan,Lake,93
MichiganCentralNo.8000,266
MichiganLakeSuperiorPowerCompany,6567
MichiganNorthernPowerCompany,67
MidvaleSteelCompany,91
military,171,284,286,298300,32021.
Seealsoarmories,defense
Millhollandengines,247
MillRiver(Massachusetts),146
mills,29,60,123,152,177
developmentof,3334
grist,17980
rollingandslitting,119,151
saw,17980,245,256
sugar,4648
tenstamp,13032
textile,29,31,34,39,15758,2023
watersystem,6,27
Mills,JamesK.,33
MilwaukeeElectricRailway&LightCompany,88,9394
MilwaukeeRepertoryTheater,90
"Miner'sFriend,The,"4
mining,22,13839,16162,18586,29192
coal,35,13839
copper,68,19395,2089
gold,13032,13234
iron,1214
lead,14850
silver,18788
missiles,299300
MississippiRiver,238,24142
Missouri:
KansasCityarea,15758
St.Louis,27375
Mistele,Ray,88
models,3067,32021.
Seealsowindtunnels
Monongahelaincline,24649
MonongahelaRiver(Pennsylvania),24649
monorail,28081
Montgomery,Murray,196
Moore,CharlesE.,162
MorrisCanalScotch(reaction)turbine,3537
MorroVelhoMine,208
Page360
Moses,A.J.,170
Moss,Sanford,99
Moultrop,IrvingE.,90
Mt.ClareStation(Maryland),240
MountWashingtoncograilway,24446
MountWashingtonSteamRailway,245
MountWilsonObservatory,31012
Muley,Alfred,321
Mulholland,WilliamE.,287
MurphyPowerCompany,204
MuseumofManandIndustry,160
MuseumofScienceandIndustry(Chicago),270
museums:
cablecar,252
canal,10
electricpower,88
furnace,193
lumber,285
manufacturing,15355,162
mill,180
mining,14,188
Newcomen,5
rail,240,254,264,273,279
scienceandindustry,45,160,270
shipping,145,219
steamship,217
transportation,27475,277
urbantransit,259.
SeealsoGreatFallsHistoricDistrict,HagginMuseum,HenryFordMuseum,HunterianMuseum,PatersonMuseum,SmithsonianInstitution
N
Nanjing,197
Nantucket(ship),219
NASA,29193,298300,3012,3035,320
LewisResearchCenter,31719
testing,323
Nasmyth,James,159
NationalAdvisoryCommitteeforAeronautics.SeeNASA
NationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration.SeeNASA
NationalBoardofBoilerandPressureVesselInspectors,170
NationalHistoricLandmark,28,326
NationalHistoricSite,119,14648,15758
NationalLibertyShipMemorial,232
NationalMaritimeMuseum(SanFrancisco),219
NationalMuseumofTransportation,27475
NationalParkService,121,337
NationalRoad,238
NationalScienceFoundation,323
NatomaWaterandMiningCompany,62
naturalgas,92,100
NavalOrdnanceLaboratory,317
Neuchtelgasturbine,9798
Newcomenengine,35,43
Newcomen,Thomas,35
NewEnglandGlassCompany,163
NewEnglandShipbuildingCorporation,232
NewHampshire,14445,24446
NewJersey:
DivisionofParksandForestry,125
HighlandsHistoricalSociety,125
MenloPark,7879,336
north,2729,12325,2067,32021,33637
northwest,3537
NewOrleans:
AdvisoryBoardonDrainage,18
RegionalTransitAuthorityof,241
SewerageandWaterBoard,18,20
NewOrleans&CarrolltonRailRoad(NO&C),240
NewportNewsShipbuilding&DrydockCompany,22627
NewRiver,14850
NewYork:
Buffaloarea,10,201,34950
HudsonRiverarea,8486,98100
NewYorkCityarea,8284,2067,21819,25859
Syracusearea,15557
NewYork,USS(ship),226
NewYork&NewJersey,PortAuthorityof,207
NewYorkCentralRailroad,260
NewYork,NewHaven&HartfordRailroad,26062
NewYorkStockExchange,199
NiagaraFalls,62
NobelPrizeof1976,33233
NordbergManufacturingCompanyofMilwaukee,19,193
Norfolk&WesternNo.611,ClassJsteamlocomotive,27577
NorfolkSouthernCorporation,277
Norris,William,240
North,CharlesR.,338
NorthAmericanAviation,Inc.,3034
NorthCarolina,6365,7475,13032
NorthernCrossrailroad,242
NorthGermanLloydLine,22728
NorthropGrumman,162
nuclear:
equipmentmanufacturing,174
reactors,1012,1035,13436,32930
research,32426,32930,33133
shippropulsion,23334
waste,102,134
NuclearPowerGroup,Inc.,329
nuclearwarheads,299
O
OakHillMalleableIronCompany,155
OfficeofNavalResearch,331
OfficeofScientificResearchandDevelopment,321
officeproducts,33941,34144
Ohio:
central,17476,34144
northeast,17172,31719
northwest,16264,18991
OhioLocomotiveCraneCompany,190
OhioRiver,103,238,249
oil,12627,190.
Seealsopetroleumindustry
OilCreek(Pennsylvania),125,127
Oklahoma,USS(ship),229
OklahomaGas&ElectricCompany,98100
OliverSaltCompany,11
Olympia,USS(ship),22224
OneidaStreetPowerPlant,8890
O'Neill,WilliamGibbs,238
OpticalSocietyofAmerica,344
Oregon,20912
OregonShipbuildingCorporation,230
Otto,NicholasA.,5253
outboardmotor,22426
OutboardMotorsCorporation,22526
Owens,MichaelJoseph,163
OwensARbottlemachine,16264
P
PACECOcontainercrane,19597
PacificCoastEngineeringCompany,Inc.,19697
PacificGas&ElectricCompany(California),62,10810,32930
Paige,JamesW.,338
Paigecompositor,33839
Palmer,HenryRobinson,280
Palomarreflector,310
Panicof1857(U.S.),34
papermakingindustry,28,34
Papin,Denis,4
Paprocki,Stan,175
Parsons,C.A.,&Co.,220
Parsons,CharlesA.,76,82,214,21921
PassaicRiver(NewJersey),27
PatersonMuseum,29
PatriotsPointDevelopmentAuthority,234
Page361
PattenLumberman'sMuseum,285
Patterson,ThomasJ.,Jr.,219,232
PawtucketFalls:
inMassachusetts,30
inRhodeIsland,150
PawtucketGatehouseturbine,2932
PearlStreetStation(NewYork),60,7980
Pease,FrancisG.,311
PeerlessMotorCarCompany,165
Pelican(rail),277
Peltongenerators,68
PennCentral,273
Pennsylvania:
Eriearea,1718,12528
Philadelphiaarea,57,22224
Pittsburgharea,1035,24649
Susquehannaarea,2223,7273,11314,12123,27173
PennsylvaniaEngineeringCorporation,137
PennsylvaniaFireplace,198
PennsylvaniaHistorical&MuseumCommission,123,128
PennsylvaniaRailroad,263,27173
PennsylvaniaRockOilCompany,125
PennsylvaniaWater&PowerCompany,11314
Peoria&Oquawkarailroad,242
"Peppersass,"245
Perkins,Jacob,199
petroleumindustry,117,12528,12930
Philadelphia:
MuseumofArt,7
WaterCommission,7,191
WaterDepartment,67
PhiladelphiaPhoenixManufacturingCompany,285
phonograph,33637
photocopying.SeeXerography
photography,31516,343
physics:
accelerator,33133
PicoCanyon(California)oilwell,12930
Pike,Zebulon,252
PikesPeakAutoHighwayCompany,254
Pioneer(spacecraft),302
PioneerOilRefinery,12930
PioneerZephyr(rail),26871
pipe,19193
PiscataquaRiver(MaineNewHampshire),144
"pitcast"jibcrane,19193
Pitney,ArthurHill,33941
PitneyBowespostagemeter,33941
Pittsburg&MidwayCoalMiningCompany,138
pneumatic:
dieforgingpress,172
railroadcar,258
Pocahontas(rail),276
Poiseuille,J.L.,347
pollution,7,48,77
Pope,ArthurW.,Jr.,314
PortAuthority:
ofAlleghenyCounty,248
ofNewYork&NewJersey,207
PortofNanjing,197
PortsmouthKitterynavalshipbuildingactivity,14445
PortWashingtonPowerPlant,9394
postagemeter,33941
PotomacRiver(Maryland),238
powdermetallurgy,141,176
PowerHouseMuseum(Sydney),45
powertransmission,11114
PowhatanArrow(rail),276
Pratt,Charles,82
Pratt&Whitney,3012,339
PrattInstitutePowerPlant,8284
press,hydraulicdieforging,17172,17374
Prest,S.F.,81
Pring,Martin,144
printing,33839,33940
propellerdesign,bearing,113
ProprietorsofLocksandCanals(Lowell),2930,32
ProvidenceRiver(RhodeIsland),151
PuertoRico,4648
PugetSoundPower&LightCompany,8687
Pullman,GeorgeM.,263
PullmansleepingcarGlengyle,26264
pulverizedcoal,77,88
pumpedstorage,6971,75
pumps:
bottlemachine,163
C&D,8
centrifugal,17,71
Cornish,13
fire,203
fuelinjection,5556
heat,20912
largescalestation,57
malleableironproducts,157
plungertype,17
pressuregovernor,10
Riedler,14
screw,1112,1820
turbine,17,74
water,35,17,2223.
Seealsomanengine
Q
QuincyMineHoist,19395
QuintardIronWorksofNewYork,14
R
RailroadMuseumofPennsylvania,273
railroadtransportation:
heavyweighteraof,262
originsof,235,23839,240
andresearch,32628
andwheeldynamometer,32628
railroadwheeldynamometer,32628
rail(track):
beamway,280
rack,245,25253
rolledironT,239
third,261
unflanged,235
Raleigh(ship),144
RAMACdiskfile,34546
RamapoMountains(NewJersey),123
Ramsden,Dean,196
RandallBrothers,Inc.,4851
Ranger,USS(ship),144,21819
Raper,Robert,150
Rayleigh,Lord,307
reactors.Seenuclear
Reed,John,130
ReedGoldMinetenstampmill,13032
refinery.Seepetroleumindustry
refrigeration,199,210,318,32224
Renwick,James,35
ResearchCorporationofAmerica,320
RevolutionaryWar(U.S.),27,12122,144,146,148
Reynolds,Edwin,12,17,21
Reynolds,Osborne,112,307
ReynoldsCorlisspumpingengine,2122
RhodeIsland,48,50,64,15053
Rice,Emery,219
Richey,GeorgeWillis,311
Rickover,HymanG.,101,1034
Riedler,Alois,1415
Rietschel,Herman,199
Riggenbach,Klaus,253
RingwoodManorIronComplex,12325
RingwoodStatePark,125
rivers:
Allegheny,24649
American,62
Ammonoosic,245
Blackstone,150,152
Chatanika,133
Columbia,134
Connecticut,33,146
Delaware,35
Duwamish,86
Fox,60
GreatEggHarbor,191
Hiwassee,74
Housatonic,6971
Hudson,206
Merrimack,2931
Mianus,26162
Mill,146
Mississippi,238,24142
Monongahela,24649
New,14850
Ohio,103,238,249
Passaic,27
Piscataqua,

teachers
Page362
rivers(continued)144
Potomac,238
Providence,151
Seine,191
Rocky,70
Sacramento,279
Saugus,119
Schuykill,5
St.Marys,6567
Susquehanna,73
Verde,68
Yadkin,64
RL10rocketengine,3012
Roanoke(Virginia)Shops,275
RoaringCamp&BigTreesNarrowGaugeRailroad,25557
Robbins,SamuelE.,153
Robbins&Lawrencearmoryandmachineshop,15355
Robins,Benjamin,309
RobinsonDeepMine,208
robots,142
RocketdyneDivision,NorthAmericanAviation,Inc.,303
rockets,315.
Seealsoaerospace
Rockport,USS(ship),219
RockyRiver(Arizona),70
RockyRiverpumpedstoragehydroelectricplant,6971
Rogers,H.J.,60
Rogerssteamlocomotive,27,29
Roosa,VernonD.,5556
RoosaMasterdieselfuelinjectionpump,5556
Roosevelt,FranklinD.,229
Rotatingarmmodeltestfacility,32021
Rotherhithetunnel(London),206
roundhouse,24243
RoyalNavy,144
Ryerson,MartinJ.,124
S
SacramentoElectricPower&LightCompany,62
SacramentoPowerPlant,109
SacramentoRenoline,278
SacramentoRiver(California),279
safety,10,169,188,202,330.
Seealsoaccidents
St.CharlesAvenuestreetcarline,24042
St.GobainPlateGlassCompany,311
St.MarysRiver(MichiganOntario),6567
Saller,Henry,175
salt,1112,127
SaltCreek(Illinois),179
SamsonMine,18788
Sandeen,Emil,138
SanFranciscoBayNationalWildlifeRefuge,12
SanFranciscocablecarpowerhouse,24952
SanFranciscoearthquakeandfireof1906,161
SanJacintoBattlegroundStatePark,227,229
SanJoseResearchandDevelopmentLaboratory,34546
SantaSusanaMountains,129
Saranac(ship),145
Sargent&Lundy,93
SaturnVrocket,29293,3035
SaugusIronworks,11921
SaugusRiver,119
Savannah,NS(ship),23334
Savery,Thomas,4
Schneider,Eugne,159
Schneider&Company,159
Schubert,W.E.,88
SchuykillRiver(Pennsylvania),5
Schwebebahnmonorail,280
ScienceMuseum(London),45
Scotch(reaction)turbine,3537
Scotland,45
Scott,J.A.,129
SeaLandService,Inc.,195
Seanor,RexC.,328
SeattleCityLight,8688
SeattleElectricCompany.SeePugetSoundPower&LightCompany
Seine,River(France),191
SenecaOilCompany,127
sewingmachine,153
Sharp,GeorgeG.,Inc.,234
Shay,Ephraim,255
Shaylocomotive,25557
SheldonOilCompany,290
Shenandoahrivervalley,238
shipbuilding,14445
ShippingportAtomicPowerStation,1035,17475
shipsandboats,21334
nuclear,23334
outboardmotor,22426
steamengine,21617,21819,22224,22932
steamturbine,21922
testing,32021
shottower,14850
ShotTower&NewRiverTrailStatePark,150
Shriver,A.L.,180
SikorskyVS300helicopter,29698
Simmons,ZalmonG.,252
Simpson,JohnW.,104
Sims,Gardiner,79
SinclairMine,138
Singstad,Ole,206
Skylab,293,305
SLAC.SeeStanfordLinearAcceleratorCenter
Slater,Samuel,151
SlaterMillHistoricSite,152
sleepingcar(rail),26264
sliderestscrewmachine,15152
SlossFurnaceMuseum,193
Smeaton,John,307,309
Smith,A.O.,automaticframeplant,16566
Smith,ArthurO.,165
Smith,C.J.,&Sons,165
Smith,CharlesJeremiah,165
Smith,LloydR.,16566
Smith,S.Morgan(company),62,64,72
Smith,William,155
SmithsonianInstitution,176
SnowHollyWorks,2223
SocietyforEstablishingUsefulManufactures(S.U.M.),2729
SocietyforthePreservationoftheDuquesneHeightsIncline,248
SocietyofAutomotiveEngineers,313
SohoManufactory,44
SouthCarolina,23334
SouthernCarCompany,241
SouthernPacificRailroad,129,161,327
Malletlocomotives,278
No.4294,27780
SouthernPublicUtilitiesCompany.SeeDukePowerCompany
SouthernRailway,265,274
SouthLaweStreetStation.SeeVulcanStreetPowerPlant
SouthwarkFoundry&MachineCompany,79
spacecraft,29193,29495,298305
spaceshuttle,29193,305
SpanishAmericanWar,223
Page363
Sprague,FrankJ.,64
spraysystem,319
SpringfieldArmory,14648,154
SpringfieldArmoryNationalHistoricSite,148
SpringfieldTechnicalCommunityCollege,148
Sputnik(spacecraft),300
stamps,postage,33941
StanadyneAutoCorp.,5556
StandardOil,82
standards,16971,182,197
StanfordLinearAcceleratorCenter,33133
StanleyElectricManufacturingCompany,64
StateLineGeneratingUnitNo.1,9293
StatesMarineLines,234
StateUniversityofNewYorkAmherst,350
steamengines:
ArmingtonSims,79
atmospheric,35
beam35,6,89,1214,41,4648
Boulton&Watt,4346
compound,1214,17,2223,21819
early,35
HaciendaLaEsperanzasugarmill,4648
locomotive,27,29,25557,26568,27577,27780
marine,76,21314
"mill,"8384
mining,1214,194
Newcomen,35,43
nuclear,23334
PorterAllen,79
andpropulsion,151
reciprocating,21,22629
screwpropeller,216
tripleexpansion,14,1718,8082,22224,22632
Watt,4346.
SeealsoCorlissengines,HarrisCorlisssteamengine
steampower:
vs.diesellocomotives,274,277
ditcher,18991
forelectricalproduction,7694
hammer,159
forheating,201
loghauler,28485
machining,151
mechanicalproduction,4051
nuclearplant,104
pumping,123
steamturbines,2035,21922,221
bearings,112
Curtis,8486
highpressure,91
largescale,8688
turbinegenerators,77,93,104,261
WestinghouseParsons,261
StearnsManufacturingCompany,25657
steel:
automobileframes,165
highspeedtool,176
fornuclearreactor,104
railcars,259,26264
ships,222
specialty,122
testing,328
steelmaking,116,13638
StehrLake(Arizona),68
sterilizer,18082
StevensInstituteofTechnology,17,32021
Stevensonpowerstation,69,71
Stillman,Howard,279
Stirling,Allan,202
Stirlingwatertubeboilers,87,2023.
Stone&Webster,86,91
streetcars,24042
Sturtevant,BenjaminF.,199
Sturtevant,B.F.,Company,207
submarine,145
subway,25859
sugarmill,4648
S.U.M.SeeSocietyforEstablishingUsefulManufactures
SunkistExchangePlant,182
SunOilCompany,99
superheaters,77,89,94,228,266
Superior,Lake,122,193
"SuperPower"steamlocomotive,26568
SusquehannaRiver(Pennsylvania),73
Swinton,ErnestD.,287
SwissLocomotiveWorks,254
Switzerland,9798
SydneyTechnologicalMuseum,45
SylvanusBrownHouse,152
T
telescope,31012
Tennessean(rail),277
Tennessee,16971
Tennessee,USS(ship),145
TennesseeValleyAuthority,74,114,323
Texas,22629,26264,26568,3035
Texas,USS(ship),22629
Texas&NorthernRailroad,264
Texas&PacificNo.610,26568
TexasStateRailroadHistoricalPark,265,26768
TexasStateRailroad,26768
textileindustry,2729,142,15052,15758,202
Thames(vehiculartunnel),206
Thomas,PerleyA.,CarCompany,241
ThomasCarCompany,241
Thompson,AlbertR.,181
Thomson,SirWilliam,210
Thorpe,William,155
Thurston,RobertH.,111,213,215
ToledoGlassCompany,163
TomThumb(rail),239
Towne,JohnH.,8
Townsend,JamesM.,125
traction,23593
tractor,28485,28687
TransitMuseum(NewYork),259
transmission,electrical,6263,6365,6869
transportation,213305
TrentonIronCompany,124
tribology.Seebearing
TulaneUniversity,20
tunnels,2067,25859.
Seealsowindtunnels
Tuolumne(rail),25557
turbines:
Boyden,3739
Francis,3031,38,65,68,71,74
gas,95100
hydraulic,34,3739,309
JollyMcCormick,67
Kaplan,7273
Leffel,179
McCormick,3334,62,64
Scotch(reaction),3537.
Seealsointernalcombustionengines,steamturbines
Turbinia(ship),21922
turretlathe,154
TwinZephyrs(rail),270
TyneandWearMuseumsService,222
typesetting,33839
typewriter,153
U
UnionCarbideCompany,6667
UnionIronWorks,222
UnitedAircraftCorporation,297
UnitedGasImprovementCompany,70
UnitedKingdom.SeeEngland,Scotland
UnitedStates.SeeentriesunderU.S.andindividualstatenames
UnitedTechnologies,Inc.,302
UnitedVerdeCopperCompany,68
UniversityofCaliforniaBerkeley,331
UniversityofIllinois,206
UniversityofManchester,112
Upton,Francis,78
urbanplanning,201,2035,25859,260
U.S.AirForce,171,173,29899,302,319
U.S.AirProvingGroundCommand,322
U.S.Army,146,153,297
aerodynamics,315
surveyors,238
U.S.ArmyAirCorps,322
Page364
U.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers,9,306
U.S.ArmyTest&EvaluationCommand,31517
U.S.AtomicEnergyCommission,103,174,233,324
U.S.BureauofMines,206
U.S.Capitol,200
U.S.CoastGuard,323
U.S.DepartmentofCommerce,233
U.S.DepartmentofEnergy,331
U.S.DepartmentofInterior,326
U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,48
U.S.GovernmentArmory,142
U.S.MaritimeAdministration,234
U.S.MaritimeCommission,229
U.S.MerchantMarineAcademy,219
U.S.Navy,162,218,222,226,321
U.S.PostOffice,34041
U.S.Smelting,Refining,&MiningCompany,132
U.S.SteelCorporation,328
U.S.WindEngine&PumpCompany,68
V
Vallecitosboilingwaterreactor,32930
VallecitosNuclearCenter,330
valvegear,3,15,81,313
valves:
exhaust,288
releasingmechanism,22
steamengine,42
watermixing,350
VanVleck,John,81
ventilation,2067,208,323.
Seealsoclimaticcontrol
venturiflowmeter,34
VerdeRiver(Arizona),68
Vermont,15355
verniercaliper,154
Vickery,HowardL.,230
Viking(spacecraft),302
Virginia,14850,27780
VirginiaMuseumofTransportation,277
vonSchon,Hans,66
VoughtSikorskyAircraft,296
V2,298
VulcanStreetPowerPlant,6061
W
WaltDisneyImagineering,281
Wandrisco,JosephM.,328
Warner,Thomas,147
Washington,George,146
Washington(ship),144
Washington(state),8688,13436
WatermanPortooutboardmotor,22425
Waterman,CameronB.,224
waterpower:
andelectricalproduction,5775
andmechanicalproduction,2438
andwaterworks,57.
Seealsowaterwheels
watersupply,10
WatervilleIronWorks,285
waterwheels:
breast,67,15152
GreatFalls,28
overshot,120,122,18788
reversible,18788
scoop,89
undershot,179
vertical,177
Watkins,WalrusL.,157
WatkinsMillStateHistoricSite,15758
WatkinsWoolenMill,15758
Watt,James,4346
Watts,William,149
WaukeshaEngineDivisionProductTrainingCenter,315
WaukeshaMotor,313
weapons.Seearmories,defense
weatherlaboratory.Seeclimaticcontrol
Webster,Camp&LaneCompany,67
welding,141,16971,176,232,268
WesternUnion,78
Westinghouse,77,104,248
WestinghouseandBaldwinLocomotive,261
WestinghouseElectricCorporation,manufacturing,162
WestinghouseElectricofPittsburgh,101
WestinghouseParsonssteamturbine,261
WestlakeMachineCompany,167
WestmorelandMalleableIronWorks,15557
WestPointFoundry,4748,122
WestSideFlume&LumberCompany,256
WestVirginia,238,240
Wever,CasparW.,238
WeymouthFurnace,191
Wheeler,WalterH.,Jr.,341
Whitaker,Halbert,319
Whitbread,Samuel,45
White,Sanford,259
WhiteMountains(NewHampshire),24445
Wilcox,Stephen,202
Wiles,HowardM.,314
Wilkinson,David,15053
Wilkinson,Oziel,150
WilkinsonMill,15053
WillisPlant(Detroit),205
windpower,1112
WindsorCornishBridge,155
windtunnels,31718
WintonEngineCorporation,268
Wisconsin:
Milwaukee,8890,22426
Milwaukeearea,6061,9394,16566,31315
WisconsinElectricPowerCompany,94
WisconsinMichiganPowerCompany,61
Wolff,Alfred,199
Wood,A.B.,screwpump,1820
Wood,AlbertBaldwin,1920
Woodard,WilliamE.,26566
Woodbury,Johnson,284
Woods,WilliamJ.,167
Woolf,Arthur,17
WorcesterPolytechnicInstitute,30910
World'sFair(1962),234
WorldWarI:
arms147,310
manufacturingdelays,165
ships,223
tractors,287
WorldWarII:
air,99,171,297,315,317
arms,148,298,315
nuclear,134,324
ships,162,227,22932
Worthingtonhorizontalcrosscompoundpumpingengine,2223
Wright(brothers):
CurtissWrightaircraft,27
WymanGordonforgingpress,17374
X
Xerography,34144
XeroxCorporation,344
Xray,91,141,170,331
Y
YadkinRiver(NorthCarolina),64
YaleUniversity,206
York(rail),239
YorkWaterCompany,2223
Young,Alfred,318
Z
Zelanko,Charles,318
ZellerbachPaperCompany,345
Zephyr.SeePioneerZephyr(rail)
Zinn,WalterH.,325
Zircaloybonding,17475
Zweifel,Chuck,196

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