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of Stress-tolerant
Rice Varieties in Nepal
Correct Citation
D. Gauchan, B. Sapkota, S. Gautam, D.B. Thapa Magar, B. Sharma,
S. Amatya, S. Sapkota, M.B. Nepali, S. Singh and U.S. Singh, 2014.
Development and Dissemination of Stress-tolerant Rice Varieties in Nepal.
IRRI/NARC STRASA Project. Socioeconomics and Agricultural Research
Policy Division (SARPOD), Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Nepal
Acknowledgement
This document is an output of socioeconomic study carried out in Nepal
under NARCIRRI collaborative research project funded by STRASA. We
are grateful to research managers of NARC head office, representatives of
different stakeholders, district officials, national experts and partners of rice
R&D. We express our special thanks to colleagues at the Socioeconomics
& Agricultural Research Policy Division (SARPOD) for their support in
field study and timely accomplishment of the study. Special thanks go to
Biswombar Basnet and Radha Shrestha at SARPOD, Durga Dongol of Food
Research Division, NARC and research interns, Dipti Rai and Shanti Pandey
for their valuable time, hard work and patience in collecting and compiling
information. The authors are thankful to all men and women farmers, CBSP
groups, cooperative members, seed company managers, Agrovets (dealers,
retailers), researchers, extension professionals and other stakeholders of
survey districts, who provided their valuable information, insights and
understanding about the study. The cooperation, logistic support and inputs
of various NARC institutions, researchers and extension officials of DoA in
field survey implementation are very much appreciated. Finally, the authors
are grateful to overall technical and management support and inputs of
Dr. Bhava P. Tripathi, Senior Associate Scientist, IRRI, Nepal, Kathmandu.
Contents
Introduction
Research methods
11
11
12
Conclusion
Strategies for rapid dissemination of Stress-tolerant
varieties
13
13
References
15
17
18
Introduction
Rice is the principal crop grown in about 1.5 million hectare of land, which
accounts for half of the net cultivated area in Nepal. It is most important cereal
crop, both in terms of cultivated area, production and supporting livelihoods
of over two-thirds of farm households. It also accounts for about one-fifth of
agricultural GDP and supplies about 40% of the food calorie intake for the
people of Nepal with an average per capita annual consumption of 122 kg
(MoADa, 2013). Hence rice plays significant role in national food security
and livelihood of Nepalese people. Rice is grown extensively under a wide
range of agroecological conditions from lowland in Terai (50 msl) to mid hills
and high mountain valleys (3000 msl) in Jumla- the highest altitude of rice
growing location in the world. The crop is cultivated in diverse production
domains covering mountain slopes, hill terraces, intermountain basins, river
valleys, and flat lowland plains bordering to India (Gauchan et al, 2012).
About two-third of (72%) of paddy is produced in the flat lowland of Terai,
one-fourth (24%) in the hills and 4% in the mountains (MoADa, 2013). Rice
is mainly cultivated during wet monsoon season (June-November) in major
part of the country. However, in some parts of the lowland plains and valley
floors, they are also grown during spring season (Chaite rice) as an irrigated
crop. Transplanting is the major method of rice establishment in both the
irrigated and rainfed lowland conditions. Direct seeding (broadcasting) is
mainly practiced for the upland rice (Ghaiya) in upland fields.
Nepals economy is more affected by climatic stress such as drought flooding
and other natural disasters than any other hazards. Two-third of rice area in
Nepal is rainfed and most of them are stress-prone (drought and flood prone)
where, low production and high variability occur in rice production due to
uncertain weather conditions resulting from drought and/ or flooding during
monsoon season (Gauchan et al, 2012). Drought and flooding are critical
abiotic stresses in rice production since two-third of the rice area in the country
is rainfed and prone to weather related risks. Upadhyay et al, (1996) reported
that drought was the number one constraint in rice crop among the different
type of biotic (weeds, pests, diseases) and abiotic (drought, submergence,
poor soils) stresses studied during early 1990s, which reduces yields as much
as 36% in Nepal. Nepal is experiencing frequent dry spells in various parts
of the country particularly during the years 2001, 2002, 2004, 2005, 2006
and 2009, 2012 and flooding in 2008, 2013 and 2014. Field study showed
that prolonged dry spells of 2006 caused substantial reduction in national
rice production, which decreased by 13% at the national level, and in some
districts the reduction was as high as 40%. In eastern Terai districts of Siraha
and Saptari the reduction in rice production in 2006 was 38 and 46 percent
respectively (FAO/WFP, 2007).
Recently, flooding has also becoming critical stress in rice production with
the changes in climatic pattern in Nepal. Drought and flooding affects nearly
one third and one-tenth of rice area respectively in Nepal. Drought and
flooding caused by low, erratic or untimely and heavy rainfall at a short time
have resulted in low and variable rice production and productivity in Nepal.
Rainfed rice production environments are the hardest hit by these stresses due
to absence and well managed irrigation facilities.
Development and promotion of new stress-tolerant rice varieties is essential
for targeting specific stress-prone rainfed domains and target group of
farmers (resource poor, women) in the rainfed environments. This is central
to enhancing and stabilizing the rice yields through wider dissemination
of these new varieties in stress prone (drought and flood prone) domains.
However, presently, the investment in rice research is very low in Nepal with
less than 0.1% of the value of rice output being invested in rice research
(Gauchan and Pandey, 2011). Limited resources and insufficient technical
capacity have constrained R &D organizations (such as NARC) to conduct
and effectively coordinate research activities and strengthen its ties with
national and international centers. Despite limited investment, NARC in
collaboration with IRRI has recently evaluated and released new rice varieties
for stress-prone environments since 2008 where drought and flooding are
regular phenomenon. Since the implementation of STRASA project in
2008, Nepal is collaborating with IRRI in testing, validating and promoting
submergence and drought tolerant rice varieties through its public and private
sector partners involving DoA, NSC, private seed companies, CBSP groups
and Cooperatives in different locations and domains of the country (Gauchan
et al, 2014).
In this context, Nepal has so far developed and released 11 stress-tolerant
rice varieties (out of 73 total released rice varieties to date since 1960s)
with the technical support of IRRI through STRASA project for addressing
production and food security of small farmers in stress-prone environments.
Out of these two are submergence tolerance and 9 are drought tolerant which
were initially developed in IRRI by Marker Assisted Selection (MAS) by
incorporating stress tolerance gene (e.g. Sub-1A) to existing popular mega
varieties (e.g. Swarna and Shamba Mashuri etc.) for their rapid uptake and
dissemination at the farm level (Mackill, 2011). These varieties have shown
great promise in reducing poverty and vulnerability of the people in drought
and flood prone areas of South and South East Asia (Pandey et al, 2010;
Mackill, 2011). These varieties have also shown great promise in Nepals
rainfed regions and location of Terai, lower hills and river valleys. Despite
the release of about dozens of new stress tolerant varieties (STRVs) in Nepal
in the last five years and potentials shown by these new rice varieties, a
systematic and consolidated effort of assessing and documenting farm level
2
assessment and their seed production and dissemination have not yet been
initiated. Moreover, we have limited information and understanding about
the target stress-prone domains and targeting variety development, seed
multiplication and dissemination strategies of STRVs rapidly at the farm level.
Hence, this study aims to document current status of variety development,
seed production and supply of stress-tolerant rice varieties and their strategies
for rapid dissemination in stress-prone domains of Nepal.
Research methods
This study employed combination of literature reviews, key informant
interviews, focus group discussion (FGD) of stakeholders and nationwide
sample survey of seed producers, traders and farmers in Nepal. Secondary
sources of information, key informant interviews and FGD were employed
to identify specific production and stress-prone domains, constraints and
priorities to generate information. Sample survey of diverse seed actors and
sectors that are active in rice seed production and marketing were carried
out representing different development regions, farming systems and market
centers of Nepal. In addition, the study also carried out institutional survey of
key research institutions involved in variety testing, source seed production
and marketing. These included survey of important private seed companies
(n=15), seed cooperatives (n=10), CBSP groups (n=12), seed dealers/retailers
(n=240) and sample survey of 270 households affiliated to institutional seed
production with these different seed actors. The information collected in the
survey covered features of seed producers and traders, type of rice varieties
and produced, sold and adopted by farmers including specific information
on STRVs, their volume of seed production, multiplication, and marketing.
The collected information was consolidated, interpreted and verified with
stakeholder consultation meeting held in three different development regions
(Tarahara, Chitwan and Nepalganj) in Terai with relevant seed actors, seed
specialists and rice researchers and development professionals from different
organizations.
Drought
Submergence
Frequency
Duration
20-45 days
Timing
June-July (early),
Sept-Oct (terminal)
July-September
Stage of crop
growth
Planting, tillering,
maturity
Vegetative stage
Early reproductive stage
% Yield loss
20-70
30-80
Spatial covariance
Correlation with in
situ rainfall
High
Medium
Physical damage
Low
High
Economic losses
damage
High
High
Correlation with
Monsoon season
High
High
Sources of stress
Low, erratic
untimely rainfall
Variety
Ghaiya-1
(Radha 32)
2010
3.1-4.2
125
Rainfed upland in
Terai, inner Terai,
lower hills
Hardinath-2
2010
3.1-4.2
125
Tarahara-1
2010
3.5-4.2
113-125
Swarna Sub-1
2011
4.5-5.0
150
Irrigated Terai/flood
prone area
Sambha
Masuli Sub-1
2011
4.0-4.5
140
Irrigated Terai/flood
prone area
Sukha Dhan-1
2011
3.2-4.2
123-125
Rainfed Terai/foothill
Sukha Dhan-2
2011
3.3-3.5
120-125
Rainfed Terai/foothill
Sukha Dhan-3
2011
3.6-4.5
122-125
Rainfed Terai/foothill
Sukha Dhan-4
2014
2.7-4.0
118-125
Rainfed Terai/foothill
10
Sukha Dhan-5
2014
3.2-4.2
125
Rainfed Terai/foothill
11
Sukha Dhan-6
2014
3.0-4.0
125
Rainfed Terai/foothill
Among these, two are submergence tolerant developed for flash flood
conditions (e.g. Swarna Sub-1 and Shamba Mashuli Sub-1), while the
rest six are tolerant to drought conditions (Sukha Dhan-1, Sukha Dhan-2,
Sukha Dhan-3, Sukha Dhan-4, Sukha Dhan-5, Sukha Dhan-6). In addition
there are one upland direct seeded rice tolerant to drought such as Ghaiya-1
and 2 aerobic rice (dry direct seeding) rice varieties namely Tarahara-1 and
Hardinath-2 that are also tolerant to some drought released for cultivation in
different drought prone conditions of Nepal.
Eastern
Dev
Region
Central
Dev
Region
Western
Mid- Far-West
Dev West Dev
Dev
Region Region
Region
Total
Samba Sub-1
600
4638
5758
900
663
11338
Swarna Sub-1
783
5505
1717
8005
Sukha Dhan-1
50
315
625
330
968
Sukha Dhan-2
240
100
350
427
Sukha Dhan-3
1250
383
1383
850
2750
Hardinath-2
1530
650
300
1437
Taharara-1
410
175
500
693
4623
11,907
9458
2375
1643
25618
Total STRVs
27,422
128,181
39317
38181
9668 247,155
32,045
140,087
48,775
40,556
11,310 272,773
Share of STRVs in
total Seed demand
14.4
8.5
19.4
5.9
14.5
9.4
Table 4: M
ost popular dominant varieties including STRVs in specific regions
Ecological region
Dominant varieties
Stress-tolerant varieties
Eastern Terai
Tarahara-1
Central Terai
Western Terai
Mid-western Terai
Radha-4, Bindeswori
Sarju-52, Radha-4
High Hills
Chandannath-1, 3, Chhomrong
Mid hills
Khumal-4, Pokhreli,
Jethobudho
Ramdhan, Sabitri,
Makawanpur-1
Dealers cum retailers (Agrovets) sell above 100 different rice varieties and
hybrids out of which Shamba Masuli Sub-1 is one of the popularly marketed
varieties by seed dealers. Based on quantity of seed sales, Sambha Masuli
Sub-1 ranked eighth of the the most popular varieties marketed in 2013 due
to its good grain quality and higher market demand and price it fetches in the
market. Radha-4 was the number one variety with largest seed sales followed
by Sabitri and then US 312. Ramdhan and Hardinath-1 ranked fourth and
fifth, Gorakhanath hybrid 6th and Makawanpur-1 in 7th postion. Table 5
presents sell quantity, market price and market margins of STRASA varieties
marketed by seed dealers in 2013 in Nepal. Altogether STRASA varieties
constituted about 100 MT (3%) of the total (3,000 MT) marketed seeds by
seed dealers and retailers (Agrovets) in 2013.
Table 5: S
ell quantity, market price and market margin received by
seed dealers for STRVs
SN
Varieties
Selling Qty
(kg)
Buying
price/kg (Rs)
Sambha Sub-1
Tarhara-1
Selling price/
kg (Rs)
90,350
38
41.63
3.63
3975
38
40.00
2.16
Sukha Dhan-2
2000
40
55.00
15.00
Sworna Sub-1
1200
39
40.25
1.75
Sukha Dhan-3
1000
35
36.00
1.00
Sukha Dhan-1
940
30
35.00
5.00
Hardinath-2
500
32
35.00
3.00
Marketing
margins (Rs/kg)
12
Conclusion
Abiotic stresses such as drought and flooding in Nepal are important constraints
to rice production and improving livelihood of resource poor farmers in rainfed
environments. At present there is a dominance of seeds of dominant old varieties
(non-STRVs) that were released before 1990s as they have high demand, high
profit margin and low risk of marketing. However, seed production, demand
and supply of STRVs are growing as they are performing well in different
parts of Nepal. The demand for STRVs currently makes about 10% of the total
foundation seeds demand in national Seed Balance Sheet. Among STRVs, the
highest quantity and share of demand was for Sambha Masuli Sub-1 followed
by Swarna Sub-1 and Sukha-3. The demand of specific STRVs vary by regions
where Sambha Masuli Sub-1 has higher demand in western region, Swarna Sub1 in central and eastern region. Sukha varieties have also differential demand
in different regions of rainfed drought prone areas of Nepal. For targeting
appropriate size of minikits is important. The findings revealed that smaller size
(2 kg) minikits in more number (more than 5) for a village is effective in reaching
more number of farmers within a short period of time. The supplementation
of minikits with fertilizer subsidy for nursery management and technological
package through written brochures and on-farm action trainings has a significant
positive contribution in crop productivity and subsequent seed dissemination
(Sapkota et al, 2014).
Despite their increasing demand, the dissemination of STRVs are very slow due
to poor awareness, lack of targeting of seed multiplication and dissemination
in their preferred stress-prone domains, slow rate of seed multiplication and
supply as well as poor linkages and popularization in extension networks, Slow
replacement of older varieties with newer ones in farmers' fields delays the
transfer of benefits of breeding research to farmers and heightens the risk of
climatic stress and disease epidemics, especially with limited targeted of new
STRVs in stress-prone domains.
Strategies for rapid dissemination of stress-tolerant varieties
The country needs to develop strategies for rapid dissemination of STRVS to
quickly reach to small farmers in stress-prone environments to increase and
stabilize rice productivity in Nepal. The will require identification and mapping
of stress-prone domains and target socioeconomic groups, reforms in variety
development, release and seed regulations to facilitate faster development and
release of competitive farmers preferred varieties, their seeds multiplication and
rapid deployment in farmers fields. Special emphasis is needed in shortening
breeding and seed cycle through decentralized source seed production, pre-release
seed multiplication, and popularization through on-farm demonstration, training,
minikits and rapid seed delivery through multiple channels to reduce adoption
lag of improved new stress-tolerant varieties. Strengthening seed networks and
enhancing capacity of all seed actors from public, private and community sectors
13
and linking public sector breeding, community sector multiplication and private
marketing is essential.
Considering the current context of seed system in Nepal, where the role of
private and community sectors in seed business is evolving and public sectors
role is critical in supplying source seeds, a public-private-community sectors
partnership model in rice seed business is effective and sustainable. Subsidies
on newly developed and officially released stress-tolerant varieties targeted
for remote and resource poor farmers in stress-prone rainfed regions is must
for few years to promote and deploy them rapidly at the farm level in order to
ensure food security and enhance income of small and poor farmers. Targeting
of STRVs with appropriate size of minikits (2 kg/ farmer) in appropriate stressprone domains /ecology is then pivotal for a rapid and wider outreach of such
stress resilient varieties and technologies. Additionally, the study suggested that
increased participation of women in such outreach research programs significantly
increases the dissemination of a crop variety and associated technologies. Policy
makers and planners are therefore, advised to make appropriate size of minikits
and their promotion for better adoption and dissemination. There is also a need to
effectively implement existing seed policies and legislation to effectively promote
officially released and registered varieties. By improving market networks and
marketing systems of seed actors and focusing on production and marketing
through multiple channels and sources in partnership with diverse actors, the
new variety seeds can reach quickly to farmers fields. In such context emphasis
should be given for development of market linkages, strategic marketing (market
intelligence), and branding, packaging support and other market price information
and credit access along with storage support in marketing of quality seeds. The
study makes following strategic recommendations for rapid dissemination of
stress-tolerant rice varieties in Nepal
1. Identification and mapping of target stress-prone domains and target groups
for dissemination
2. Targeting fast track variety development and release for specific stress-prone
domains
3. Popularization of STRVs through extension demonstration and awareness
creation employing participatory research and extension
4. Promotion of appropriate size of minikits to small farmers in stress-prone
domains with input support and subsidies
5. Development of effective seed-networks of relevant actors for STRVs
6. Training and capacity building of seed actors in seed production and
marketing
7. Seed production and marketing of STRVs by multiple channels and sources
8. Targeting of seed and input subsidies with new STRVs and effective
implementation of existing seed policy and regulation
14
References
FAO/WFP. 2007. Food security assessment program for Nepal. Special Report.
Rome (Italy): UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and World Food
Programme (WFP), Kathmandu.
Gauchan D., H.K. Pant, S. Gautam and M.B. Nepali. 2012. Patterns of adoption
of improved rice varieties and farm level impact in stress prone rainfed areas
of Nepal. In: Patterns of adoption of improved rice varieties and farm-level
impacts in stress-prone rainfed areas in South Asia (S. Pandey, D Gauchan,
M. Malabayabas, M. Bool-Emerick and B. Hardy, eds). International Rice
Research Institute (IRRI), Los Baos, Philippines. 318pp.
Gauchan D., D.B. Thapa Magar, S. Gautam, S. Singh and U.S. Singh. 2014.
Strengthening seed system for rice seed production and supply in Nepal. IRRINARC collaborative EC-IFAD funded project on Seed Net Development.
Socioeconomics and Agricultural Research Policy Division, Nepal Agricultural
Research Council, Nepal. 40Pp.
Gauchan D. and S. Pandey. 2011. Is investment in rice research in Nepal adequate
and balanced across Production Environments? Some Empirical Evidence.
Quarterly Journal of International Agriculture 50 (2011), No. 4: 305-324.
Gautam S, H.K. Panta, M.L. Velasco, Y.N. Ghimire, D. Gauchan and S. Pandey.
2013. Tracking of improved rice varieties in Nepal. Country report for rice
component of the project Tracking of improved varieties in South Asia. IRRI
monograph. IRRI, Los Banos, Philippines.
Gumma M.K., D. Gauchan, A. Nelson, S. Pandey and A. Rala. 2011. Temporal
changes in rice-growing area and their impact on livelihood over a decade:
A case study of Nepal. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 142 (2011)
382 392.
Joshi K.D., C. Conroy and J.R. Witcombe. 2012. Agriculture, seed and innovation in
Nepal: Industry and policy for the future. Paper, Dec. 2012, IFPRI, Washington DC.
Mackill D., U. S. Singh, M.J. Thomson, E. Septiningsih and A. Kumar, 2010.
Technological opportunities for developing and deploying improved germplasm
for key target traits. In: Rice in the global economy: strategic research and
policy issues for food security (S. Pandey, D. Byerlee, D. Dawe, A. Dobermann,
S. Mohanty, S. Rozelle and B. Hardy, eds). IRRI. Los Baos (Philippines).
MoAD. 2013a. Statistical information on Nepalese agriculture. Ministry of
Agricultural and Development (MoAD), Government of Nepal, Singh Durbar,
Kathamandu, Nepal.
MoAD. 2013b. Seed vision 2025, Seed Act (1988) amended in 2008 and Seed
Regulation (2013). National Seed Board (NSB), Ministry of Agriculture
Development (MoAD), Kathmandu, Nepal.
Pandey S., T. Paris and H. Bhandari. 2010. Household income dynamics and changes
in gender roles in rice farming. In: Rice in the global economy: Strategic
research and policy issues for food security. (S. Pandey, D. Byerlee, D. Dawe,
A. Dobermann, S. Mohanty, S. Rozelle and B. Hardy, eds). International Rice
Research Institute. Los Baos (Philippines):Pp 93-111.
15
16
17
Seed companies
Lumbini Seed
Company,
Bhairahawa,
Rupandehi
Universal Seed
Company,
Bhairahawa,
Rupandehi
Unnat Seed
Producer
Company,
Patihani, Chitwan
Malla Seed
Producer
Company, Tandi,
Chitwan
Anamol Seed
Company,
Bharatpur,
Chitwan
Bij Bridhi
Company,
Pithuwa, Chitwan
National Seed
Company,
Nepalganj, Banke
SN
318
2007
1973
2005
2010
153
180
32
208
157.5
2005
2000
953
Prod /
Sale
(MT)
2002
Year of
Est.
120
110
120
130
300
75
293
No of
farmers
in seed
prod
32
FS prod
(mt)
NARC (NRRP,
RARS)
NARC (NRRP)
LIBIRD and
NARC
NARC (NRRP)
NARC and
LIBIRD/
FORWARD
NARC (NRRP)
and India
(Faizabad Agri
Univ)
NARC (NRRP)
and India
(Faizabad Agri
Univ)
Source of BS/FS
Chitwan, Dhading,
Tanahun, Dhading,
Gorkha, Parsa, Dang,
Banke, Makawanpur
Chitwan, Banke,
Bardiya, Tanahun,
Dang, Okhaldhunga
Rautahat, Lamjung
Makawanpur, Jhapa
Western Terai
Marketing outlets
Sabitri, Radha-4,
Hardinath, Ram Dhan
Makawanpur-Hardinath-1
Swarna Sub-1,
Sambha Masuli Sub-1
Sabitri, Radha-4,
Hardinath-1,
Makawanpur-1
Sabitri, Radha-4,
Hardinath-1, Barkhe Samba
Mahsuri , Radha-12,
Sunaulo Sugandh
FS of Sambha Masuli
Sub-1 and Swarna
Sub-1 from BS of
NRRP, in 2011 and
2012
Stress-tolerant
varieties
Sabitri, Hardinath-1,
Radha-4, Ram Dhan,
Makawanpur-1, Sona
Mahsuri, Mansuli
Varieties
Annex 1: Seed companies involved in STRVs seed production and marketing, 2012-2013
18
Budhan
Multipurpose
Agri- Cooperative,
Padnaha, Bardiya
Shree Krishna
Pranami Women
Agriculture
Cooperative,
Dumuria-2,
Rautahat
Sahalesh Fulbari
Seed Production
Group, Padariya-3,
Siraha
Sunder Seed
Cooperative,
Sunderbazar,
Lamjung
Name of
community sector
SN
2009
2008
2006
2000
Start
year
for seed
prod
2003
14.9
20
150
87
42
25
70
50
IAAS, Lamjung
and NARC
(NRRP)
4 NARC
(RARS,Tarahara)
NARC (NRRP,
Hardinath)
6 NARC (RARS,
Nepalganj)
Prod
No of
FS
Source of BS/FS
and sale farmers production
(MT)
in seed
(mt)
prod
395
400
NARC(NRRP,
Hardinath)
Lamjung, Gorkha,
Tanahun
Siraha, Saptari,
Dhanusha
Bardiya, Banke
Market outlet
Sabitri, Radha-4,
Hardinath-1
Makwanpur-1, Sona
Masuli, Samba Mahsuri,
Chaite-2, Ram Dhan
Sukha Dhan-2
Swarna Sub-1
Stress-tolerant
varieties
Annex 2: Community (CBSP/DISSPRO, Cooperatives) sectors engaged in STRVs seed production and marketing