The Exponential Fourier Series of a Rectangular Pulse Signal

The Exponential Form of the Fourier Series
1
4A 1
1
4A 1
V C 3 = -------------- ------- --- 90 = ---------------------------- ------- --- 90
1 + j3 5
10 71.6 5
(7.86)
4A 10
4A 10
= ------- ---------- 161.6 ------- ---------- cos ( 3t 161.6 )
50
50
Thus, the capacitor voltage in the time domain is

4A 2
5
10
v C ( t ) = ------- ------- cos ( t 135 ) + ------- cos ( 2t 153.4 ) + ---------- cos ( 3t 161.6 ) +
2
15
50
(7.87)
7.8 The Exponential Form of the Fourier Series

The Fourier series are often expressed in exponential form. The advantage of the exponential form
is that we only need to perform one integration rather than two, one for the a n , and another for the
b n coefficients in the trigonometric form of the series. Moreover, in most cases the integration is
simpler.
The exponential form is derived from the trigonometric form by substitution of
jt
jt
+e cos t = e--------------------------2
jt
(7.88)
jt
e
e
sin t = --------------------------j2
(7.89)
into f ( t ) . Thus,
jt
jt
j2t
j2t
e
+e
e
+e
1
f ( t ) = --- a 0 + a 1 ---------------------------- + a 2 --------------------------------- +
2
2
2
jt
jt
j2t
j2t
e
e
e
e
+ b 1 --------------------------- + b 2 -------------------------------- +
j2
j2
(7.90)
and grouping terms with same exponents, we get

a b jt
a b j2t
a b
j2t a 1 b 1 jt 1
f ( t ) = + -----2 -----2 e
+ ----- ----- e
+ --- a 0 + -----1 + -----1 e + -----2 + -----2 e
2 j2
2 j2
2
2 j2
2 j2
(7.91)
The terms of (7.91) in parentheses are usually denoted as

b
1
1
C n = --- a n ----n- = --- ( a n + jb n )
2
2
j
(7.92)
b
1
1
C n = --- a n + ----n- = --- ( a n j b n )
2
2
j
(7.93)
Signals and Systems with MATLAB Applications, Second Edition

Orchard Publications
7-31
Chapter 7 Fourier Series

1
C 0 = --- a 0
2
(7.94)
Then, (7.91) is written as

f ( t ) = + C 2 e
j2t
+ C 1 e
jt
+ C0 + C1 e
jt
+ C2 e
j2t
(7.95)
We must remember that the C i coefficients, except C 0 , are complex and occur in complex conjugate pairs, that is,
C n = C n
(7.96)
We can derive a general expression for the complex coefficients C n , by multiplying both sides of
(7.95) by e
jnt
and integrating over one period, as we did in the derivation of the a n and b n coeffi-
cients of the trigonometric form. Then, with = 1 ,

2
f ( t )e
jnt
dt = +
C2 e
2
C0 e
C2 e
j2t jnt
jnt
dt +
j2t jnt
dt +
jt jnt
C1 e e
jt jnt
C1 e e
dt + +
dt
(7.97)
dt
Cn e
jnt jnt
dt
We observe that all the integrals on the right side of (7.97) are zero except the last one. Therefore,
2
f ( t )e
jnt
dt =
Cn e
jnt jnt
dt =
C n dt = 2C n
or
1
C n = -----2
f ( t )e
jnt
dt
and, in general, for 1 ,

1
C n = -----2
f ( t )e
jnt
d( t )
(7.98)
or
1
C n = --T
0 f ( t )e
jnt
d( t )
(7.99)
We can derive the trigonometric Fourier series from the exponential series by addition and subtrac-
7-32

The Exponential Form of the Fourier Series

tion of the exponential form coefficients C n and C n . Thus, from (7.92) and (7.93),
1
C n + C n = --- ( a n jb n + a n + jb n )
2
or
a n = C n + C n
(7.100)
1
C n C n = --- ( a n jb n a n j b n )
2
(7.101)
b n = j ( Cn Cn )
(7.102)
Similarly,
or
Symmetry in Exponential Series

1. For even functions, all coefficients C i are real
We recall from (7.92) and (7.93) that
b
1
1
C n = --- a n ----n- = --- ( a n + jb n )
2
2
j
(7.103)
b
1
1
C n = --- a n + ----n- = --- ( a n j b n )
2
2
j
(7.104)
and
Since even functions have no sine terms, the b n coefficients in (7.103) and (7.104) are zero.
Therefore, both C n and C n are real.
2. For odd functions, all coefficients C i are imaginary
Since odd functions have no cosine terms, the a n coefficients in (7.103) and (7.104) are zero.
Therefore, both C n and C n are imaginary.
3. If there is half-wave symmetry, C n = 0 for n = even
We recall from the trigonometric Fourier series that if there is half-wave symmetry, all even harmonics are zero. Therefore, in (7.103) and (7.104) the coefficients a n and b n are both zero for
n = even , and thus, both C n and C n are also zero for n = even .
4. If there is no symmetry, f ( t ) is complex.

7-33

5. C n = C n always
This can be seen in (7.103) and (7.104)
Example 7.10
Compute the exponential Fourier series for the square waveform of Figure 7.30 below. Assume that
= 1.
T
A
A
Figure 7.30. Waveform for Example 7.10
Solution:
This is the same waveform as in Example 7.1, and as we know, it is an odd function, has half-wave
symmetry, and its DC component is zero. Therefore, the C n coefficients will be imaginary, C n = 0
for n = even , and C 0 = 0 . Using (7.98) with = 1 , we get
1
C n = -----2
f ( t )e
jnt
1
dt = -----2
Ae
jnt
1
dt + -----2
A e
jnt
dt
and for n = 0 ,
1
C 0 = -----2
Ae dt +
A
0
( A )e dt = ------ ( 2 + ) = 0
2
as expected.
For n 0 ,
1
C n = -----2
Ae
jnt
dt +
A e
jnt
1 A jnt
dt = ------ -------- e
2 jn
A jnt
+ -------- e
jn
1 A jn
A jn2 jn
A
jn
jn2
jn
= ------ -------- ( e
1 ) + ----- ( e
e
) = ------------ ( 1 e
+e
e
)
2 jn
jn
2jn
(7.105)
2
A
A
jn2
jn
jn
= ------------ ( 1 + e
2e
) = ------------ ( e
1)
2jn
2jn
7-34

Line Spectra
For n = even , e
jn
= 1 ; then,
2
A
A
jn
2
= ------------ ( e
1 ) = ------------ ( 1 1 ) = 0
n = even
2jn
2jn
Cn
(7.106)
as expected.
For n = odd , e
jn
= 1 . Therefore,
2
A
A
A
jn
2
2
2A
= ------------ ( e
1 ) = ------------ ( 1 1 ) = ------------ ( 2 ) = -------n = odd
2jn
2jn
2jn
jn
Cn
(7.107)
Using (7.95), that is,

f ( t ) = + C2 e
j2t
+ C1 e
jt
+ C0 + C1 e
jt
+ C2 e
j2t
we obtain the exponential Fourier series for the square waveform with odd symmetry as
1 j3t jt
2A
jt 1
f ( t ) = ------- --- e
e
+e
+ --- e
3
3
j
j3t
2A
= ------j
n = odd
1
--- e
n
jnt
(7.108)
The minus ( ) sign of the first two terms within the parentheses results from the fact that
C n = C n . For instance, since C 3 = 2A j3 , it follows that C 3 = C 3 = 2A j3 . We observe
that f ( t ) is purely imaginary, as expected, since the waveform is an odd function.
To prove that (7.108) and (7.22) are the same, we group the two terms inside the parentheses of
(7.108) for which n = 1 ; this will produce the fundamental frequency sin t . Then, we group the
two terms for which n = 3 , and this will produce the third harmonic sin 3t , and so on.
7.9 Line Spectra

When the Fourier series are known, it is useful to plot the amplitudes of the harmonics on a frequency scale that shows the first (fundamental frequency) harmonic, and the higher harmonics
times the amplitude of the fundamental. Such a plot is known as line spectrum and shows the spectral lines that would be displayed by a spectrum analyzer*.
Figure 7.31 shows the line spectrum of the square waveform of Example 7.1.
Figure 7.32 shows the line spectrum for the half-wave rectifier of Example 7.6.
The line spectra of other waveforms can be easily constructed from the Fourier series.
* An instrument that displays the spectral lines of a waveform.
7-35

bn
4/
nt
Figure 7.31. Line spectrum for square waveform of Example 7.1
A/ 2
A/ DC
2
0
nt
Figure 7.32. Line spectrum for half-wave rectifier of Example 7.6
Example 7.11
Compute the exponential Fourier series for the waveform of Figure 7.33, and plot its line spectra.
Assume = 1 .
Solution:
This recurrent rectangular pulse is used extensively in digital communications systems. To determine
how faithfully such pulses will be transmitted, it is necessary to know the frequency components.
T
T/
As shown in Figure 7.33, the pulse duration is T k . Thus, the recurrence interval (period) T, is k
times the pulse duration. In other words, k is the ratio of the pulse repetition time to the duration of
each pulse.
For this example, the components of the exponential Fourier series are found from
7-36

Line Spectra
1
C n = -----2
Ae
jnt
A
dt = -----2
k e
jnt
(7.109)
dt
The value of the average ( DC component) is found by letting n = 0 . Then, from (7.109) we get
k
A
C 0 = ------ t
2
A
= ------ --- + ---
2 k k
or
A
C 0 = --k
(7.110)
For the values for n 0 , integration of (7.109) yields
Cn =
A - jnt k
-------------e
k
jn2
n
sin ------
k
n
A
A e
e
= ------ ------------------------------------- = ------ sin ------ = A ------------------- k
n
n
n
j2
jn k
jn k
or
A sin ( n k )
C n = --- -------------------------n k
k
(7.111)
and thus,
A sin ( n k )
--- -------------------------k
n k
f(t) =
(7.112)
n =
The relation of (7.112) has the sin x x form, and the line spectrum is shown in Figures 7.34 through
7.36, for k = 2 , k = 5 and k = 10 .
s in (n /k )/(n /k )
k = 2
-1 0
-8
-6
-4
-2
10
Figure 7.34. Line spectrum of (7.112) for k = 2

7-37
sin(n/k)/(n/k)
k=5
-10
-5
10
sin(n/k)/(n/k)
k = 10
-10
-5
10
The spectral lines are separated by the distance 1 k and thus, as k gets larger, the lines get closer
together while the lines are further apart as k gets smaller. Although the space between lines seems
to be the same in each case, we should observe that the number of lines between line crossings, are
different.
Example 7.12
Use the result of Example 7.11 to compute the exponential Fourier series of the unit impulse train
A ( t 2n ) shown in Figure 7.37.
Solution:
From Example 7.11,
A sin ( n k )
C n = --- -------------------------k
n k
7-38
(7.113)

Line Spectra
A
...
...
8 6
Figure 7.37. Impulse train for Example 7.12
and the pulse width was defined as T k , that is,

T
2
--- = ------
(7.114)
Next, let us represent the impulse train of Figure 7.37, as a recurrent pulse with amplitude
k
1
1
A = ---------- = ------------- = -----2
Tk
2 k
(7.115)
as shown in Figure 7.38.

1 A = -----------2 k
2/
1
Figure 7.38. Recurrent pulse with amplitude A = ------------
2 k
By substitution of (7.115) into (7.113), we get

1 sin ( n k )
k 2 sin ( n k )
C n = ------------- -------------------------- = ------ -------------------------2 n k
n k
k
(7.116)
and as k 0 , we observe from Figure 7.38, that each recurrent pulse becomes a unit impulse,
and the total number of the pulses reduce to a unit impulse train. Moreover, recalling that
1
sin x = 1 , we see that (7.116) reduces to C = ----- , that is, all coefficients of the exponential
lim --------n
2
x0 x
Fourier series have the same amplitude and thus,

1
f ( t ) = -----2
jnt
(7.117)
n =

7-39

The series of (7.117) reveals that the line spectrum of the impulse train of Figure 7.38, consists of a
train of equal amplitude, and are equally spaced harmonics as shown in Figure 7.39.
Since these spectral lines extend from to + , the bandwidth approaches infinity.
1/ 2
...
...
Figure 7.39. Line spectrum for Example 7.12
Let us reconsider the train of recurrent pulses shown in Figure 7.40.

T
T/
Figure 7.40. Recurrent pulse with T
Now, let us suppose that the pulses to the left and right of the pulse centered around zero, become
less and less frequent; or in other words, the period T approaches infinity. In this case, there is only
one pulse left (the one centered around zero). As T , the fundamental frequency approaches
zero, that is, 0 as T approaches infinity. Accordingly, the frequency difference between consecutive harmonics becomes smaller. In this case, the lines in the line spectrum come closer together,
and the line spectrum becomes a continuous spectrum. This forms the basis of the Fourier transform that we will study in the next chapter.
7.10 Computation of RMS Values from Fourier Series

The RMS value of a waveform consisting of sinusoids of different frequencies, is equal to the
square root of the sum of the squares of the RMS values of each sinusoid. Thus, if
i = I 0 + I 1 cos ( 1 t 1 ) + I 2 cos ( 2 t 2 ) + + I N cos ( N t N )
(7.118)
where I 0 represents a constant current, and I 1, I 2, , I N represent the amplitudes of the sinusoids,
the RMS value of i is found from
7-40

Computation of RMS Values from Fourier Series

I RMS =
I 0 + I 1 RMS + I 2 RMS + + I N RMS
(7.119)
1 2
1 2
1 2
2
I 0 + --- I + --- I + + --- I
2 1m 2 2m
2 Nm
(7.120)
or
I RMS =
The proof of (7.119) is based on Parsevals theorem; we will discuss this theorem on the next chapter. A brief description of the proof follows.
We recall that the RMS (effective) value of a function, such as current i ( t ) , is defined as
I RMS =
--1T
0 i d t
2
(7.121)
2
2
[ cos ( 1 t 1 ) ] , and other
Substitution of (7.118) into (7.121), will produce the terms I 02 , I 1m
similar terms representing higher order harmonics. The result will also contain products of cosine
functions multiplied by a constant, or other cosine terms of different harmonic frequencies. But as
we know, from the orthogonality principle, the integration of (7.121), will produce all zero terms
except the cosine squared terms which, for each harmonic, will be
2T
I m --1 2
2
--------- = --- I m
2
T
(7.122)
as in (7.120).
Example 7.13
Find the I RMS value of the square waveform shown in Figure 7.41 by application of
a. relation (7.121)
b. relation (7.120)
1
1

7-41

Solution:
a. By inspection, the period is T = 2 as shown in Figure 7.42.
1
1
Figure 7.42. Waveform of Example 7.13 showing period T = 2
Then,
1
2
I RMS = --T
1
2
i dt = -----2
= ------ [ t 0 + t
2
2
]
1
2
i d( t ) = -----2
1 d( t ) +
2
( 1 ) d( t )
2
1
= ------ [ 2 ] = 1
2
or
I RMS = 1
b. In Example 7.1, we found that the given waveform may be written as

1
1
4
i ( t ) = --- sin t + --- sin 3t + --- sin 5t +
5
3
(7.123)
and as we know, the RMS value of a sinusoid is a real number independent of the frequency and
the phase angle, and it is equal to 0.707 times its maximum value, that is, I RMS = 0.707I max .
Then, from (7.120) and (7.123),
1
4
1 1 2 1 1 2
2
I RMS = --- 0 + --- ( 1 ) + --- --- + --- --- + = 0.97
2
23
25
(7.124)
This is a good approximation to unity, considering that higher harmonics have been neglected.
7.11 Computation of Average Power from Fourier Series

We can compute the average power of a Fourier series from the relation
P ave = P dc + P 1ave + P 2ave +
= V dc I dc + V 1RMS I 1RMS cos 1 + V 2RMS I 2RMS cos 2 +
(7.125)
The proof is obtained from the definition of average power, i.e.,
7-42

Computation of Average Power from Fourier Series

1
P ave = --T
1
p dt = --T
0 vi dt
(7.126)
and the expression for the alternate trigonometric Fourier series, that is,
1
f ( t ) = --- a 0 +
2
cn cos ( nt n )
(7.127)
n=1
where f ( t ) can represent voltages and currents. Then, by substitution of these series for v and i into
(7.126), we will find that the products of v and i that have different frequencies, will be zero, and
only the products of the same frequency terms will have non-zero values. The non-zero values will
represent the average power for each harmonic in (7.125).
Example 7.14
For the circuit of Figure 7.43, compute:
a. The current i c ( t ) given that v in ( t ) = 6 cos t --- cos 3t V where = 1000 r s .
3
1
b. The average power P ave delivered by the voltage source.

Solution:
a. We will use the subscripts 1 and 3 to represent the quantities due to the fundamental and third
harmonic frequencies respectively. Since the excitation consists of two sinusoids of different frequencies, we can use phasor quantities, and we will denote them with capital letters.
R
1
v in ( t )
+ iC ( t )
10 ----------F
3
Figure 7.43. Circuit for Example 7.14
Then,
v in1 ( t ) = 6 cos t V in1 = 6 0 V
j
j
---------- = -------------------------------- = j3
3
3
1 C
10 10 3
Z 1 = 1 j3 =
10 71.6

7-43

V in1
6 0
I C1 = --------- = ------------------------------- = 1.90 71.6 i C1 ( t ) = 1.90 cos ( t + 71.6 ) A
Z1
10 71.6
(7.128)
Next,
v in3 ( t ) = 2 cos 3t = 2 cos ( 3t + 180 ) V in3 = 2 180 V
j
j
---------- = ----------------------------------------- = j1
3
3
3 C
3 10 10 3
Z 3 = 1 j1 =
2 45
V in3
2 180
I C3 = --------- = ------------------------ = 1.41 225 = 1.41 ( 225 135 )
Z3
2 45
(7.129)
i C3 ( t ) = 1.41 cos ( 3t 135 ) A
From (7.128) and (7.129),

i c ( t ) = i c1 ( t ) + i c3 ( t ) = 1.90 cos ( t + 71.6 ) + 1.41 cos ( 3t 135 )
(7.130)
b. The average power delivered by the voltage source is

P ave = V 1RMS I 1RMS cos 1 + V 3RMS I 3RMS cos 3
(7.131)
2 1.41
6 1.90
= ------- ---------- cos ( 71.6 ) + ------- ---------- cos ( 135 )
2
2
2
2
or
P ave = 0.8 w
(7.132)
Check:
The average power absorbed by the capacitor is zero, and therefore, the average power absorbed by
the resistor, must be equal to the average power delivered by the source. The average power
absorbed by the resistor is
1 2
1
1 2
2
2
2
P ave = --- I max R = --- ( I 1max I 3max ) = --- ( 1.90 1.41 ) = 0.8 w
2
2
2
7.12 Numerical Evaluation of Fourier Coefficients

The use of Fourier series is not restricted to electric circuit analysis. It is also applied in the analysis
of the behavior of physical systems subjected to periodic disturbances. Examples include cable
stress analysis in suspension bridges, and mechanical vibrations.
Quite often, it is necessary to construct the Fourier expansion of a function based on observed values instead of an analytic expression. Examples are meteorological or economic quantities whose
7-44

Numerical Evaluation of Fourier Coefficients

period may be a day, a week, a month or even a year. In these situations, we need to evaluate the integral(s) using numerical integration.
The procedure presented here, will work for both the waveforms that have an analytical solution and
those that do not. Even though we may already know the Fourier series from analytical methods, we
can use this procedure to check our results.
Consider the waveform of f ( x ) shown in Figure 7.44, were we have divided it into small pulses of
width x . Obviously, the more pulses we use, the better the approximation.
If the time axis is in degrees, we can choose x to be 2.5 and it is convenient to start at the zero
point of the waveform. Then, using a spreadsheet, such as Microsoft Excel, we can divide the period
0 to 360 in 2.5 intervals, and enter these values in Column A of the spreadsheet.
f(x)
Figure 7.44. Waveform whose analytical expression is unknown
Since the arguments of the sine and the cosine are in radians, we multiply degrees by (3.1459...)
and divide by 180 to perform the conversion. We enter these in Column B and we denote them as
x . In Column C we enter the corresponding values of y = f ( x ) as measured from the waveform.
In Columns D and E we enter the values of cos x and the product y cos x respectively. Similarly, we
enter the values of sin x and y sin x in Columns F and G respectively.
Next, we form the sums of y cos x and y sin x , we multiply these by x , and we divide by to
obtain the coefficients a 1 and b 1 . To compute the coefficients of the higher order harmonics, we
form the products y cos 2x , y sin 2x , y cos 3x , y sin 3x , and so on, and we enter these in subsequent
columns of the spreadsheet.
Figure 7.45 is a partial table showing the computation of the coefficients of the square waveform,
and Figure 7.46 is a partial table showing the computation of the coefficients of a clipped sine waveform. The complete tables extend to the seventh harmonic to the right and to 360 down.

7-45
7-46
0.0
0.0
2.5
5.0
7.5
10.0
12.5
15.0
17.5
20.0
22.5
25.0
27.5
30.0
32.5
35.0
37.5
40.0
42.5
45.0
47.5
50.0
0.000
0.044
0.087
0.131
0.175
0.218
0.262
0.305
0.349
0.393
0.436
0.480
0.524
0.567
0.611
0.654
0.698
0.742
0.785
0.829
0.873
x(deg) x(rad)
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
0.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.000
0.044
0.044
0.044
0.044
0.044
0.044
0.044
0.044
0.044
0.044
0.044
0.044
0.044
0.044
0.044
0.044
0.044
0.044
0.044
0.044
y=f(x) 0.5*a0
2.0
1.000
0.999
0.996
0.991
0.985
0.976
0.966
0.954
0.940
0.924
0.906
0.887
0.866
0.843
0.819
0.793
0.766
0.737
0.707
0.676
0.643
cosx
4.0
0.000
0.999
0.996
0.991
0.985
0.976
0.966
0.954
0.940
0.924
0.906
0.887
0.866
0.843
0.819
0.793
0.766
0.737
0.707
0.676
0.643
ycosx
6.0
Average=
0.000
0.044
0.087
0.131
0.174
0.216
0.259
0.301
0.342
0.383
0.423
0.462
0.500
0.537
0.574
0.609
0.643
0.676
0.707
0.737
0.766
sinx
Square waveform
0.000
0.044
0.087
0.131
0.174
0.216
0.259
0.301
0.342
0.383
0.423
0.462
0.500
0.537
0.574
0.609
0.643
0.676
0.707
0.737
0.766
ysinx
8.0
1.000
0.996
0.985
0.966
0.940
0.906
0.866
0.819
0.766
0.707
0.643
0.574
0.500
0.423
0.342
0.259
0.174
0.087
0.000
-0.087
-0.174
cos2x
DC=
a1=
a2=
a3=
a4=
a5=
a6=
a7=
0.000
0.996
0.985
0.966
0.940
0.906
0.866
0.819
0.766
0.707
0.643
0.574
0.500
0.423
0.342
0.259
0.174
0.087
0.000
-0.087
-0.174
ycox2x
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
Numerical:
0.000
0.087
0.174
0.259
0.342
0.423
0.500
0.574
0.643
0.707
0.766
0.819
0.866
0.906
0.940
0.966
0.985
0.996
1.000
0.996
0.985
sin2x
b1=
b2=
b3=
b4=
b5=
b6=
b7=
0.000
0.087
0.174
0.259
0.342
0.423
0.500
0.574
0.643
0.707
0.766
0.819
0.866
0.906
0.940
0.966
0.985
0.996
1.000
0.996
0.985
ysin2x
1.273
0.000
0.424
0.000
0.254
0.000
0.180
1.000
0.991
0.966
0.924
0.866
0.793
0.707
0.609
0.500
0.383
0.259
0.131
0.000
-0.131
-0.259
-0.383
-0.500
-0.609
-0.707
-0.793
-0.866
0.000
0.991
0.966
0.924
0.866
0.793
0.707
0.609
0.500
0.383
0.259
0.131
0.000
-0.131
-0.259
-0.383
-0.500
-0.609
-0.707
-0.793
-0.866
cos3x ycos3x
f(t)=4(sinwt/p+sin3wt/3p+sin5wt/5p+ .)
Analytical:
0.000
0.131
0.259
0.383
0.500
0.609
0.707
0.793
0.866
0.924
0.966
0.991
1.000
0.991
0.966
0.924
0.866
0.793
0.707
0.609
0.500
sin3x
0.000
0.131
0.259
0.383
0.500
0.609
0.707
0.793
0.866
0.924
0.966
0.991
1.000
0.991
0.966
0.924
0.866
0.793
0.707
0.609
0.500
ysin3x
Figure 7.45. Numerical computation of the coefficients of the square waveform (partial listing)
0.0
0.0
2.5
5.0
7.5
10.0
12.5
15.0
17.5
20.0
22.5
25.0
27.5
30.0
32.5
35.0
37.5
40.0
42.5
45.0
47.5
50.0
0.000
0.044
0.087
0.131
0.175
0.218
0.262
0.305
0.349
0.393
0.436
0.480
0.524
0.567
0.611
0.654
0.698
0.742
0.785
0.829
0.873
x(deg) x(rad)
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
0.000
0.044
0.087
0.131
0.174
0.216
0.259
0.301
0.342
0.383
0.423
0.462
0.500
0.500
0.500
0.500
0.500
0.500
0.500
0.500
0.500
y=f(x)
0.000
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.009
0.011
0.013
0.015
0.017
0.018
0.020
0.022
0.022
0.022
0.022
0.022
0.022
0.022
0.022
0.022
0.5*a0
2.0
1.000
0.999
0.996
0.991
0.985
0.976
0.966
0.954
0.940
0.924
0.906
0.887
0.866
0.843
0.819
0.793
0.766
0.737
0.707
0.676
0.643
cosx
4.0
0.000
0.044
0.087
0.129
0.171
0.211
0.250
0.287
0.321
0.354
0.383
0.410
0.433
0.422
0.410
0.397
0.383
0.369
0.354
0.338
0.321
ycosx
6.0
0.000
0.044
0.087
0.131
0.174
0.216
0.259
0.301
0.342
0.383
0.423
0.462
0.500
0.537
0.574
0.609
0.643
0.676
0.707
0.737
0.766
sinx
Sine wave clipped at /6, 5/6 etc.
0.000
0.002
0.008
0.017
0.030
0.047
0.067
0.090
0.117
0.146
0.179
0.213
0.250
0.269
0.287
0.304
0.321
0.338
0.354
0.369
0.383
ysinx
8.0
1.000
0.996
0.985
0.966
0.940
0.906
0.866
0.819
0.766
0.707
0.643
0.574
0.500
0.423
0.342
0.259
0.174
0.087
0.000
-0.087
-0.174
cos2x
DC=
a1=
a2=
a3=
a4=
a5=
a6=
a7=
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.043
0.086
0.126
0.163
0.196
0.224
0.246
0.262
0.271
0.272
0.265
0.250
0.211
0.171
0.129
0.087
0.044
0.000
-0.044
-0.087
ycox2x
Numerical:
f(t)=unknown
Analytical:
0.000
0.087
0.174
0.259
0.342
0.423
0.500
0.574
0.643
0.707
0.766
0.819
0.866
0.906
0.940
0.966
0.985
0.996
1.000
0.996
0.985
sin2x
0.000
0.004
0.015
0.034
0.059
0.091
0.129
0.172
0.220
0.271
0.324
0.378
0.433
0.453
0.470
0.483
0.492
0.498
0.500
0.498
0.492
ysin2x
b1= 0.609
b2= 0.000
b3= 0.138
b4= 0.000
b5= 0.028
b6= 0.000
b7= -0.010
1.000
0.991
0.966
0.924
0.866
0.793
0.707
0.609
0.500
0.383
0.259
0.131
0.000
-0.131
-0.259
-0.383
-0.500
-0.609
-0.707
-0.793
-0.866
0.000
0.043
0.084
0.121
0.150
0.172
0.183
0.183
0.171
0.146
0.109
0.060
0.000
-0.065
-0.129
-0.191
-0.250
-0.304
-0.354
-0.397
-0.433
cos3x ycos3x
0.000
0.131
0.259
0.383
0.500
0.609
0.707
0.793
0.866
0.924
0.966
0.991
1.000
0.991
0.966
0.924
0.866
0.793
0.707
0.609
0.500
sin3x
0.000
0.006
0.023
0.050
0.087
0.132
0.183
0.239
0.296
0.354
0.408
0.458
0.500
0.496
0.483
0.462
0.433
0.397
0.354
0.304
0.250
ysin3x
Numerical Evaluation of Fourier Coefficients
Figure 7.46. Numerical computation of the coefficients of a clipped sine waveform (partial listing)

7-47

7.13 Summary
Any periodic waveform f ( t ) can be expressed as
1
f ( t ) = --- a 0 +
2
( a cos nt + b sin nt )
n
n=1
where the first term a 0 2 is a constant, and represents the DC (average) component of f ( t ) .
The terms with the coefficients a 1 and b 1 together, represent the fundamental frequency component . Likewise, the terms with the coefficients a 2 and b 2 together, represent the second
harmonic component 2 , and so on. The coefficients a 0 , a n , and b n are found from the following relations:
1
1
--- a 0 = -----2
2
1
a n = --
1
b n = --
f ( t ) dt
f ( t ) cos nt dt
f ( t ) sin nt dt
If a waveform has odd symmetry, that is, if it is an odd function, the series will consist of sine
terms only. We recall that odd functions are those for which f ( t ) = f ( t ) .
If a waveform has even symmetry, that is, if it is an even function, the series will consist of cosine
terms only, and a 0 may or may not be zero. We recall that even functions are those for which
f( t ) = f ( t )
A periodic waveform with period T , has half-wave symmetry if
f ( t + T 2 ) = f ( t )
that is, the shape of the negative half-cycle of the waveform is the same as that of the positive
half-cycle, but inverted. If a waveform has half-wave symmetry only odd (odd cosine and odd
sine) harmonics will be present. In other words, all even (even cosine and even sine) harmonics
will be zero.
The trigonometric Fourier series for the square waveform with odd symmetry is
4A
1
1
4A
f ( t ) = ------- sin t + --- sin 3t + --- sin 5t + = ------
5
3
7-48
n = odd
1
--- sin nt
n

Summary
The trigonometric Fourier series for the square waveform with even symmetry is
4A
1
4A
1
f ( t ) = ------- cos t --- cos 3t + --- cos 5t = ------
( 1 )
(n 1)
---------------2 1
--- cos n t
n
n = odd
The trigonometric Fourier series for the sawtooth waveform with odd symmetry is
2A
1
1
1
2A
f ( t ) = ------- sin t --- sin 2t + --- sin 3t --- sin 4t + = ------
4
3
2
( 1 )
n1
1
--- sin nt
n
The trigonometric Fourier series for the triangular waveform with odd symmetry is
8A
1
1
8A
1
( 1 )
f ( t ) = ------2- sin t --- sin 3t + ------ sin 5t ------ sin 7t + = ------2
49
25
9
n = odd
(n 1)
---------------2
1
----- sin n t
2
n
The trigonometric Fourier series for the half-wave rectifier with no symmetry is
A cos 2t cos 4t cos 6t cos 8t
A
+ ------------- + ------------- + ------------- +
--- + --- sin t --- ------------f( t) = A
63
35
15
3
2
The trigonometric form of the Fourier series for the full-wave rectifier with even symmetry is
2A 4A
f ( t ) = ------- ------
1
------------------ cos nt
2
n
(
1
)
n = 2, 4, 6,
The Fourier series are often expressed in exponential form as

f ( t ) = + C 2 e
j2 t
+ C 1 e
j t
+ C0 + C1 e
jt
+ C2 e
j2 t
where the C i coefficients are related to the trigonometric form coefficients as

b
1
1
C n = --- a n ----n- = --- ( a n + jb n )
2
2
j
b
1
1
C n = --- a n + ----n- = --- ( a n j b n )
2
2
j
1
C 0 = --- a 0
2
The C i coefficients, except C 0 , are complex, and appear as complex conjugate pairs, that is,
C n = C n

7-49

In general, for 1 ,
1
C n = --T
f ( t )e
jn t
1
d( t ) = -----2
f ( t )e
jn t
d( t )
We can derive the trigonometric Fourier series from the exponential series from the relations
an = Cn + Cn
and
bn = j ( Cn Cn )
For even functions, all coefficients C i are real
For odd functions, all coefficients C i are imaginary
If there is half-wave symmetry, C n = 0 for n = even
C n = C n always
A line spectrum is a plot that shows the amplitudes of the harmonics on a frequency scale.
The frequency components of a recurrent rectangular pulse follow a sin x x form.
he line spectrum of an impulse train consists of a train of equal amplitude, and are equally
spaced harmonics.
he RMS value of a waveform consisting of sinusoids of different frequencies, is equal to the
square root of the sum of the squares of the RMS values of each sinusoid. Thus,
I RMS =
I 0 + I 1 RMS + I 2 RMS + + I N RMS

2
or
I RMS =
1 2
1 2
1 2
2
I 0 + --- I + --- I + + --- I
2 Nm
2 1m 2 2m
We can compute the average power of a Fourier series from the relation
P ave = P dc + P 1ave + P 2ave +
= V dc I dc + V 1RMS I 1RMS cos 1 + V 2RMS I 2RMS cos 2 +
We can evaluate the Fourier coefficients of a function based on observed values instead of an
analytic expression using numerical evaluations with the aid of a spreadsheet.
7-50

Exercises
7.14 Exercises
1. Compute the first 5 components of the trigonometric Fourier series for the waveform of Figure
7.47. Assume = 1 .
f(t)
A
Figure 7.47. Waveform for Exercise 1
2. Compute the first 5 components of the trigonometric Fourier series for the waveform of Figure
7.48. Assume = 1 .
f(t)
A
t
0
3. Compute the first 5 components of the exponential Fourier series for the waveform of Figure
7.49. Assume = 1 .
f(t)
A
0
7.50. Assume = 1 .
f( t)
A2
0
A 2

7-51

7.51. Assume = 1 .
f( t)
A
7.52. Assume = 1 .
f(t)
A
7-52

Solutions to Exercises
7.15 Solutions to Exercises
1.
f(t)
A
--- t
This is an even function; therefore, the series consists of cosine terms only. There is no half-wave
symmetry and the average ( DC component) is not zero. We will integrate from 0 to and multiply by 2 . Then,
2
a n = --
A
2A
--- t cos nt dt = ------2
0 t cos nt dt
(1)
From tables of integrals,
x cos ax dx
x
1
= ----2- cos ax + --- sin a x
a
a
and thus (1) becomes

t
2A 1
a n = ------2- ----2- cos nt + --- sin nt
n
n
t
2A 1
1
= ------2- ----2- cos n + --- sin nt ----- 0
2
n
n
n
and since sin nt = 0 for all integer n ,

2A 1
2A
1
a n = ------2- ----2- cos n ----- = ----------2- ( cos n 1 ) (2)
2
2
n
n
n
We cannot evaluate the average ( 1 2 ) a 0 from (2); we must use (1). Then, for n = 0 ,
1
2A
--- a 0 = --------2
2
2
A t
t dt = ----2- --- 2
A
= ----2- ---- 2
or
( 1 2 ) a0 = A 2
We observe from (2) that for n = even , a n = even = 0 . Then,

4A
4A -, for n = 7, a = --------- 4Afor n = 1, a 1 = 4A
-------, for n = 3, a 3 = ----------2-, for n = 5, a 5 = ---------3
2
2
2 2
2 2
3
5
7
7-53

and so on.
Therefore,
4A
4A
1
1
1
1
--- ------f ( t ) = --- a 0 ------2- cos t + --- cos 3t + ------ cos 5t + ------ cos 7t + = A
2
9
25
49
2
n = odd
1
----- cos nt
2
n
2.
f( t)
2A
------- t
3 2
This is an even function; therefore, the series consists of cosine terms only. There is no half-wave
symmetry and the average ( DC component) is not zero.
1
Area
2 [ ( A 2 ) ( 2 ) ] + A
3A ( 2 )
3A
Average = --- a 0 = ------------------ = --------------------------------------------------------------- = -------------------------- = ------2
Period
2
2
4
2
a n = --
2A
------- t cos nt dt + --2
2 A cos nt dt
(1)
and with
x cos ax dx
1
x
1
= ----2- cos ax + --- sin a x = ----2- ( cos ax + ax sin ax )
a
a
a
(1) simplifies to
4A 1
a n = ------2- ----2- ( cos nt + nt sin nt )
n
2A
+ ------- sin nt
n
2A
n
4A
= ----------2- cos n
------
------ 1 0 + ------- sin n sin n
------ + ------ sin n
2
n
2
2
2
2
n
and since sin nt = 0 for all integer n ,

4A
2A n 4A 2A n
4A
n
a n = ----------2- cos n
------ + ------- sin ------ ----------- ------- sin ------ = ----------2- cos ------ 1
2
2
n
2 2 n
2
2
2
2
n
n
n
4A
4A
4A-, for n = 2, a = -------2A- ( 1 1 ) = -----for n = 1, a 1 = ------2- ( 0 1 ) = -----2
2
2
2
4A
4A
4A
for n = 3, a 3 = --------2- ( 0 1 ) = ---------, for n = 4, a 4 = ----------2- ( 1 1 ) = 0
2
2
9
9
7
7-54

We observe that the fourth harmonic and all its multiples are zero. Therefore,
1
4A
1
------- ------2- cos t + --- cos 2t + --- cos 3t +
f ( t ) = 3A
9
2
4
3.
f(t)
A
This is neither an even nor an odd function and has no half-wave symmetry; therefore, the series
consists of both cosine and sine terms. The average ( DC component) is not zero. Then,
1
C n = -----2
f ( t )e
jn t
d( t )
and with = 1
1
C n = -----2
f ( t )e
jnt
1
dt = -----2
Ae
jnt
dt +
0e
jnt
A
dt = -----2
0 e
jnt
dt
The DC value is
A
C 0 = -----2
A
0
e dt = ------ t
2
A
= --2
For n 0
A
C n = -----2
jnt
A
jnt
dt = --------------- e
j2 n
A
jn
= ------------ ( 1 e
)
j2n
Recalling that
e
for n = even , e
jn
jn
= cos n j sin n
= 1 and for n = odd , e
jn
= 1 . Then,
A
C n = even = ------------ ( 1 1 ) = 0
j2n
and
A
AC n = odd = ------------ [ 1 ( 1 ) ] = ------j2n
jn
By substitution into

7-55

f ( t ) = + C 2 e
j2 t
+ C 1 e
j t
+ C0 + C1 e
jt
+ C2 e
j2 t
we find that
1 j3 t j t
A
j t 1 j3 t
--- + ----- --- e
f( t) = A
e
+ e + --- e
+
3
3
2 j
The minus () sign of the first two terms within the parentheses results from the fact that
C n = C n . For instance, since C 1 = 2A j , it follows that C 1 = C 1 = 2A j . We observe
that f ( t ) is complex, as expected, since there is no symmetry.
4.
f(t)
A2
0
A 2
This is the same waveform as in Exercise 3 where the DC component has been removed. Then,
1 j3 t j t
A
j t 1 j3 t
f ( t ) = ----- --- e
e
+ e + --- e
+
3
3
j
It is also the same waveform as in Example 7.10 except that the amplitude is halved. This waveform is an odd function and thus the expression for f ( t ) is imaginary.
5.
f( t)
A
This is the same waveform as in Exercise 3 where the vertical axis has been shifted to make the
waveform an even function. Therefore, for this waveform C n is real. Then,
1
C n = -----2
f ( t )e
jnt
A
dt = -----2
2 e
jnt
dt
The DC value is
7-56

A
C 0 = ------ t
2
A
A
= ------ --- + --- = --2 2 2
2
For n 0
A
C n = -----2
jnt
A
jnt
dt = --------------- e
j2 n
2
2
A
jn 2
jn 2
= --------------- ( e
e
)
j2 n
jn 2
jn 2
A e
e
A
A
jn 2
jn 2
= ------------ ( e
e
) = ------ -------------------------------------- = ------ sin n
-----
n
j2
j2n
n
2
and we observe that for n = even , C n = 0

For n = odd , C n alternates in plus (+) and minus () signs, that is,
A
C n = ------ if n = 1, 5, 9,
n
A
C n = ------ if n = 3, 7, 11,
n
Thus,
--- +
f(t) = A
2
n = odd
A- jn t
----e
n
where the plus (+) sign is used with n = 1, 5, 9, and the minus () sign is used with
n = 3, 7, 11, . We can express f ( t ) in a more compact form as
--- +
f( t) = A
2
( 1 )
(n 1) 2
n = odd
A- jn t
----e
n
6.
f(t)
2
2A
------- t 1
We will find the exponential form coefficients C n from

1
C n = -----2
f ( t )e
jnt
dt
From tables of integrals

7-57
ax
e
ax
xe dx = ------2- ( ax 1 )
a
Then,
1
C n = -----2
jnt
2A
------- t 1 e dt +
- t 1 e
0 -----
2A
jnt
dt
Integrating and rearranging terms we get

jn
jn
jn
jn
jn
jn
e
2A e
1
e
e
4A 4A-
e
+e
---------------------------- + --------------------------
n
- ------- ---------------------------C n = ------ --------- + -------2
2
n
2 n n
j2
j2
2
4A
n
= ------------- 1 + n sin n + cos n ------ sin n
2 2
2
2n
and since sin n = 0 for all integer n ,

2A ( cos n 1 )
C n = ---------2 2
n
4 A
For n = even , C n = 0 and for n = odd , cos n = 1 , and C n = ---------2 2
n
Also, by inspection, the DC component C 0 = 0 . Then,

1 j3 t
j t
j t 1 j3 t
4A
f ( t ) = ------- + --- e
+e
+ e + --- e
+
2
9
9
The coefficients of the terms e
j3 t
and e
j t
are positive because all coefficients of C n are real.
This is to be expected since f ( t ) is an even function. It also has half-wave symmetry and thus
C n = 0 for n = even as weve found.
7-58


The Exponential Fourier Series of a Rectangular Pulse Signal

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The Exponential Fourier Series of a Rectangular Pulse Signal

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The Exponential Form of the Fourier Series

Thus, the capacitor voltage in the time domain is

7.8 The Exponential Form of the Fourier Series

and grouping terms with same exponents, we get

The terms of (7.91) in parentheses are usually denoted as

Signals and Systems with MATLAB Applications, Second Edition

Chapter 7 Fourier Series

Then, (7.91) is written as

cients of the trigonometric form. Then, with = 1 ,

and, in general, for 1 ,

Signals and Systems with MATLAB Applications, Second Edition

The Exponential Form of the Fourier Series

Symmetry in Exponential Series

4. If there is no symmetry, f ( t ) is complex.

Chapter 7 Fourier Series

Signals and Systems with MATLAB Applications, Second Edition

Using (7.95), that is,

7.9 Line Spectra

Chapter 7 Fourier Series

Figure 7.31. Line spectrum for square waveform of Example 7.1

Figure 7.32. Line spectrum for half-wave rectifier of Example 7.6

Figure 7.33. Waveform for Example 7.11

Signals and Systems with MATLAB Applications, Second Edition

For the values for n 0 , integration of (7.109) yields

Figure 7.34. Line spectrum of (7.112) for k = 2

Signals and Systems with MATLAB Applications, Second Edition

Chapter 7 Fourier Series

Figure 7.35. Line spectrum of (7.112) for k = 5

Figure 7.36. Line spectrum of (7.112) for k = 10

Signals and Systems with MATLAB Applications, Second Edition

Figure 7.37. Impulse train for Example 7.12

and the pulse width was defined as T k , that is,

as shown in Figure 7.38.

By substitution of (7.115) into (7.113), we get

Fourier series have the same amplitude and thus,

Signals and Systems with MATLAB Applications, Second Edition

Chapter 7 Fourier Series

Figure 7.39. Line spectrum for Example 7.12

Let us reconsider the train of recurrent pulses shown in Figure 7.40.

Figure 7.40. Recurrent pulse with T

7.10 Computation of RMS Values from Fourier Series

Signals and Systems with MATLAB Applications, Second Edition

Computation of RMS Values from Fourier Series

I 0 + I 1 RMS + I 2 RMS + + I N RMS

Signals and Systems with MATLAB Applications, Second Edition

Chapter 7 Fourier Series

b. In Example 7.1, we found that the given waveform may be written as

7.11 Computation of Average Power from Fourier Series

The proof is obtained from the definition of average power, i.e.,

Signals and Systems with MATLAB Applications, Second Edition

Computation of Average Power from Fourier Series

b. The average power P ave delivered by the voltage source.

Figure 7.43. Circuit for Example 7.14

Signals and Systems with MATLAB Applications, Second Edition

Chapter 7 Fourier Series

i C3 ( t ) = 1.41 cos ( 3t 135 ) A

From (7.128) and (7.129),

b. The average power delivered by the voltage source is

7.12 Numerical Evaluation of Fourier Coefficients

Signals and Systems with MATLAB Applications, Second Edition

Numerical Evaluation of Fourier Coefficients

Figure 7.44. Waveform whose analytical expression is unknown