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E EIE VIII SEM

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UNIT I
ENGINEERING ETHICS: Senses of Engineering Ethics Variety of moral issues
Types of inquiry Moral dilemmas Moral Autonomy Kohlbergs theory Gilligans
theory Consensus and Controversy Professions and Professionalism
Professional Ideals and Virtues Uses of Ethical Theories.
INTRODUCTION
Ethics or moral philosophy is that branch of philosophy which has morality as its subject
matter.
The term 'ethics' is concerned with norms for the conduct of people as member of
society. In this more specialized use of the term, ethics is referred to as 'morality'. Attempts
have been made to find, if possible, a set of moral principles or rules that would hold good for
all rational people. However a view prevails that such sets of rules can only be fairly specific
to individual societies, at different periods of time. This leads to moral relativism.
Ethics and Morality
'Ethics' and 'morality' are generally used interchangeably. Ethics from the Greek work
Ethikos which in turn means ethocustomary way of acting means the character or custom of a
people. Morality is derived from the Latin word mos, which also refers to the customs of a
social group. Both these mean the expected practices of a community and its members. They
describe what a society believers to be right or wrong.
Some philosophers wish to make a distinction between ethics (which they say is the
systematic study of moral values, or the science of morality) and morality (which is used to
describe the actual values, conduct and norms of a community). However, in common speech,
both are used interchangeably. By moral or ethical conduct, we understand those behavioral
patterns that meet with society's approval. The opposite meaning is attached to immoral and
unethical conduct. In almost every society, murder, theft, lying and such other actions are
branded as immoral, On the other hand, honesty, truthfulness, kindness and such other
values are termed as 'moral' or 'ethical and are considered to be qualities and actions
supportive of the traditions and customs of society.
Definitions of Ethics
Kenneth kernaghan.
"Ethics is concerned not only with distinguishing right from wrong and good from bad
but also with commitment to do what is right or what is good. The concept of ethics is
inextricably linked to that of value, that is enduring belief that influences the choices we make
from, among available means and ends."
Thomas Higgins
"Ethics is the philosophic science which establishes the right or moral order of human
acts, that is in the light of first principles, ethics establishes the absolutely necessary norms of
free acts whose realization in practice truly makes us men ... it treats of the ultimate
principles of conduct."

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Ethics is the art of human living and its result should be ease in being a good man in
every circumstance.
R.E. Freeman, A.F. Stoner
Ethics broadly and simply is the study of how our decisions affect other people. It is
also the study of peoples rights and duties and of the rules that people apply in making
decisions.
David D. Vanflect
Ethics are relative and not absolute whether or not something is ethical behaviour
depends on who is viewing and judging it. In general, we think ethical behaviour as a
behaviour thai conforms to the norms accepted by most of the society and unethical
behaviour as behaviour that does not conlorrn.
Ethical (or unethical) behaviour is the result of a Person's ethical (or unethical) decisions.
R. Edward Feeman / Danniel R. Gilbert Jr
Ethics is the inquiry concerned with the justification for person's action. Such
justification is the search for a coherent set of rules or norms which guide our actions when
they cause conflict with others.
Wiley
Ethics reflects the character of the individual and more contemporarily, perhaps the
character of the business firm, which is a collection of individuals.
S.R. Chatteriee
Churchill defined ethics as the application of moral values or codes to complex
problems using a rational decision making process. The outcome of this process is usually a
behaviour or a set of behaviour.
Lori Allen and Dan Voss
Ethics is doing what is right to achieve what is good.
Ethical values:
A belief of principle rooted in moral behaviour, based on the sense of what is right.
Unethical values:
A belief of principle rooted in immoral or amoral behaviour, based on a sense of what is
wrong or at least of consciously disregarding what is right.
Nonethical value:
A belief or preference that is not related to right and wrong.
Elizabeth Vallance
Business ethics is not a special kind of ethics, an ethics of a lower order than ordinary
morality. There is no such thing as a separate business ethics or a set of principles specific

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only to the conduct of business. Ethics is concerned with the principles of good and evil which
is universal and eternal. There is no special code of business ethics, rather there are questions
and dilemmas ...Honesty, reliability, just and fair dealing are universally recognized as right,
just as lying, cheating, stealing, cowardice and irresponsibility are recognized as wrong.
Business ethics attempts to apply general moral principles to business activities in order to
resolve or at least clarify, the moral issues which typically arise in business.
David . Fitzsche
Business ethics is the process of evaluating decisions, either Pre or post with respect to
the moral standards of the society's culture.
Laura L. Nash
Business ethics is the study of how personal moral norms apply to the activities and
goals of commercial enterprise. It is not a separate moral standard, but the study of how the
business context poses its own unique problems for the moral person who acts as an agent of
this system.
o Aristotle defined virtue as a matter of habit or the trained faculty of choice.
Business ethics reflects the habits and choices managers make concerning their own activities
and those of the rest of the organization.
o The way in which choices are framed, analyzed and either maintained or
abandoned form the basic of the business ethics inquiry. The validation of business ethics
however unpopular as a term is simply a way of acknowledging that indeed, there are choices
to be made concerning the means and ends which have essentially more ingredients.
Engineering Ethics
Engineering ethics is defined as : "The study of the moral issues and decisions
confronting individuals and organizations engaged in engineering".
Also the engineering ethics is defined as :
"The study related problems about the moral ideals, character, policies and the
relationships of people and corporations involved in technical activities."
Actually the scope of engineering ethics is much more wider than the ethics of
engineers. Engineering ethics is applicable to the decisions made by others engaged in
technological enterprise. It includes scientists, managers, supervisors, technicians, workers,
elected representatives, lawyers and the general public.
1.1 Senses of Engineering Ethics

Engineering ethics mainly refers to the specific moral problems and issues
related to engineering activity.

Engineering ethics is the activity and discipline aimed at understanding the

moral values that guides engineering practices. It helps. in resolving moral issues
and justifying moral judgments in engineering.

Engineering ethics is the widely accepted codes and standards of conduct by

engineering organizations.

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Engineering ethics is a purely factual matter about belief and about moral
problems in engineering.

Engineering ethics elaborates the justified moral principles of obligation, rights

and ideals of engineering professionals.

Discovering such principles and applying them to variety of situations is the aim of
engineering ethics. Ethical evaluation of an act or a course of action can take the form of a
judgment about whether (or the extent to which) the action was a good or a bad thing to do.
Since ethical justification is what makes a code of behaviour an ethical code, and justification
turns on the moral evaluation of acts, motives and agents, ethical evaluation is a central topic
for ethics. Ethical evaluation of an act can also be in terms of the rightness (or wrongness) of
the act i.e. whether it is right thing to do. The two types of ethical judgment, good/bad and
right/wrong are similar in some respects. The presence of "the" in "the right thing to do"
rather than "a" as in "a good thing to do" suggests that "the right thing to do" is the only
morally acceptable response.
Moral and Amoral Agents
Acts, agents and the character or motives of agents are the objects of moral
evaluation. However, only certain agents have their acts, character or motives morally
evaluated. For example, the statement "the storm was responsible for three deaths and heavy
property damage" means that the storm caused these outcomes. Although the storm was the
agent of destruction, the actions of the storm are not subject to moral evaluation. The storm
is not guilty of murder or even manslaughter. Those whose actions, character and motives can
be morally evaluated are called moral agents. A competent and reasonably mature human
being is the most familiar example of a moral agent.
In contrast, most "lower" (that is non human) animals are generally understood to be
amoral. Saying they are amoral is to say that morality is not a factor in their behavior, and
therefore, questions of morality are not appropriate in evaluating them and their acts. Human
beings and human groups such as nations are the most familiar moral agents. Various
religious traditions speak of beings, such as angels, who seem very much like people and act
as moral agents. Humans may be the most common example of moral agents, but they are
not the only possible example.
Moral Rights
A right is a justified claim, entitlement or assertion of what a rights holder is due. For a
person to have the moral right to have, get or do something there must be a moral basis or
justification for the claim. These bases or justifications are different for different categories of
rights. "Human rights" is a name given to those rights that all people have because they are
people. Rights possessed only by some are called "special rights" special rights may be
acquired through agreements or contracts or through relationships for example, "parental
rights".
There are legal rights as well as moral rights. Although an effort is often made to bring
the force of law behind some moral right by making it a legal right, moral rights must be
distinguished form legal rights. There is no contradiction in saying that a person has a legal
right to do something but not a moral right to do it or in claiming that some laws are unjust. In
term "human rights" is one that Eleanor Roosevelt brought into widespread use, Previously
these rights were called the "rights of man" (or sometimes "natural rights"), She chose

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'human' as a more inclusive modifier. There is now international and cross-cultural agreement
that all people have some rights simply because they are people.
Engineers and scientists confront issues of human rights directly when they face the
requirement to obtain the informed consent of any person who is to be an experimental
subject in their research.
1.2 Variety of Moral issues
These exists two distinct approaches of engineering ethics. One emphasizes Typical every
day problems that can take on significant proportions in an engineer's life is known as micro
ethics. The other type of engineering ethics addresses societal problems that are often not
addressed until they affects on regional or national scale is known as macro ethics. In an
engineer's personal or professional life both micro ethics and macro ethics affects one
another. The personal values and judgments affect individual engineering decisions, and
considered these to be the unique factors that characterize the engineer as a moral agent.
A product goes through various engineering stages like design, manufacture, testing,
sales and service. These stages are carried out or supported by specialized engineer. Various
activities are grouped or inter-related with each other. Because of ignorance or intentionally
the product may be unsafe, not useful also the product may be intentionally designed for
early obsolescence. When such a product is circulated in market many people may be
affected. Such problems may arise because of temptations of bribes and any forms of
corruption.
Example on Engineering Ethics
A) An inspector declares a instrument not to be used from safety point of view but his
superior may view this as minor infraction of safety regulation and may permit the use of
equipment. The inspector may be objected and was threatened with disciplinary action.
B) An electronic company engaged in manufacturing of a popular new item. The product is
not yet ready but its advertisement is very impressive. The prospective customers get
attracted and rush to the dealer, when they don't get the product, they believe that it was
available off the shelf and the product, is drawn away from competing lines.
C) A chemical plant dumping wastes in land fill hazardous substances found their way into
the underground water table. The plant's engineer is well aware by the situation but did not
change the disposal method because the competitor is following the same cheap method. No
law is prohibiting by doing so. Plant supervisor's view is that it is the responsibility of local
government to identify the problem and penalize the defaulters.
All above examples show how ethical problems arise most often due to differences in
judgment and expectations. The engineer may face different contrary opinions from within the
organization, from various social and local authorities. Various professional and personal
contrary opinions to an engineering profession as shown in Fig. 1.1

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FIG 1.1 contrary opinions of professional engineer

1.3 Types of inquiry
Engineering ethics involves three types of inquiry, these are a) Normative inquiry
b) Conceptual inquiry
c) Factual inquiry
Normative Inquiry
Normative inquiry is the inquiry which includes to identify the values that should guide
individuals and groups. It aims to justify the normally desirable norms or standards that
suppose to guide individuals or groups. The normative questionnaires include what ought to
be and what is good. The examples of normative questions are

How far does the obligation of engineers to protect public safety extend in given
situations?

When should engineer highlight on dangerous practices of the employers for

whom they work?

Whose values supposed to be primary in making judgments about acceptable

risks in designing a public transport system?

Which particular laws and organizational procedures affecting engineering

practice are normally warranted?

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What moral right should engineers have in order to fulfill their professional
obligations?

What ale the reasons engineers have obligation to their employers, clients and
society?

Conceptual Inquiry
The conceptual inquiries are directed toward clarifying the meaning of concepts, principles
and issues in engineering ethics. For example,

What does safety mean and how it is related to risk?

What is a bribe?

What is the meaning of profession and professionals?

What is the concept of professionalism?

Factual inquiries
The factual inquiries are also called as factual inquiry. The factual inquiry uncovers
value issues and is conducted based on proven scientific techniques.
Moral Rules or Rules of Ethical conduct
Moral rules or rules of ethical conduct specify the acts or course of action required.
General rules such as "Be honest" or "Treat every person as an end and not as a means" are
also moral rules, but they are so general that they tend to be called "basic considerations",
"ethical principles" or "fundamental canons".
The National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE) in their code of ethics classify as
"fundamental canons" such general imperatives as "that engineers shall perform services only
in areas of their competence or that they shall issue public statements only in an objective
and truthful manner". In contrast, the NSPE calls specific moral rules (grouped under each of
the fundamental canons) "rules of practice". For example under the canon enjoining
truthfulness and objectivity are two rules. "Engineers may express publicly technical opinions
that are founded upon knowledge of the facts and competence in the subject matter" - a rule
that supports an engineer speaking out and "Engineers shall issue no statements, criticisms
or arguments on technical matters which are inspired or pair for by interested parties, unless
they have prefaced their comments by explicitly identifying the interested parties on whose
behalf they are speaking and by revealing the existence.
The code of Ethics of The Institution of Engineers, Australia (IEA) states three general
cardinal principles such as "to respect the inherent dignity of the individual" (which they say
should apply in personal as well as professional life) and states nine "tenets" which are rather
general rules for the ethical conduct of professional practice. For example "members shall
apply their skill and knowledge in the interest of their employer or client for whom they shall
act as faithful agents or advisers, without compromising the welfare, health and safety of the
community". The IEA code also offers clarification of some conceptual points. For example
Members should understand the distinction between working in an area of competence and
working competently. Working in an area of competence requires members to operate within
their qualifications and experience. Working competently requires sound judgment

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Why study engineering ethics

Engineering ethics is a means to increase the ability of concerned engineers, managers
and other citizens to face moral issues raised by technological activity. Engineering ethics tells
about moral obligations in different conflicting circumstances (moral dilemmas). Engineering
ethics also tells about skills and habits of thinking rationally about ethical issues on the basis
of moral concern (moral autonomy).
1.4 Moral Dilemma
There may be some situations where two or more clearly applicable moral principles
come into conflict or a principle seems to indicate simultaneously two different outcomes,
such a problem is called as moral dilemma. Though dilemmas are not always so easily
addressed' sometimes resolving dilemmas may require searching and may cause pain also.
Most engineers face moral dilemma during their careers.
Steps in Resolving Moral Dilemmas
Various problems of moral dilemmas suggest the need for several steps in approaching
dilemmas. While dealing with moral dilemma. Various steps are involved which are interrelated or it can be taken as jointly.
Step 1: To identify the relevant moral factors and reasons. It includes identifying what
are the conflicting responsibilities, competing rights and clashing ideals involved.
Step 2: Collect all available facts that are related to the moral factor.
Step 3: Arrange all the moral considerations in order as per the importance for that
situations.
Step 4: Find alternative courses of action for resolving dilemma. It usually
involves factual inquiry.
Step 5: Speak with all the concerned people, consider their suggestions and
alternative perspectives on the dilemma.
Step 6: Considering all the relevant moral factors and arrive at a reasonable alternative.
Engineering ethics helps to develop the skills required for all above steps. These skills
can be enhanced by reading case studies' discussions and practice.
1.5 Moral Autonomy
The meaning of autonomy is 'independent' or 'self-determining'. And moral autonomy is
defined as - "the skills and habits of thinking rationally about ethical issues based upon moral
concern".
The moral concern is different for different professionals. Various practical skills are to
improve for an effective thought about moral issue' As related to engineering ethics these
skills include the following

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a) Expertise in recognizing moral problems and issues in engineering. It involves

distinguishing of various moral problems and interrelation between them.
b) Skill in understanding, clarifying and assessing arguments on opposing sides of
moral issues.
c) Ability to conclude from relevant facts.
d) Prediction about the alternative responses.
e) Creative solutions for practical difficulties.
f) Sensitivity to genuine difficulties.
g) Positive approach.
h) Understanding importance of integrating one's professional life and personal
feelings.
Moral autonomy is a refined form of a mature moral outlook i.e. one which is more than
passively adopted. Moral autonomy is an integral part of being a responsible person.
1.6 Kohlberg's Theory
Lawrance Kohlberg suggested psychological theory of moral development. Kohlberg
suggested three main levels of moral development. These levels are based on knowledge of
moral development which an individual adopts in response to moral questions. These three
important levels are a) Preconventional level.
b) Conventional level.
c) Post conventional level.
a) Preconventional level:
The most basic and original is preconventional level in which right conduct is
considered as the direct benefits that an individual gets. The individuals are motivated
primarily by the desire to avoid punishment, without considering the power or by desire to
meet their own needs. This preconventional level is the level of development of all young
children. Where the person is pre-occupied with self-centered reasoning. Right conduct is
viewed in a selfish manner as only what is good for one self.
b) Conventional level:
In conventional level of moral development the norm's of one's family, group or society
is accepted as the 'final standard of morality. These norms represent authority hence adopted
uncritically. The individuals are motivated by desire to please others and to meet the
expectations of the society regardless of the self interest. Kohlberg's theories state that most
adults never mature much beyond this stage.

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c) Post conventional level:

This post conventional level is said to be attained when an individual considers the
standard of right or wrong. These individuals are called autonomous since they think for
themselves and do not assume that customs are always right. Their motivation is to do what
is morally reasonable for its own together with a desire to maintain moral integrity and self
respect.
1.7 Gilligan's Theory
Carol Gilligan in her book 'In a Different Voice' presented new approach to moral
development. She charges Kohlberg's approach is male biased. The Kohlberg study was with
typically male preoccupation with general rules.
Gilligan suggests that the men tendency is trying to solve moral problems by applying
abstract moral principles, Male tend to resolve moral dilemmas by determining the moral rule,
which over rides ,other moral rules relevant to the dilemma. While female try harder to
preserve personal relationships with the people involved in the situation.
They concentrate more on the details of the context in which dilemma arises rather
than applying general rules. Female emphasize on maintaining personal relationships called
ethics of care while male's style is called ethics of rules and regulation.
Gilligan's approach of ethics of care for moral development is expressed in three levels
similar to Kohlberg's stages of growth. These are
a) Preconventional level :
The preconventional level is similar to Kohlberg's first level. In this level the Person is
preoccupied with self centered reasoning. Right conduct is viewed in a selfish manner as only
what is good for oneself.
b) Conventional level:
In this level individual's intention is not to hurt others and there is willingness to
sacrifice self interest.
c) Post conventional level:
At this level the individual is able to maintained a balance between caring about other
people and pursuing one's own self interest while exercising one's rights, while maintaining
relationships based an mutual caring. This can be achieved through context oriented
reasoning compared to applying abstract rules of ethics.
1.8

Consensus And Controversy

Literally consensus means agreement and Controversy means disagreement.

1.9 Professions and Professionalism

Herbert Hoover after working in various capacities describes the honour and liabilities of
engineering profession as :
Engineering is a great profession. There is the fascination of watching a product of
mental invention emerging through the aid of science to a plan on paper. It gives job and
home to individual. Then it elevates the standards of living and add comfort to the life. That is
the engineer's high privilege".

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The great liability of the engineer compared to other professionals is that the works of
engineer are open and out where all can see them. An engineer can not bury his mistakes in
grave like the doctors. He cannot argue them like lawyers, he cannot cover his mistakes with
trees and a climbing plant like architect, and he cannot screen his short comings by blaming
his short comings by blaming his opponents. The engineers simply cannot deny that he did it.
If his works do not work he is damned.
Professions
Usually the word profession is used as a synonym for 'occupation or 'job'. And if one
earns through some activity then he is called as professional. But now a days profession word
is applicable only to certain occupations which meets following speciality.
a. Knowledge
b. Organization
c. Public good.
a. Knowledge:
When the activity involves exercising sophisticated skills, theoretical knowledge
judgment and freedom to take unique decisions. And requires extensive formal education,
technical studies in certain areas and humanistic studies. Generally professional requires
continuing education and updating knowledge.
b. Organization:
Dedicated societies and organizations controlled by members of the profession are
playing a major role in setting standards, new upcoming trends for the profession, drafting
codes of ethics, enforcing standards of conduct and representing the profession before the
society and government.
c. Public good:
The profession serves some important aspect of public good indicated in the codes of
ethics. For example, medicine is directed towards promoting health, law for protecting public's
right similarly engineering towards promoting the public's health, safety and welfare.
1.10 Professional ideals and Virtues
Any profession is dedicated on moral ideals. The moral ideals specify virtue i.e. desirable
feature of character. Virtues are desirable ways of relating to other individuals, groups and
organizations. Virtues involve motives, attitudes and emotions.
Aristotle defined the virtues as - Acquired habits that enable us to engage effectively in
rational activities that define us as human beings. The tendencies acquired through habit
formation to reach a Proper balance between extremes in conduct, emotion and attitude are
called as moral virtues. Aristotle thought of each virtue which governs aspects of our lives, for
example, courage governs confrontations with danger and risk; truthfulness governs truth
telling, generosity governs giving and friendliness governs personal relationships. Moral
virtues enable us to pursue different social goods.

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Professional responsibility
The most basic and comprehensive professional virtue is professional responsibility.
Professional responsibility encompasses specific virtues in important situations. These
important virtues are
a) Self - direction
b) Public spirited virtues
c) Team work virtues
d) Proficiency virtues
All the virtues are interconnected by using self direction virtues, for example, integrity
and self respect.
Integrity
Moral integrity is the unity of character on the basis of moral concern and honesty.
Moral integrity implies unity and honesty.
Unity
values.

: Unity is consistency among our attitudes, emotions and justified moral

Honesty

: Honesty has two aspects i.e. truthfulness and trustworthiness.

Truthfulness

: means meeting responsibilities concerning truth telling.

Trustworthiness : means meeting responsibilities concerning trust.

Both trustworthiness and trustfulness are interrelated as: being truthful is essential to
being worthy of trust and vice-versa.
Few more virtues are
a) Honesty in acts
b) Honesty in speech
c) Honesty in beliefs
d) Discretion (sensitivity to privacy)
Self Respect
Self respect means valuing oneself in morally appropriate ways. Self-respect is a moral
concept it refers to the virtue of properly valuing oneself. Self respect is prerequisite for
pursuing other moral ideals and virtues. Self-respect is closely related to self-esteem. But selfesteem is a psychological concept. Self esteem means having a positive attitude toward
oneself. Self-respect has two forms a) Recognition self-respect

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Recognition self-respect is properly valuing oneself because of one's inherent moral

worth.
b) Appraisal self respect
Appraisal self-respect is properly valuing ourselves according to how well we meet
moral standards and our personal ideals.
More examples of self-respect virtues are
1. Sense of honour (dignity)
2. Self control
3. Courage
4. Good judgement.

Theories About Right Action

Utilitarianism
It is the view that we ought to produce the most good for the most people, giving equal
consideration to every one affected.
Act utilitarianism
Act utilitarianism focuses on individual actions, rather than general rules. An act is right
if it is likely to produce maximum good for most people involved in the particular situation.
Mill expressed that happiness is the only intrinsic good. All other good things are instrumental
good as they provide means for happiness.
Rule utilitarianism
As per this view we always act on those rules that if generally followed, would produce
the most good for most people. Individual actions are right when they conform to such rules.
Duty Ethics
Immanuel Kant, a famous ethicists describes duty ethics as right actions are those required by
a list of duties such as - be honest, keep your promises, don't inflict suffering on other people,
be fair, show gratitude for kindness extended by others.
John Rawl, leading ethicist describes duty ethics as valid principles of duty are those that
would be voluntarily agreed upon by rational persons in an imaginary, contracting situation.
All rational people will agree the situation to abide by two basic moral principles1. Each person is entitled to the most extensive amount of liberty compatible with equal
amount for others.
2. Differences in social power and economic benefits are justified only when they are likely
to benefit every one.

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Self-interest, Costumes and Religion

All major ethical theories have recognized the importance of self-interest. For example,
futilitarians take into account one's own good, as well as the good of others. Duty ethics take
into account duties to ourselves. Right ethicists emphasize on our rights to pursue our own
good. Virtue ethicists stresses on importance of self-respect, which implies looking after one's
own needs.
Also all theories insist on balance of self-interest and moral responsibility to others.
Ethical egoism challenges all these theories. Ethical, since it is theory about morality and
egoism, because it says that it is the sole duty of each of us to maximize his own good. Ethical
egoist would point that given their talents and situation, they adopted an overlay narrow view
of their own interest. Self interest is what is good for oneself in long run.
Ethical pluralism
Ethical pluralism indicates that there may be alternative moral perspectives that are
reasonable but no one of which is accepted completely by ail people.
Ethical relativism
Ethical relativism is that view when the actions are morally right when they are
approved by law or custom and are wrong when they violate laws and customs.
1.11 Uses of Ethical Theories
Ethical theories has following three important uses 1. In understanding moral dilemmas.
2. In justifying professional obligations and ideals.
3. In relating ordinary and professional morality.
Understanding Moral Dilemmas
Ethical theories provide information for solving moral dilemmas. All the theories agree about
the potential harm to the public are directly and urgently relevant. The ethical theories rank
the relevant moral considerations as per the importance. The priorities are ranked as
1.The special importance of rights to life and to informed consent concerning risks to one's
life.
2. The importance of duties to protect the vulnerable public.
3. The degree of immorality involved in death and risk of death compared economic benefit of
corporations.The theories also help in identify the alternative courses of action, also provides
the framework for moral reasoning. The theories strengthen the ability to reach balanced and
insightful judgments.

Justifying Professional Obligation

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Ethical theories also used in justifying general obligation to engineers and all those
involved in technological development safety is involved in most of the issues in engineering
ethics. An architectural metaphor shows how the safety obligation of engineers are justified
by appealing to ethical theories.

Fig 1.2 Justify moral claims about safety in engineering

Level 1: Claims about an action being right.
Level 2: Claims that a Person has special safety obligations.
Level3: Principles specifying the special safety obligations of engineers
Level4: Ethical theories
e.g. utilitarianism, duty ethics, right ethics' virtue ethics.
Level 1, at the top represents claim about particular action being right or obligatory
Level 2, represents claim that specific engineers have special moral obligations concerning
safety.
Level 3, represents the special safety principles.
Level 4, is concerned with the most general and basic foundational or philosophical
principles.

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A vertical connecting column represents the morally relevant information needed to move
from one type of normative claim to another.
Relating Ordinary and Professional Morality

The ethical theories are also useful in justifying the obligations of professionals.
Engineers acquire moral obligation is regarding safety by being subject to Laws or
enforced codes. This constitutes legalistic approach to morality.
The engineers acquire special obligations by joining a professional Organization or
society and thereby agreeing to live by that society's code of ethics.
The engineers acquire safety obligations through the contractual agreements by which
they are hired by other companies or employers.
The engineers by entering in their career promise the society to protect and safeguard
it in due course.