Morten Oddvik

EDU3085

New Realities, New Skills

- new approaches to assessment in the 21st century -

Today's child is bewildered when he enters the 19th century environment that still
characterizes the educational establishment where information is scarce but ordered and
structured by fragmented, classified patterns subjects, and schedules.

(McLuhan 1967:222)

Marshall McLuhan observed more than 40 years ago how children were bewildered when entering
their classrooms and finding information scarce. Today's students are growing up digital in the 21st
century and are perhaps equally puzzled. In spite of this fact the existing education systems of the
19th century in many instances still continue to persist and follow the same assessment practices.
Why has there not been any radical shifts in assessment practices? Or have education indeed been
transformed to foster relevant skills? Dan Tapscott, author of Wikinomics (2006) and an advocate of
mass collaboration, writes; "It's not what you know that counts anymore; it's what you can learn."
(Tapscott 2009:127) in Grown up digital - how the net generation is changing your world (2009)
and suggests that students' ability today to "think creatively, critically, and collaboratively" is
essential in order to "respond to opportunities and challenges with speed, agility, and innovation"
(Tapscott 2009:127). How can educators change their assessment practices to provide for new skills
for new realities?

In this essay I will investigate and discuss possible approaches to assessment practices for the
digital and connected era, which in many instances are defined by a chaotic infrastructure and
therefore both an overwhelming learning environment for teachers and students alike. Nevertheless,
it is also marked by great opportunities for connected learning. Through presentation and following
discussions of existing research about learning and assessment in the light of multiple intelligences
and connectivism I aim to conclude that we need to change from the teacher-centred pedagogy
confined to the classroom and the chalkboard to a more student-centred pedagogy reaching out of
the classroom in order to equip the students for lifelong learning where discovery and collaboration
are motivating factors for effective learning, which ideally should be the main objective of

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assessment.

Rethinking education

Researchers ranging from John Hattie to Paul Black and Dylan Wiliam all assert the fact that
schools need to change their assessment practices. As Professor John Hattie rhetorically observes;
"The key issue is less how to change, but why we do not" (Hattie 2009:252). Traditional classrooms
have usually been dominated by the lecturing form. Unfortunately, this practice appear to persist
today. In the spring of 2007 professor in digital etnography, Michael Wesch, invited 200 students to
tell the world how they perceived their own education and by writing a script using collaborative
writing tools like Google Documents they helped Wesch creating a video which was posted on
YouTube called "A Vision of Students Today".1 The message broadcasted is "a stinging indictment
of the educational system" (Tapscott 2009:121) and it swiftly became a phenomenon and a widely
debated video in the blogosphere and among educators. Wesch observes in a blogpost that
educators identified with the message and thus helped "sparking a wide-ranging debate about the
roles and responsibilities of teachers, students, and technology in the classroom" (Wesch 2008). The
study revealed information which demonstrated that we need to rethink learning and assessment.
Tapscott argues that we simply need to shift our focus from the teacher to the student. Less
lecturing, and more interaction and facilitating learning for students (Tapscott 2009: 122).
Assessment for learning is at the core of this shift. New realities call for new practices.

In Visible learning: a synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement (2009) Hattie
argues that it is what "teachers get the students to do in the class (...) rather than what the teacher,
specifically, does" (ibid.:35). Teachers ought to involve students in their own teaching strategies
and planning in order to activate and motivate students to take interest and responsibility for their
own learning. Effective assessment practices are related to effective teaching practices, and the
students ought to take a more active role in their own education. This entails an active approach to
assessment which is transparent and helpful to the student. The aim is to foster an awareness in
students in regards to good learning practices through self-assessment as well as peer assessment.
After observing various teaching practices in his research Hattie points out that "(s)tudents must be
actively involved in their learning, with a focus on multiple paths to problem solving." (ibid.:35)

1
http://mediatedcultures.net/ksudigg/?p=188

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Hattie noticed how interactions based upon questioning on a cognitive level during lessons were
effective, but also the substantial role of the teacher with "considerable teacher planning," and "with
students taking some responsibility for task definition" (ibid.:148). The shift from a less teacher-
centred pedagogy to a more student-centred pedagogy does not mean less teacher-control, but in
fact a stronger focus on assessment as a tool for enhancing students' self-assessment skills, and how
they themselves can influence their own knowledge acquisition and thus develop their own self-
assessment skills, which in essence is at the core of assessment for learning.

In the recently published preamble of the Norwegian Opplæringsloven (Education Act, 2009) it is
stated that "Progressional assessment must be used as a tool in the learning process, as a basis for
differentiated learning and help the student, trainee or candidate enhance his/her competence in the
subject." (2009:§3-2. Formålet med vurdering)2 Assessment, indeed, is a tool of measurement and
feedback to assist in equipping the student with skills to achieve and develop abilities to tackle
"multiple paths to problem solving" (Hattie 2009:35). Wiliam presents five basic key strategies for
assessment for learning, which include "finding out where the learner is", giving "feedback that
moves the learner forward", be clear "about the success criteria" "activate students as teaching
resources of one another" (peer assessment) and encourage "student self-assessment" (Wiliam). 3 If
you are not implementing either of these strategies in your teaching as an educator you are not,
according to Wiliam, doing assessment for learning. These five key strategies are acts of fostering
an awareness about the cognitive processes of learning in students themselves, and will be
indispensable skills in their academic lives. Furthermore, the shift from assessment of learning to
assessment for learning can be interpreted as a change in how we do not evaluate product as much
as we should assess process. Less emphasis on memorization and teaching for the test, but more
focus on developing skills such as self-assessment, critical abilities and collaboration appears to be
a valid road to take. Professor in education, David Boud, stresses the importance of enabling
"students to take responsibility for making judgements about their learning", and if we do not, "we
are failing to equip them for learning in the future" (Boud 2009:8). We, as teachers and educators,
need to enable students to develop skills for lifelong learning. Through meaningful teaching and
assessment catering for different learners with different aptitudes and facilities we can emancipate
new learners and prepare them for connected learning in a demanding and often chaotic reality.
2
My translation
3
Assessment strategies. Transcript and video to be found on Learning about Learning website. http://bit.ly/byXTfd

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Psychological approach: Gardner's five minds

"At the start of the third millennium, we live at a time of vast changes - changes
seemingly so epochal that they may well dwarf those experienced in earlier eras. In
shorthand, we can speak about these changes as entailing the power of science and
technology and the inexorability of globalization (...). These changes call for new
educational forms and processes. The minds of learners must be fashioned and
stretched in five ways that have not been crucial - or not as crucial - until now."

(Gardner 2006:11)

In his book Five Minds for the Future (2006) developmental psychologist Howard Gardner
reconsiders his previous theories of multiple intelligences and shifts "from description to
prescription" (Ibid.:2). He outlines five intelligences, or minds, required for the future. In his
seminal work Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (1983) Gardner sets forth
theories that learners learn in different ways, and he explains that the work itself of developing
these theories was "a synthesis of cognition from many disciplinary perspectives" (ibid.:7). The five
minds consist of the disciplinary mind, the synthesizing mind, the creating mind, the respectful
mind and the ethical mind. "Those who succeed in cultivating the pentad of minds are most likely to
thrive," (ibid.:163) predicts Gardner in "a world marked by the hegemony of science and
technology, global transmission of huge information (...) and ever increasing contacts of all sorts
between diverse populations" (ibid.:163). Students need to expand their knowledge beyond their
local community and develop skills for relevant information acquisition in a complex and global
reality. The disciplinary mind is defined as mastering a skill or a domain of knowledge such as
drawing or programming, it is essentially "training to perfect a skill (ibid.:5). The synthesizing mind
hones the ability to make connections, draw on various disciplines and what Gardner calls "the
ability to knit together information from disparate sources into a coherent whole" (ibid.:46).
Creativity is a highly valued proficiency and composes the creative mind in Gardner's pentad.
Historically creativity has not been sought after nor rewarded, although Gardner regards it as a mind
in which it is "vital to keep open alternative possibilities and to foreground the option of unfettered
exploration" (ibid.:86). The power of imagination combined with an adventurous mind prone to
new discoveries should be nurtured by educators. The adolescent mind, Gardner points out,
"become capable of envisioning possibilities that are quite different from - and may, indeed, invert -

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their current realities" (ibid.:87). This should not be underestimated by teachers and educators. The
two remaining minds differ from the three first which primarily are cognitive forms. The respectful
and the ethical mind "deal with our relations to human beings," where the respectful is more
concrete than the ethical which is more abstract". The respectful mind aims "to understand other
persons on their own terms" while the ethical mind is primarily concerned with a "wider
perspective" of our actions (ibid.:8-9). The Core Curriculum chapter of the Norwegian framework
Knowledge Promotion (LK06) advocates the ideal of the integrated human being4, which is in line
with Gardner's theories. Furthermore, the Quality Framework of LK06 states that the students must
be given opportunities to explore, both alone and toegether with others. "Assessment and guidance
shall contribute to strengthening their motivation for further learning." (LK06:3) An education
system which takes this and Gardner's five minds into account and aims to cultivate them will
succeed in society of today and the future, and particularly in a connected and global world.

As early as 1945, as the devastation of the Second World War came to an end, the American
engineer and scientist Vannevar Bush envisaged the coming of a technology such as a networked
communication device in his essay "As we may think".5 He argues that we must move away from
repetitive and menial work as "the human mind does not work that way. It operates by association."
(Bush 1945:4) Many sanguine predictions have been made about technology and learning, and
technology has been around in schools and education for more than 30 years. As the Internet
materialized in a way Mr. Bush would approve of, it has had a tremendous expansion in the last 10
years, and opinions are divided whether technology improves or obstructs learning. On the basis of
research done in British schools, Professor Wiliam, observes that after introducing interactive
whiteboards in UK classrooms there was "no evidence of impact on student achievment" and what
they found was that there "was evidence of no impact on student achievement" (Dylan 2007). Quite
clearly, technology in itself, does not present teachers with a wonder cure for effective learning.
Gardner welcomes technology, but warns that it is not the only area of knowledge which must be
mastered (Gardner 2006:14). The human mind still ought to be at the centre of education and
knowledge formation, and technology is merely a tool to facilitate for the various minds.

4
Core Curriculum Retrieved 02.06.2010 http://bit.ly/cNcaxq
5
http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1969/12/as-we-may-think/3881/

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"Education is inherently and inherently an issue of human goals and human values" (ibid.:13) The
teacher is still the main force for effective learning, but traditional teaching and assessment
practices consisting of repetitive and mundane tasks and test must also change and be transformed
into a more holistic, transparent and relevant approach to learning. The current Norwegian
curriculum along with many other nations' still tend to focus on standardized testing and summative
assessment rather than assessment for learning. Professor Sir Ken Robinson observes in "The
Element" (2009) how the "reform movement rely increasingly on the proliferation of standarized
tests" (Robinson 2009:3422-28). Although many great teachers do practice assessment for learning,
we still need policymakers to implement more concrete measures in our national curricula.
Robinson argues that "education doesn't need to be reformed – it needs to be transformed."
(ibid.:3454-60) This means transformation from the top, but also a focus on great teachers who can
teach transparently in the context of assessment. "Schools should be places to learn, not to teach"
(Tapscott 2009:134) quips Tapscott and retorts how children are keen learners when they discover
language at an early age, but seem to slow down in their progress when they enter school as they are
being taught and not inspired. It is apparent to me that teachers must be trained to think less of
instruction and more of discovery - both as a teaching community and together with their students.
Curiosity and discovery should be cherished commodities not to be underestimated in assessment.
These are expressed aims in the curriculum, but on a visionary level. How to realise these visions in
the classroom? How do we then design a learning environment where the teacher is not the sole
provider of information and where we facilitate synthesising activities, and can we assess students
learning in such an environment?

Connected learning

George Siemens is a theorist on learning in digitally-based societies, and has developed theories
of connectivism together with other theorists such as Stephen Downes. Connectivism is defined as a
"learning theory for the digital age" and was developed as a consequence of the limitations of
previous theories on learning such as behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism (Siemens
2005). "Chaos is a new reality for knowledge workers," notes Siemens and calls for new practices
in our educational system (ibid.:3).

"Unlike constructivism, which states that learners attempt to foster understanding by

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meaning making tasks, chaos states that the meaning exists – the learner's challenge is to
recognize the patterns which appear to be hidden. Meaning-making and forming
connections between specialized communities are important activities."

(Siemens 2005:3)

As a consequence, this in turn calls for a new assessment practice in order to enable students to
what Tapscott deems are abilities to "think creatively, critically, and collaboratively" (Tapscott
2009:127). Connected learning and the theory of connectivism consist of the element of
collaboration and networked knowledge formation and what the author Seth Godin has called
formation of tribes (Godin 2008). The ability to form groups, collaborate together with the goal to
achieve shared goals are all part of connected learning. In a connected world "the ability to think
and learn and find out things is more important than mastering a static body of knowledge"
(Tapscott 2009:127). The digital age is also known as the information age, and for students of today
the information is readily available, and not only as text, but as an astonishingly abundance of
omnipresent visual media. Digital literacy is as important as other core skills expressed in present
curricula. To me, the dangers of copy-and-paste-culture can actually be criticised of being a sign of
tasks which were designed for a teaching model which no longer serves a meaningful purpose in a
context where we are connected digitally. I would argue that the theory of connectivism, although
not refined, can be seen as an attempt to shift from assessment of learning where students process
information in a teacher-based classroom environment to a practice which serves a purpose to equip
students with "an ongoing set of attitudes and actions (...) which they employ to try to keep abreast
of the surprising, novel, messy, obtrusive, recurring events" (Vaill 1996:42 in Siemens 2005:1),
which is the nature of the Internet.

In a digital age information is readily available to anybody who is Google literate. Siemens argues
that the "know-where" becomes more important than the "know-how" and the "know-what" (ibid:1)
in a reality where information is easily accessible to students. Although "know-how" and "know-
what" will continue to be important skills, the ability to critically assess the validity of sources,
make connections, and reason yourself based upon the knowledge and information you find
becomes even more universally an essential skill. "The ability to synthesize and recognize
connections and patterns is a valuable skill" (ibid.:2). Naturally, this poses some considerable
challenges in terms of assessment.

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What is assessment?

In order to answer these questions we also need to ask ourselves what the purpose of assessment
fundamentally is? We, as educators, need to understand the students' perspectives of grading and
assessment practices which have dominated our education institutions for a long time. Tests and
tasks designed to check students' ability to memorize serves a purpose, however is it valuable as a
general model for assessment today? I think not. I believe in diversity and variation of assessment
practices where we are assessing reflection and knowledge forming in students who are motivated
to learn what is evidently relevant to their lives. Professor Boud believes "the move to open book
tests is a healthy one as it creates a discipline for us to ensure that we are assessing understanding
rather than privileging memory work" (Boud 2009:5). We need to design lessons and projects
which invite students to utilize their disciplinary, synthesizing and creative mind in a respectful and
ethical way. The assessment criteria must be clear and transparent in a language understood by the
students, and ideally tasks should motivate students to reflect and synthesize based upon relevant
academic disciplines as in the case of the five skills expressed in LK06.

Professor in higher education, Royce Sadler, calls it fidelity in which fidelity "can be thought of as
the extent to which something actually is what it purports to be" (Sadler 2009:2). Fidelity entails a
"process of classification" (ibid.:2) and seeks to define academic achievement in the context of
assessment. Achievements can be assessed in a continuum of levels, grades, bands or attainment
goals. However, Sadler argues that the education system, particularly in higher education, may not
be transparent in what is "the acquired learning" and thus graded. "Acquired learning may be
referred to as knowledge, skill, proficiency, capability, competence or performance" (ibid.:4). The
European Qualifications Framework (EQF) emphasises quite clearly the differentiation between
knowledge, skills and general knowledge6, and as teachers we must differentiate between the
various levels of acquired learning when we design our tasks. Nonetheless, in an environment of
connected learning we do want our students to perform and achieve in a context of knowledge
formation which is not always communicated clearly. Lack of context and relevance for students
cause lack of motivation, and as teachers, we are responsible to facilitate for relevant learning in a
context which students are part of. However, this means that the question of how we acquire
knowledge (Gardner's five minds and Siemens' connectivism) should be a topic of relevance
6
European Qualifications Framework (EQF) Retrieved 04.06.2010 http://bit.ly/bioTIx

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debated with the students themselves. We should be open about the fact that students learn
differently, and that their attainment paths vary in speed and progress. The issue of accumulation of
knowledge "lies at the heart of this discussion about fidelity" (Sadler 2009:8). Sadler argues that
fidelity should be regarded as a third important component of achievement along with validity and
reliability, and that educators must clarify the meaning of achievement in order to justify
assessment practices which are valuable and meaningful to the learner. Assessment for learning
entails an open process in whcih teacher is responsible for creating transparent and relevant tasks
where students know why they are doing it as well as knowing whether they are being assessed on
their "knowledge, skill proficiency, capability, competence or performance" (ibid.:4). Only then can
assessment serve a productive cause for self-assessment and foster skills for lifelong learning.

Transparency and relevance

Transparency on different levels will benefit assessment practices. Planning, forecasting and
informing students about what are being assessed in an open and transparent fashion will enhance
motivation and understanding of how learning is being nurtured in a learning network. Learning, of
course, is the core of education, and "good assessment means that we must focus unerringly on our
educational goals and not be distracted by apparent short-term convenience" (Boud 2009:2) such as
annual exams. Students must understand their own motivations for studying and achieving. Their
performance ought to be of a personal value - it has to be worth investing in. It turns out, according
to Boud, "that changes to assessment practice often have a greater influence on students' study
patterns than teaching and the curriculum" (Boud 2009:3) actually have. In The psychology of
written composition (1987) authors Carl Bereiter and Marlene Scardamalia argue that there exists a
quintessential difference between knowledge telling and knowledge transformation. Knowledge
telling is basically recounting instructed information whilst knowledge transformation occurs
through collaboration and particularly acts of production such as writing, a synthesising quality of
internalizing information and produce new connections and new knowledge in line with Gardner's
synthesizing mind. "(W)riting plays a vital role not only in conveying information, but also in
transforming knowledge to create new knowledge" (Weigle 2002:x). This is applicable for
knowledge production in general. Gardner would deem the students' ability to understand the
gradation of knowledge telling and knowledge transformation as parts of the disciplinary mind, of
mastering subject-specific skills such as composition and on how to write an essay. However, the

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synthesizing mind where the ability to combine and make connections based upon existing
internalized knowledge is considerably harder, but nevertheless possible according to Gardner.
Assessment for learning requires clarity of instruction and the mastery of the discipline, and
educators unfortunately invariably fail at this. We fail "to invoke explicit standards in judging
which synthesis are valid, and in which ways they are (or are not) meritorious" (Gardner 2006: 68).
In order to judge and assess a task in a meaningful fashion teachers "must invoke criteria that come
from the appropriate domain" and only then, if the educator "can identify the dimensions that
characterize excellent, adequate, and unacceptable projects (...) and to begin to engage in timely
self-evaluation" (Gardner 2006: 68). Fidelity is as important as ever in order to accomodate for a
significant shift in educators' assessment practices.

Skills, skills, skills

One of the consequences of this shift essentially means that we must foster an environment for
collaboration, although "we need to be judicious in not encouraging students to pass off the work of
others as their own, but at the same time encourage collaboration in learning" (Boud 2009:5).
Traditional pedagogy, comments Gardner, is "based upon the questionable idea that optimal
learning experiences can be constructed for groups of learners as the same chronological age"
(Tapscott 2009:139). This "one-size-fits-all"-model is outdated, however it is still dominant practice
around in the world's curricula. Tapscott argues that we need to shift from the individual to
collaborative learning as a consequence of the fact that we are social beings who have an incessant
need to interact, discuss and exchange ideas. Historically, this is nothing revolutionary, although
our existing educational systems have based their assessment practices on how well a student can
achieve on a test on an individual basis. "The individual learning model is foreign territory for most
Net Geners7, who have grown up collaborating, sharing, and creating together online" (ibid.:137).
Social networks, theories of connected learning and the knowledge formation in groups are all signs
of a reality where abilities as reflection, rethinking and reinvention are core skills. Tapscott warns
that the focus should not be on the teacher, but the student, and that "teachers have to step off the
stage and start listening and conversing instead of just lecturing" (ibid.:130). The students live
interactive lives, and an old-fashioned broadcasting model is outdated and irrelevant to them. The

7
Dan Tapscott coined the term Net Generation in his first edition of Growing Up Digital (1997) in attribution to a
generation who related to technology in a more comprehensive way than the previous generation. (Tapscott 2009:2)

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teacher's ability to assess the students' skills as interactive learners fosters motivation and relevance
to students and enhances meaningful learning. Perhaps more importantly is the student's skill to
assess a problem and utilizing the relevant capabilities in order to solve it - and in many instances
this also requires discipline and focus which are skills at risk in a networked reality with constant
sources for distraction. The cultivation of the synthesizing mind will, if done successfully, enable
the student to select "crucial information from the copius amounts available (...) in ways that make
sense to self and to others" (Gardner 2006:155).

Students of today might be "digital natives", but nonetheless they must be educated and trained in
skills which will make them digitally critical and aware. Tapscott argues that educators should
"focus on the change in pedagogy, not the technology", listen to questions asked by students and
"cocreate a learning experience" with them, "empower students to collaborate", "focus on lifelong
learning" and that educators should reinvent themselves as educators (Tapscott 2009:148). These
are embedded traits of the creative mind which will go beyond class requirements to pose new
questions; coming up with unexpected but appropriate school products and projects" (Gardner
2006:156). In order for such skills to flourish and be nurtured, teachers must design tasks which
enable and empower. "Well-designed assessment tasks" include tasks which are "authentic and set
in a realistic context (i.e. oriented towards the world external to the course itself)" and simply "are
worthwhile learning activities in their own right" (Boud 2009:10). Hand in hand with the ethical
mind, students will then be striving to reflect "on one's role as a student or as a future professional
and attempting to fulfil that role appropriately and responsibly" (Gardner 2006:158). Today's
existing curricula contains visions for teaching which takes into account assessment for learning.
However, many teachers and educators still tend to cling to old practices of assessment of learning,
i.e. memorization and standardized tests. In my opinion assessment criteria should be clearly
expressed in the teacher's practice and marked by transparency and integration of students
themselves. Only then, with a personalized approach to education, can students understand the
mechanisms of the best practices for their own learning as well as understand the quality of it
through peer assessment and self-assessment. Activation of students' interest combined with the
purpose of assessment itself will trigger a more sustainable education system geared for the future.

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Conclusion: Lifelong Learning

In this essay I have attempted to present new approaches to challenges in our education system
which have persisted since McLuhans' students entered their classrooms with a bewildered
expression as they faced a fragmented and compartmentalized school system. I have primarily been
preoccupied with exploring researchers' approaches to rethink education, in particular with the help
of Gardner's theories that we must equip today's learners with synthesizing capabilities and skills in
making connections. Moreover, assessment has been at the core of reinventing education and
shifting from the paradigm of broadcasting one-to-many to collaborative and networked learning as
hailed by Siemens and Downes' connectivism. As Hattie confirms in Visible learning (2009),
learning is a fine-tuned system of cogwheels between student and peers, student and teacher, school
and home, curricula and society. Collaboration is a skill.

Furthermore, assessment for learning must take into account the student perspective in order to
become relevant and oriented towards a reality where information is readily important and working
in collaborative learning environments become increasingly more normative. This, however, does
not imply that the teacher is less important, but the teacher is expected to take an active role as a
participant of learning together with the students.

The state of teaching and assessment practices have continued unchanged for many reasons, one
being tradition. Mass education was a product of the industrial era, but as we have evolved into a
digital era we need, as educators to personalize, differentiate and empower students to a much
larger extent. In the world of social media it is called customization. Naturally, this has impact on
assessment practices. "Good assessment prompts good learning," (Boud 2009:7) argues Boud and
actually by empowering students through customization and communication we are able to equip
learners to become lifelong learners with relevant skills for relevant realities.

Old paradigms die hard8, but educators can change their assessment practices by involving their
students, extend the classroom beyond its walls and connect with other communities online. Instead
of isolating students we should encourage them through meaningful assessment practices to
collaborate creatively and critically in analogue and digital ways. Only then can human hardware
8
Term not specifically cited in Growing Up Digital (2009), but as "Old paradigms are hard to change" (Tapscott
2009:127). However, it is also a reference to Thomas Kuhn's well-known theories of paradigm shifts.

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synthesize digital information revealingly and challenge it knowledgably (Gardner 2006:13)9 and
continue to develop human software for the future in the making.

9
"Without having some mastery of computers, citizens cannot access the information that they need, let alone be able
to use it productively, synthesize it revealingly, or challenge it knowledgably."

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References

Bereiter, Carl and Scardamalia, M. 1987. The pscychology of written composition. Hillsdale, MJ:
Lawarence Erlebaum Associates

Bush, Vannevar. "As we may think" The Atlantic July 1945 (Retrieved May 11, 2010)
http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1969/12/as-we-may-think/3881/

Gardner, Howard. 2006. Five Minds for the Future. Harvard Business School Press.

Godin, Seth. 2008. Tribes. Piatkus Books

McLuhan, Eric and McLuhan, M. 1996. Essential McLuhan. Basic Books

Robinson, Ken and Lou Aronica. 2009 The Element. Kindle Edition. Penguin Group

Sadler, Royce. May 2009 "Fidelity as a precondition for integrity in grading academic
achievement" in journal Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education

Siemens, George. Jan 2005 "International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance
Learning", Vol. 2 No. 1, http://www.itdl.org/Journal/Jan_05/article01.htm

Tapscott, Dan. 2009. Grown Up Digital - how the net generation is changing your world. McGraw
Hill

Wiliam, Dylan. Sept. 5 2007 "Assessment, learning and technology: prospects at the periphery of
control" Speech held at Association for Learning Technology Conference in Nottingham, England. .
Transcript retrieved April 28, 2010 http://bit.ly/ahN8Qf

William, Dylan. "Assessment Strategies – Dylan Wiliam" Learning about Learning website,
Learning and Teaching Scotland. Transcript retrieved June 2, 2010 http://bit.ly/byXTfd

Wesch, Michael. Oct 2008. Blogpost Revisiting "A Vision of Students Today"
http://mediatedcultures.net/ksudigg/?p=188

Opplæringsloven (Education Act, 2009)

Core Curriculum Knowledge Promotion (LK06) http://bit.ly/cNcaxq

European Qualifications Framework (EQF) Retrieved June 4, 2010 http://bit.ly/bioTIx

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