Optical Fiber Communications

Objectives
To introduce optical fiber communication system and discuss its key advantages
To introduce main light sources in optical fiber communication system and explain their operation
principles
To illustrate light propagation in optical fibers, explain total internal reflection, and study the
transmission properties of optical fibers
To explain the working principle of photodiode
The major demand placed on telecommunication systems is for more information-carrying capacity
because the volume of information produced (and required) increases rapidly. Information-carrying
capacity is proportional to channel (transmission) bandwidth.
The channel bandwidth also depends on the frequency of the signal carrier to be transmitted, and the higher
the carriers frequency, the greater the channel bandwidth.
The rule-of-thumb for estimating the channel bandwidth is that its maximum value is approximately 10% of
the carrier frequency. Hence, if an electrical signal uses a 1 GHz carrier, then its maximum bandwidth is
about 100 MHz.
The carrier wave with a high frequency needs to be found. How to find it?

Radio transmission is in the range of 500 kHz to 100 MHz. Microwaves, including satellite channels,
operate up to 100 GHz.
Optical communications uses light as the carrier, light frequency is between 100 and 1000 THz (T = 1012).
Therefore, optical systems have the largest capacity for information transmission.
Optical Fibres
They are normally made of hair-thin high purity silica glass, covered with plastic. They are superior to
coaxial copper cables because optical fibers have
1.

2.

Wide bandwidth
In any communication system, the amount of information transmitted is directly related to the
bandwidth of the modulated carrier. Thus increasing the carrier frequency increases the available
transmission bandwidth, and therefore the information capacity of the overall system. The frequencies
in the optical range will have a usable bandwidth approximately 105 times that of a carrier in RF range.
Low loss
Optical fibers have lower transmission losses than copper cables. In a copper cable, the attenuation
increases with modulation frequency: the higher the frequency, the greater the loss.

Bandwidth is an indication of the rate at which information can be sent. Loss indicates how far the
information can be sent. The combination of high bandwidth and low loss of optical fiber communication
system means more data can be sent over longer distances, and thus the number of wires and the repeaters
required can be reduced. This reduction in equipment and components decreases the system cost and
complexity.

Other advantages of optical fibers:

(1)
not susceptible to electromagnetic interference (because they are insulators);
(2)
high security (cannot be tapped, no sparks);
(3)
cheaper (abundant raw material);
(4)
have lower weight, smaller size and are more flexible (thus are easier to install); and
(5)
corrosion resistant (thus have longer operating lifetimes).
The only disadvantage of optical fibre may be: coupling (for signal distribution) and connecting (to other
fibres) cost is higher than coaxial copper cable.
The typical optical communications system essentially consists of a transmitter with a light source, a
receiver with a photo-diode and an optical fiber between the two serving as the transmitting medium.
Block diagram of the optical fiber communication system

Optical sources
The fundamental function of optical source in optical fiber communications is to convert electrical energy
in the form of current into optical energy.
The main optical sources currently used in optical fiber communications are lasers and light emitting
diodes (LEDs).
Light emitting diode (LED)
An LED is essentially a semiconductor p-n junction under forward bias.
In this condition, electrons cross the pn junction from the n-type material and recombine with holes in the
p-type material. When recombine takes place, the recombining electrons release energy in the form of heat
and light. A large exposed surface area on one layer of the semiconductive material permits the photon to
be emitted as visible light. This process is called electroluminescence. Various impurities are added during
the doping process to establish the wavelength of the emitted light. The wavelength determines the color of
the light and if it is visible or invisible (infrared).

In the energy diagram it can be seen that, the major carriers from both sides of the p-n junction are injected
to the other side where they become minority. The relatively large local minority carrier population close to
the junction leads to a minority carrier concentration gradient. As a consequence, the excess minority
carriers will diffuse away from the junction recombine with carriers and emit photons.

LEDs are made of gallium arsennide (GaAs), gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP), or gallium phosphide
(GaP). Silicon and germanium are not used because they are essentially heat-producing materials and are
very poor at producing light. GaAs LEDs emit infrared (IR) radiation, which is nonvisible, GaAsP
produces either red or yellow visible light, and GaP emits red or green visible light. LEDs that emit blue
light are also available. Red is the most common.
In LED, the dominant photon generation is spontaneous emission in which the electron drops to the lower
energy level in an entirely random way. The output spectrum of an LED is relatively wide.

Laser
The most frequently used light source in optical communication systems is laser.
Why we commonly use laser as the light source?
(a) monochromatic: i.e. single frequency, suitable for elimination of white noise
(b) high power: helps to improve signal to noise ratio;
(c) small divergence: improves efficiency of transmission;
(d) small source size: suitable for use with optical fibres
Laser is an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
In general, an atomic system is characterized by discrete energy level, and the constituent atoms can exist
in one of the allowed energy levels or states. The atoms can make upward or downward transitions between
any two allowed states by absorbing or releasing, respectively, an amount of energy equal to the difference
between the two energy levels. Thus, if we consider two levels of an atomic system that participate in an
interaction with optical radiation of photon energy
h = E2 E1
where h is Plancks constant, then there could be three types of interactions:
Absorption
An atom in a lower energy state can absorb photons and make an upward transition to the higher energy
level.
Spontaneous emission
An atom in an excited level can make a downward transition spontaneously (i.e., on its own) by emitting a
photon corresponding to the energy difference between the two levels.
Stimulated emission
An atom in an excited level can make a downward transition in the presence of external stimulation by
emitting a photon corresponding to the energy difference between the two levels. The emitted photon is in
phase with the incident photon.

Example
Suppose you use an LED whose energy gap equals 2.5 eV. What is its radiating wavelength?
Solution
1 eV = 1.602 10-19 J
Since the energy gap is the photon energy Ep, and Ep = h = hc /, then as
hc = 6.62610-34 Js 3108 m/s 2010-26 mJ
Ep = 2.5 eV = 2.5 1.60210-19 410-19 J
We have
= hc / Ep = 2010-26 mJ / 4H10-19 J = 5H10-7 m = 500 nm
What is the condition for light amplification by stimulated emission?
Population inversion
Under the conditions of thermal equilibrium, the lower level of the two level atomic system contains more
atoms than the upper energy level. This situation is normal to structures at room temperature. However, to
achieve light amplification, it is necessary to create a nonequilibrium distribution of atoms such that the
population of the upper energy level is greater than that of the lower energy level, this condition is known
as population inversion.

How to realize population inversion?

Population inversion is achieved by pumping techniques. Pumping is to excite atoms into the upper energy
level and hence obtain a nonequilibrium distribution by the use of external source.

Light amplification
Light amplification occurs when a photon colliding with an atom in the excited energy state causes the
stimulated emission of a second photon, and then both these photons release two more. Continuation of
this process creates avalanche multiplication, and when these photons are in phase, light amplification can
be obtained.
To achieve light amplification, it is necessary to contains photons within the amplifying medium. Thus, a
positive feedback mechanism needs to be provided in a resonant cavity to maintain the in phase condition
in the amplifying medium and increase the net gain

Laser operation conditions

must achieve population inversion.
must have a light amplifying medium.
must provide a positive feedback mechanism.
Growth of stimulated emission in a resonant cavity

Total
reflector

Partial
reflector
Some light escapes

Some light escapes

The rest is fed back
Eventually, equilibrium
is established
Growth of stimulated emission in a resonant laser cavity
Light propagation
The simplest way to view light in fiber optics is by ray theory. The light is treated as a simple ray, shown
by a line. An arrow on the line shows the direction of propagation.
What is commonly called speed of light is actually velocity of electromagnetic energy in a vacuum such as
space. Light travels at slower velocities in other materials such as glass. Light traveling from one material
to another changes speed, which, because of wave motion, results in light changing its traveling direction.
This deflection of light is called refraction.
The refractive index, n, of a dielectrical medium is defined as the ratio of the velocity of light, c, in
vacuum, to the velocity of light in the medium, v.
n=c/v
When a ray of light is incident on the interface between two dielectrics of different refractive indices with
an angle of incidence i, the reflected ray will propagate along the angle of reflection r, and the transmitted
ray will travel according to the angle of refraction t, and
(Law of reflection)
r = I
(Snells law)
n1sini = n2sint
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where n1 and n2 are refractive indices of the incident and transmission regions, respectively.

Total internal reflection

From Snells law,
n1sini = n2sint
sini = (n2/n1) sint < sint,
if n1 > n2, then
which leads to i < t, i.e. the angle of refraction is always greater than the angle of incidence. Thus, when
the angle of refraction t = 90, as
sini = (n2/n1) sint = (n2/n1) sin90 = n2/n1 < 1
the refracted ray emerges parallel to the interface between the dielectrics, the angle of incidence, i, must be
less than 90.
The angle of incidence that yields an angle of refraction t = 90 is called the critical angle, C.
sinC = n2/n1
When the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, the light will be reflected back into the
originating dielectric medium. This is known as total internal reflection.

Example
A beam of light is incident on a plane boundary between two dielectrics. The incident-ray angle is at 10 to
the boundary normal and the transmitted beam is at 12. Which of the two media has the higher refractive
index?
n
n
Solution:
sint / sini = n1 / n2
12E
since t > i, then sint > sini and then we must have n1 > n2.
10E
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Optical fibers
An optical fiber consists of a core surrounded by a cladding.
There are two types of fibers: step-index fibers and graded-index fibers.

1.
2.

Conditions for total internal reflection in optical fiber

Refractive index of fiber core, n1 is greater than refractive index of fiber cladding n2, i.e.
n 1 > n2
The incident angle is larger than the critical angle.
i > C
Light guiding
In order to propagate a long distance in the optical fiber, the light beam must satisfy the conditions for total
internal reflection.

n1 > n 2
i > C

Acceptance angle
Another way to look at light guiding in a fiber is to measure the fibers acceptance angle, a, the maximum
angle over which light rays entering the fiber will be guided along its core.

Numerical aperture
The acceptance angle is normally measured as numerical aperture (NA).
At the air-core interface,
n0sina = n1sin2 = n1sin(90 - C) = n1cosC = n1(1 sin2C)1/2
= n1[1 (n2/n1)2]1/2 = (n12 - n22)1/2 = NA
The value of NA represents the light collecting ability.

Example
(a) What is the numerical aperture of silica fiber with n1 = 1.48 and n2 = 1.46 ?
(b) What is the numerical aperture of plastic fiber where n1 = 1.495 and n2 = 1.402 ?
Solution
(a)
NA = (n12 - n22)1/2 = (1.482 1.462)1/2 = 0.2425
(b)
NA = (n12 - n22)1/2 = (1.4952 1.4022)1/2 = 0.5192
*Notice the difference in the values of NA for these two fibers
Transmission properties of optical fibers
The most important transmission properties of optical fiber are attenuation and dispersion.
Fiber attenuation
The attenuation of an optical fiber measures the amount of light lost between input and output. Total
attenuation is the sum of all losses. It usually is dominated by imperfect light coupling into the fiber and
absorption and scattering within the fiber.
Attenuation limits how far a signal can travel through a fiber before it becomes too weak to be detected.
Main types of fiber attenuation:
Absorption, scattering and light coupling loss
Absorption
All material absorbs some light energy. Absorption is a loss mechanism related to the material
composition and the fabrication process for the fiber, which results in the dissipation of some of the
transmitted optical power as heat in the waveguide.
Absorption depends on the wavelength. It is due to the fact that any material absorbs at certain wavelengths
corresponding to resonances associated with its molecules.
Scattering
Scattering refers to the process by which the light wave encounters a particle small than its wavelength,
with the results that energy is sent to a new direction.

Bend loss
Bend loss is the loss resulting from bend. Bend can cause the change of incident angle at which the light
hits the core-cladding boundary.

Dispersion
Dispersion is the spreading of a light pulse as it travels along an optical fiber. It occurs because the speed of
light through a fiber depends on its wavelength and the propagation mode. Dispersion limits digital
transmission speed by causing pulses to overlap, so they cannot be distinguished. The bit rate must be low
enough to ensure that pulses do not overlap. A lower bit rate means that the pulses are farther apart and,
therefore, that greater dispersion can be tolerated.

Optical detectors
The optical detector performs the opposite function from the source: It converts optical energy to electrical
energy. The commonly used detector is the photodiode, which produces current in response to incident
light.
P-N photodiode
The simplest photodiode is the p-n photodiode. It is essentially a reverse biased p-n junction.

Depletion region

When revere biased, the electrical field sweeps mobile carriers to their respective majority sides. A
depletion region is therefore created. This barrier has the effect of stopping the majority carriers crossing
the junction. However, the field accelerates minority carriers to the opposite side of the junction, forming
the reverse leakage current to the diode. Thus intrinsic conditions are created in the depletion region.
A photon with an energy h Eg incident in or near the depletion region will excite an electron from
valence band into the conduction band, and hence leave an empty hole in the valence band
(photogeneration of an electron-hole pair). Carrier pairs so generated near the junction are separated and
swept (drift) under the influence of the electrical field to produce a current in the external circuit.

Questions (Optical Fiber Communications)

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What are the key advantages of optical fiber communication system?

What is the function of optical fiber in a telecommunication system?
What is spontaneous emission?
Explain the working principle of LED.
What is stimulated emission?
What is population inversion? How to realize it?
How to achieve light amplification?
What are laser operation conditions?
What is refractive index? What is the refractive index of a vacuum?
Describe the functions of core and the cladding in an optical fiber. Why are their refractive
indexes different? Which one has to be greater and why?
Why is it necessary to meet the total internal reflection requirement inside an optical fiber?
What is an acceptance angle? Why do we need to know what this angle is?
What is attenuation in an optical fiber? List of three major causes of attenuation in an optical fiber
and explain its mechanisms.
What is dispersion?
What is the function of optical detector?
Explain the operating principle of a P-N photodiode.

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Exercise Problems (Optical Fiber Communications)

1. Suppose a laser diode radiates red light with wavelength of 650nm. What is the energy of a single
photon?
2. Assume you have a glass rod surrounded by air as shown. Find the critical incident angle.

glass rod: n1=1.6

air: n2=1

3. What is the acceptance angle for the fiber when n1 = 1.48 and n2 = 1.46?
4. For a specific fiber NA = 0.275 and n1 = 1.490. Find the critical propagation angle which equals 90-C.

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