Chem 16 General Chemistry 1

01 Properties, Composition, and Changes of Matter

Dr. Gil C. Claudio

First Semester 2014-2015
Table of Contents

Contents
1 The Scientific Method

2 Matter
2.1 Properties of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Classification of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Measurement of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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3
4

3 Sceintific Measurements

4 Componenets of Matter
4.1 Daltons Atomic Theory . . . . .
4.2 Discovery of the Electron . . . . .
4.3 The Nuclear Atom . . . . . . . .
4.4 Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons

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References
References of these notes
General Chemistry, 10th ed, by Ralph H. Petrucci, F. Geoffrey Herring,
Jeffy D. Madura, and Carey Bisonnette. (PHMB)

1 The Scientific Method

The Scientific Method
The scientific method is an orderly method of gaining, organizing, and
applying new knowledge.
1. Careful observation of a phenomenon induces the investigator to
question its cause, or recognize a problem.
2. Make and educated guessa hypothesisin order to explain the
observation.
3. Predict the consequences that should be observable if the hypothesis is
correct and that should be absent if the hypothesis is not correct.
4. The scientist devices an experiment to test the predictions.
5. The outcome of the experiment often raises more questions that lead to a
modification of the hypothesis and further experimentation.
6. Eventually, an accepted hypothesis that has been verified by different
experiments can be elevated into a theory or law.
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From Hypothesis to Theory

A hypothesis is an educated guess, a tentative explanation of a natural
law.
A theory is a synthesis of a large body of information that encompasses
well-tested and verified hypothesis about certain aspects of the natural
world. It is a model or way of looking at nature that can be used
to explain natural laws and make further predictions about natural
phenomena.
The word model is reserved for situations when it is known that the
hypothesis has at least limited validity.
A scientific law or principle is a general hypothesis or statement about
the relationship of natural quantities that has been tested over and over
again and has not been contradicted. It summarizes a broad variety of
observations and experiences.
Verifiable
The cardinal rule in scienceall hypotheses must be testable. They must
be susceptible, at least in principle, to being shown wrong.
Experimentation reigns supreme. If there is no test for its possible
wrongness, then the hypothesis is not scientific. Theories which cannot
be tested, because, for instance, they have no observable ramifications,
do not qualify as scientific theories.
Ideas that cannot be tested are not necessarily wrong. They are simply
useless insofar as advancement in scientific knowledge is concerned.
Ideas must be verifiable by other scientists. In this way science tends to
be self-correcting.
If and when a hypothesis or scientific claim is confirmed, it is regarded as
useful and a stepping-stone to additional knowledge.

2 Matter
2.1

Properties of Matter

Matter, Composition, and Properties

Matter is anything that occupies space and displays the properties of mass
and inertia.
Composition refers to the parts or components of a sample of matter
and their relative proportions. Properties are those qualities or attributes that
we can use to distinguish one sample of matter from others.
grouped into physical and chemical properties.
Physical Properties and Physical Changes
A physical property is a characteristic that a substance can display without
undergoing a change in its composition.
color, malleable or brittle, conductor of head and electricity
In a physical change, one or more physical properties of a sample of matter
change, but the composition remains unchanged.

Chemical Properties and Chemical Changes

A chemical property is the ability (or inability) of a sample of matter to
undergo a particular chemical reaction.
A chemical change (or chemical reaction) is a process in which one set of
substances (reactants) is transformed into a new set of substances (products).
In a chemical change, there is a change in composition.

2.2

Classification of Matter

From Matter to Compound

Matteranything that occupies space and has mass
Pure substancematter that has fixed composition and distinct qualities
Elementa pure substance that cannot be separated into simpler
substances by chemical means
120 known elements, 91 occur naturally
Compounda substance composed of more than one element united
chemically in definite proportion

Matter

Pure Substances
Mixtures

Elements
Compounds
Heterogeneous
Homogeneous

Mixtures
Mixturea combination of two or more substances in which each substance
retains its own chemical identity
Homogeneous mixturesmixtures that are uniform in composition
throughout. Also called solutions.
Examples: salt water (NCl and H2 O), brass (Cu and Zn)
Heterogeneous mixturesmixtures that do not have the same
composition, properties, and appearance throughout
Examples: sand, blood.
Classification of Matter

MATTER
HETEROGENOUS
MIXTURES

physically
separable into

HOMOGENEOUS
MIXTURES

can either be a mixture of

SOLUTIONS

physically
separable into

PURE
SUBSTANCES

can either be
chemically separable into
ELEMENTS

COMPOUNDS
combine chemically to form

States of Matter
Matter is generally found in one of three states
In a solid, atoms or molecules are in close contact, often in a highly
organized arrangement.
has a definite shape and occupies a definite volume
In a liquid, atoms or molecules are in close proximity (although generally
not as close as in a solid).
occupies a definite volume, but has the ability to flow and assume
the shape of its container
In a gas, atoms or molecules are generally much more widely separated
than in liquids and solids.
assumes the shape of its container, expands to fill the container, thus
having neither definite shape nor volume

2.3

Measurement of Matter

International System of Units

The scientific system of measurement is called the Systeme Internationale
dUnites (or the International System of Units)
abbreviated SI
quantities differing from the base unit by powers of ten, noted via
prefixes
Base Quantities
Physical Quantity
Length
Mass
Time
Temperature
Amount of substance
Electric current
Luminous intensity

Unit
meter
kilogram
second
kelvin
mole
ampere
candela

Symbol
m
kg
s
K
mol
A
cd

SI Prefixes
Multiple
1018
1015
1012
109
106
103
102
101

Prefix
exa (E)
peta (P)
tera (T)
giga (G)
mega (M)
kilo (k)
hecto (h)
deka (da)

Multiple
101
102
103
106
109
1012
1015
1018
1021
1024

Prefix
deci (d)
centi (c)
milli (m)
micro ()
nano (n)
pico (p)
femto (f)
atto (a)
zepto (z)
yocto (y)

Mass
Mass describes the quantity of matter in an object.
In SI the standard of mass is 1 kilogram (kg). More commonly we use the
unit gram (g).
Weight is the force of gravity on an object.
W = gm

Time
In SI the standard of time is the second (s).
In 1956, the second was defined as 1/31, 556, 925.9747 of the length of the
year.
With the advent of atomic clocks, a more precise definition became
possible. The second is now defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770
cycles of a particular radiation emitted by certain atoms of the element
cesium (cesium-133).
Temperature
The Celsius scale
the melting point of ice is 0 C, the boiling point of water is 100 C, and the
interval between is divided into 100 equal parts called Celsius degrees.
The SI temperature scale, called the Kelvin scale, assigns a value of zero to the
lowest possible temperature.
The zero on the Kelvin scale is denoted 0 K and it comes at 273.15 C.
The interval on the Kelvin scale, called a kelvin, is the same size as the
Celsius degree.
When writing a Kelvin temperature, we do not use a degree symbol.
The Kelvin scale is an absolute temperature scale; there are no negative
Kelvin temperatures.

3 Sceintific Measurements
Systematic Error
A systematic error is one that recurs regularly in a series of measurements
because of an inherent error in the measuring system.
All measurements are subject to error.
Precision is the degree of reproducibility of a measured quantity
the closeness of agreement among repeated experiments
Accuracy is the closeness of a measured value to the true or accepted value of
a quantity.
Significant Figures
The significant figures (or significant digits) of a number are those digits
that carry meaning contributing to its precision. This includes all digits except:
leading zeros and trailing zeros where they serve merely as placeholders
to indicate the scale of the number.
spurious digits introduced, for example, by calculations carried out to
greater accuracy than that of the original data, or measurements reported
to a greater precision than the equipment supports.
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Rounding and Other Operations

Rules for rounding, addition,
dimensional analysis

multiplication,

scientific notation,

follow the lab manual

4 Componenets of Matter
4.1

Daltons Atomic Theory

Law of Conservation of Mass

Antoine Lavoisier (17431794) carried out a series of experiments in
which the reactants were carefully weight before a chemical reaction and the
products were carefully weighed afterward. He found no change in mass
when a reaction occurred, and proposed the law of conservation of matter.
The law of conservation of mass states that the total mass of the products of
a chemical reaction is the same as the total mass of the reactants entering into
the reaction.
Law of Constant Compositions
Joseph Louis Proust (17451826), by analyzing minerals, found that a
particular compound, once purified, always contained the same elements in
the same ratio by mass. This led to the law of definite proportions.
The law of constant composition (of law of definite proportions) states
that all samples of a compound have the same composition, that is, the same
proportions by mass of the constituent elements.
Daltons Atomic Theory
From 1803 to 1808, John Dalton used these two laws of chemical
combination as the basis of an atomic theory. His theory involved three
assumptions:
1. Each chemical element is composed of minute, indivisible particles called
atoms. Atoms can be neither created nor destroyed during a chemical
change
2. All atoms of an element are alike in mass (weight) and other properties,
but the atoms of one element are different from those of all other
elements.
3. In each of their compounds, different elements combine in a simple
numerical ratio, for example, one atom of A to one of B (AB), or one
atom of A to two of B (AB2 ).
Law of Multiple Proportions
Daltons atomic theory led to a predictionthe law of multiple proportions.
The law of multiple proportions states that if two elements form two or
more compounds, the masses of one element combined with a fixed mass
of the second are in the ratio of small whole numbers when the different
compounds are compared.
e.g., combination of C and O to form CO or CO2

4.2

Discovery of the Electron

Crookes Tube
A Crookes tube is a sealed glass container in which two electrodes are
separated by a vacuum. When a voltage is applied across the electrodes,
cathode rays are generated, creating a glowing patch where they strike the
glass at the opposite end of the tube.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Crookes tube two views.jpg

J.J. Thompson
Atoms were thought to be the smallest possible division of matter until
1897 when Joseph John J.J. Thomson discovered the electron through his
work on cathode rays.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:J.J Thomson.jpg

Cathode Rays
Thomson discovered that the rays could be deflected by an electric field (in
addition to magnetic fields, which was already known).
He concluded that these rays, rather than being a form of light, were
composed of very light negatively charged particles he called corpuscles
(later renamed electrons by other scientists.
Using different elements as the source of the cathode rays, he obtained
always the same result. Therefore these electrons had to be part of all
atoms of all elements.

commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:JJ Thomson Cathode Ray 2 explained.svg

Modern (?) Cathode Ray Tube

1. Electron guns
2. Electron beams
3. Mask for separating beams for red, green, and blue part of displayed
image
4. Phosphor layer with red, green, and blue zones
5. Close-up of the phosphor-coated inner side of the screen

commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:CRT color.png

Plum Pudding Model

Plum-pudding or raisin pudding model
An atom consisted of a uniform sphere of matter in which the electrons
were embedded.
Up to this point, the nucleus of the atom was not yet discovered.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Plum pudding atom.svg

Robert A Millikan
Starting in 1908, Robert Millikan and Harvey Fletcher worked on an
oil-drop experiment in which they measured the charge on a single electron.
J.J. Thomson had already discovered the charge-to-mass ratio of the
electron.
Millikan ended up discovering the charge of the electron, and thus the
electrons mass, by manipulating electrical charges and magnetic fields.
His reported mass was 9.10 1028 g.
9.10939 1028 g.

Currently accepted mass is

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File: Robert Andrews Millikan.jpg

4.3

The Nuclear Atom

Ernest Rutherford
Ernest Rutherford identified two types of radiation from radioactive
materials, alpha () and beta ().
Alpha particles carry two units of positive charge, have essentially the
same mass as helium atoms, actually identical to He2+ .
Beta particles are negatively charged particles, produced via changes in
the nuclei of radioactive atoms, same properties as electrons.
In 1909 the gold foil experiment was conducted under his supervision
by scientists Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File: Ernest Rutherford cropped.jpg

A third form of radiation was discovered by Paul Vollard, called gamma

rays (). It is an electromagnetic radiation of extremely high penetrating
power.
Gold-Foil Experiment: Set-Up

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3
6
7
5

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commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rutherford Scattering.svg

Gold-Foil Experiment: Result

It was quite the most incredible event that has ever happened to me in my
life. It was almost as incredible as if you fired a 15-inch shell at a piece of
tissue paper and it came back and hit you. On consideration, I realized that
this scattering backward must be the result of a single collision, and when I
made calculations I saw that it was impossible to get anything of that order of
magnitude unless you took a system in which the greater part of the mass of
the atom was concentrated in a minute nucleus. It was then that I had the idea
of an atom with a minute massive center, carrying a charge.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File: Rutherford gold foil experiment results.svg

Planetary Model of the Atom

Rutherfords planetary model of the atom
a relatively high central charge concentrated into a very small volume in
comparison to the rest of the atom and containing the bulk of the atomic
mass (the nucleus of the atom).
tiny electrons circled the nucleus like planets around the sun

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en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ File:US Atomic Energy Commission logo.jpg

4.4

Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons

Atomic and Mass Number

Atomic Number (Z) the number of protons present in the nucleus of an
atom of each element.
In a neutral atom, this is equal to the number of electrons in the atom.
Mass Number (A) the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of a particular atom.
A Z = neutron number (number of neutrons in an atom)
Mass number A
Atomic number Z X

Chemical symbol

Properties

Proton
Neutron
Electron

Charge
SI (C)
+1.6022 1019
0
1.6022 1019

Atomic
+1
0
-1

Mass
SI (g)
1.6726 1024
1.6749 1024
9.1094 1028

Atomic (u)
1.0073
1.0087
0.00054858

Isotopes
Isotopes Atoms of the same element containing different numbers of
neutrons and therefore having different masses.
The various isotopes will contribute to the atomic weight of the element
according to their percent natural abundance in the earths crust.
E.g., chlorine (Cl) has two isotopes of atomic mass 35 and 37 a.m.u. The
relative abundance of each atom is 77.35% and 22.65%, respectively. Thus
the atomic weight of Cl is not a whole number, but is equal to 35.453
a.m.u.
E.g.,

20Ne
10

is 90.51%,

21Ne
10

is 0.27%, and

22Ne
10

is 9.22%.

Ions
When atoms lose or gain electrons, the species formed are called ions.
These carry net charges.
An anions is a negatively charged ion.
A cation is a positively charged ion.
number p + number n A # number p - number e
number p Z X

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