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Contents Review
Chapter 2: Mechanical & Physical
Properties of Materials
- What you will learn?
Concepts of stress and strain, elastic deformation, plastic
deformation, true stress and strain, elastic recovery after
plastic deformation, compressive, shear and torsional
deformation, hardness, property variability and design/safety
factor.
2 Rules for this chapter:
1) Understand & Exercise
2) Dont forget rule # 1
2
Shear force, V
Lies in the plane of the area.
Developed when external loads tend to cause the two segments of
the body to slide over one another.
Bending moment, M
Caused by external loads that tend to bend the body about an axis
lying within the plane of the area.
3
Stress
Stress is the intensity of the internal force on a specific plane
(area) passing through a point.
Type:
Tensile stress
Force per unit area (intensity of force) acting normal to A defined
as normal stress, (sigma).
If it pulls on the area, it is referred to as tensile stress. If it
push, it is compressive stress.
Shear stress
Force per unit area, acting parallel to A is
called shear stress, (tau).
Two subscripts are used for shear-stress
components, zx and zy. z axis specifies
orientation of the area, while x and y refer
to the direction lines for the shear stresses.
4
Stress (Cont.)
Units
In the International Standard (SI system), magnitude for
both tensile/normal and shear stress are specified as
newtons per square meter (N/m2).
1 Pa = 1 N/m2
Small units
kilo- (103) k
mega- (106) M
giga- (109) G
Schematic representation of
(a) Tensile load produce elongation
(b) Compression load produce
contraction
(c) Shear strain , where = tan
(d) Torsional deformation (angle of
twist ) produce by applied
torque T.
Engineering Stress
Tensile stress, s (sigma):
Ft
Area, Ao
Ft
Area, Ao
Ft
Ft
lb
N
= 2f or
s=
m2
A o in
original cross-sectional area
before any load is applied
7
Fs
Fs
Fs
t=
Ao
Ft
A o = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F
s=
s
Ao
Ac
M
Fs
Ao
Fs
t =
Ao
2R
Note: t = M/AcR here.
Ski lift
(photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)
Ao
F
s=
Ao
Pressurized tank
(photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)
sq > 0
sz > 0
10
Hydrostatic compression:
sh< 0
(photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)
Strain
Force/temperature applied to a body will change its
shape and size (deformation).
Can be
highly visible e.g. rubber band
practically unnoticeable e.g. building structure with
people walking on it/thermal expansion of a rock
under the hot sun.
Deformation will not be uniform throughout the
volume.
Example of material under
tensile stress will have the
effect of engineering strain.
11
Strain (Cont.)
Used to describe changes in deformation
length and angles between lines after
deformation.
Strain are made by experiments (easily seen).
Related to applied loads or stresses acting
inside a body to understand the behavior of
materials and structure better.
Three types of strain
Lateral strain
Tensile strain
Shear strain
12
Engineering Strain
Tensile strain:
e =
Lateral strain:
1 - 0
(1 - 0 )
eL =
Shear strain:
q
x
90 - q
y
90
13
Stress-Strain Testing
Typical tensile test
machine
Typical tensile
specimen
Adapted from
Fig. 6.2,
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
19 mm
extensometer
specimen
Diameter
9.5 mm
Reduced
Section
60 mm
15
12.8 mm Diameter
Radius
50 mm
Gauge
Length
Elastic Deformation
1. Initial
2. Small load
3. Unload
bonds
stretch
return to
initial
d
F
Linearelastic
d
16
Non-Linearelastic
2. Small load
bonds
stretch
& planes
shear
delastic + plastic
3. Unload
planes
still
sheared
dplastic
F
F
Plastic means permanent!
linear
elastic
linear
elastic
dplastic
17
Hooke's Law:
s=Ee
E
e
Linearelastic
18
F
simple
tensile
test
Poisson's ratio, n
Poisson's ratio, n:
eL
eL
n=e
metals: n ~ 0.33
ceramics: n ~ 0.25
polymers: n ~ 0.40
Units:
E: [GPa] or [psi]
n: dimensionless
19
e
-n
t=Gg
simple
torsion
test
g
M
Elastic Bulk
modulus, K:
V
P = -K
Vo
P
K
V P
Vo
E
K=
3(1 - 2n)
P = Pressure
P
pressure
test: Initial V = Vo.
Vol. change = V
E(GPa)
200
100
80
60
40
Graphite
Composites
Ceramics Polymers
/fibers
Semicond
Diamond
Tungsten
Molybdenum
Steel, Ni
Tantalum
Platinum
Cu alloys
Zinc, Ti
Silver, Gold
Aluminum
Magnesium,
Tin
Si carbide
Al oxide
Si nitride
CFRE(|| fibers)*
<111>
Si crystal
<100>
AFRE(|| fibers)*
Glass -soda
GFRE(|| fibers)*
Concrete
109 Pa
10
8
6
4
2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
21
GFRE*
20
CFRE*
GFRE( fibers)*
Graphite
Polyester
PET
PS
PC
CFRE( fibers) *
AFRE( fibers) *
Epoxy only
PP
HDPE
PTFE
LDPE
Wood(
grain)
d = FL o d = -n Fw o
L
EA o
EA o
F
Simple torsion:
a=
wo
dL /2
r o4 G
M = moment
a = angle of twist
d/2
Ao
2ML o
Lo
Lo
2ro
engineering stress, s
Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed
ep
engineering strain, e
plastic strain
23
Yield Strength, sy
Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when ep = 0.002
tensile stress, s
sy
sy = yield strength
Note: for 2 inch sample
e = 0.002 = z/z
z = 0.004 in
engineering strain, e
ep = 0.002
24
Graphite/
Ceramics/
Semicond
Polymers
Composites/
fibers
300
200
Al (6061) ag
Steel (1020) hr
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr
100
70
60
50
40
Al (6061) a
30
20
10
25
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a
W (pure)
Cu (71500) cw
Mo (pure)
Steel (4140) a
Steel (1020) cd
Tin (pure)
dry
PC
Nylon 6,6
PET
PVC humid
PP
HDPE
LDPE
700
600
500
400
Hard to measure,
1000
Hard to measure ,
since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.
Steel (4140) qt
Room temperature
values
Based on data in Table B.4,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered
F = fracture
strength
engineering
stress
sy
Neck acts
as stress
concentrator
strain
engineering strain
Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
aligned and about to break.
26
5000
3000
2000
1000
300
200
100
40
30
Polymers
20
Composites/
fibers
C fibers
Aramid fib
E-glass fib
Steel (4140) qt
W (pure)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)aa
Steel (4140)cw
Cu (71500)
Cu (71500) hr
Steel (1020)
Al (6061) ag
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Al (6061) a
AFRE(|| fiber)
GFRE(|| fiber)
CFRE(|| fiber)
Diamond
Si nitride
Al oxide
Room temperature
values
Si crystal
<100>
Glass-soda
Concrete
Nylon 6,6
PC PET
PVC
PP
HDPE
Graphite
wood(|| fiber)
GFRE( fiber)
CFRE( fiber)
AFRE( fiber)
LDPE
10
wood (
1
27
Graphite/
Ceramics/
Semicond
fiber)
Ductility
Plastic tensile strain at failure:
Lf - Lo
x 100
%EL =
Lo
smaller %EL
Engineering
tensile
stress, s
larger %EL
Lo
Ao
Af
28
Ao - Af
%RA =
x 100
Ao
Lf
Toughness
Energy to break a unit volume of material
Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.
Engineering
tensile
stress, s
Resilience, Ur
Ability of a material to store energy
Energy stored best in elastic region
Ur =
ey
sde
If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to
1
Ur @ sy e y
2
Adapted from Fig. 6.15,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
30
syo
Stress
2. Unload
1. Load
3. Reapply
load
Strain
Adapted from Fig. 6.17,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
31
Elastic strain
recovery
Hardness
Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
Large hardness means:
-- resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in compression.
-- better wear properties.
apply known force
measure size
of indent after
removing load
e.g.,
10 mm sphere
D
most
plastics
brasses
Al alloys
Smaller indents
mean larger
hardness.
d
easy to machine
steels
file hard
cutting
tools
increasing hardness
32
nitrided
steels
diamond
Hardness: Measurement
Table 6.5
33
Hardness: Conversion
34
Hardness: Measurement
35
36
Hardening
An increase in sy due to plastic deformation.
large hardening
sy
1
sy
small hardening
unload
Reapply load
Elastic strain recovery
sT = K eT
true stress (F/A)
37
hardening exponent:
n = 0.15 (some steels)
to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
true strain: ln(L/Lo)
sworking =
Often N is
between
1.2 and 4
sy
N
sworking =
220,000N
d /4
2
sy
N
d
1045 plain
carbon steel:
sy = 310 MPa
TS = 565 MPa
d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm
38
F = 220,000N
Lo
39
Summary
Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches sy.
Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.
40