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Graphene:Graphene is an allotrope of carbon, whose structure is one-atomthick planar sheets of sp2-bonded carbon atoms that are densely
packed in a honeycomb crystal lattice, the term graphene was
coined as a combination of graphite and the suffix -ene by HannsPeter Boehm who described single-layer carbon foils in 1962.
Graphene is most easily visualized as an atomic-scale chicken
wire made of carbon atoms and their bonds. The crystalline or
"flake" form of graphite consists of many graphene sheets stacked
together.
The carbon-carbon bond length in graphene is about
0.142 nanometres. Graphene sheets stack to form graphite with an
interplanar spacing of 0.335 nm, which means that a stack of
three million sheets would be only one millimetre thick. Graphene is
the basic structural element of some carbon allotropes including
graphite, charcoal, carbon and fullerenes. It can also be considered
as an indefinitely large aromatic molecule, the limiting case of the
family of flat polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
Graphene is a flat monolayer of carbon atoms tightly packed into a
two-dimensional (2D) honeycomb lattice, and is a basic building
block for graphitic materials of all other dimensionalities. It can be
wrapped up into 0D fullerenes, rolled into 1D nanotube or stacked
into 3D graphite.
Graphene is an isolated atomic plane of graphite. From this
perspective, graphene has been known since the invention of X-ray
crystallography. Graphene planes become even well separated in
intercalated graphite compounds. In 2004 physicists at
the University of Manchester and the Institute for Microelectronics
A thin flake of ordinary carbon, just one atom thick, lies behind
this year's Nobel Prize in Physics. Geim and Novoselov have shown
HISTORY:
The history of carbon nanotubes is not entirely clear even for those
in the science therefore giving proper credit to the person that
invented the carbon nanotube has been the subject of several high
tech debates among the scientific communities.
The initial history of nanotubes started in the 1970s. A preparation
of the planned carbon filaments was completed by Morinobu
Endo who was earning his Ph.D. at the University of Orleans, France.
This was still a highly important development in the history of
carbon nanotubes, but it just wasnt the right time to be considered
the first recognized invention.
Giving the proper credit to who invented carbon nanotubes would
not come along for another 20 years. In 1991 the true first invention
of nanotube was finally made. It seems as though there was a race
between Russian nanotechnologists and Sumio Iijima of IBM.
The first observation of the multiwalled carbon nanotubes was
credited to Iijima.
There are some that hold the belief that in the 1950s there was an
initial discovery of what could have possibly been seen as the first
carbon nanotubes had Roger Bacon had the high powered electron
microscope that would have been necessary.
are clear or able to be blended into the skin without leaving behind
residue as well as the creation of UV protective clothing.
As nanotechnologists continue to research nanotubes, there is still a
race to discover something new within the science. Scientists are
researching the potential for life saving techniques as well as the
potential to create nanotubes that can be tailored toward specific
designated jobs.
With the creation of specified nanotubes, the potential for their use
will become unlimited and there will be a nanotechnology world
hard at work crafting all kinds of products from the convenient to
the life saving.
STRUCTURE:
The bonding in carbon nanotubes is sp, with each atom joined
to three neighbours, as in graphite. The tubes can therefore be
considered as rolled-up graphene sheets (graphene is an individual
graphite layer). There are three distinct ways in which a graphene
sheet can be rolled into a tube, as shown below.
The terms armchair and zig-zag refer to the arrangement of
hexagons around the circumference. The third class of tube, which
in practice is the most common, is known as chiral, meaning that it
can exist in two mirror-related forms. An example of a chiral
nanotube is as shown in fig. below.
A simple model indicates that the diameter and/or chirality of the tube are changed
from one side of the defect to the other. Such an arrangement forms therefore a link
between two different tubes and is accordingly called a junction.
b) MULTI-WALLED CNTs:
Multi-walled nanotubes (MWNT) consist of multiple rolled in on
themselves to form a tube shape. There are two models which can
be used to describe the structures of multi-walled nanotubes. In the
Russian Doll model, sheets of graphite are arranged in concentric
cylinders. In the Parchment model, a single sheet of graphite is
rolled in around itself, resembling a scroll of parchment or a rolled
up newspaper. The interlayer distance in multi-walled nanotubes is
close to the distance between graphene layers in graphite,
approximately 0.33 nm.
The carbon arc discharge method, initially used for producing C60
fullerenes, is the most common and perhaps easiest way to produce
CNTs, as it is rather simple. However, it is a technique that produces
a complex mixture of components, and requires further purification to separate the CNTs from the soot and the residual catalytic metals
present in the crude product. This method creates CNTs through arcvaporization of two carbon rods placed end to end, separated by
approximately 1mm, in an enclosure that is usually filled with inert
gas at low pressure. Recent investigations have shown that it is also
possible to create CNTs with the arc method in liquid nitrogen. A
direct current of 50 to 100 A, driven by a potential difference of
approximately 20 V, creates a high temperature discharge between
the two electrodes.
reaction of the carbon feedstock with the metal particles. One issue
in this synthesis route is the removal of the catalyst support via an
acid treatment, which sometimes could destroy the original
structure of the carbon nanotubes. However, alternative catalyst
supports that are soluble in water have been shown to be effective
for nanotube growth. If plasma is generated by the application of a
strong electric field during the growth process (plasma enhanced
chemical vapor deposition), then the nanotube growth will follow the
direction of the electric field. By properly adjusting the geometry of
the reactor it is possible to synthesize vertically aligned carbon
nanotubes.
Chemical
Method
Arc
discharge
vapour
method
deposition
Who
Ebbesen
Ajayan,
Japan 1992
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o
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andEndo,
ShinshuSmalley, Rice, 199514
NEC,University,
Nagano, Japan 53
Chemical
Method
Typical
yield
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Laser
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30 to 90%
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Con
Characterization
nanotubes:-
of
carbon
The electron beam, which typically has an energy ranging from 0.5
keV to 40 keV, is focused by one or two condenser lenses to a spot
about 0.4 nm to 5 nm in diameter. The beam passes through pairs
of scanning coils or pairs of deflector plates in the electron column,
typically in the final lens, which deflect the beam in the x and y axes
so that it scans in a raster fashion over a rectangular area of the
sample surface.
When the primary electron beam interacts with the sample, the
electrons lose energy by repeated random scattering and absorption
within a teardrop-shaped volume of the specimen known as the
interaction volume, which extends from less than 100 nm to around
5 m into the surface. The size of the interaction volume depends
on the electron's landing energy, the atomic number of the
specimen and the specimen's density. The energy exchange
between the electron beam and the sample results in the reflection
of high-energy electrons by elastic scattering, emission of secondary
electrons by inelastic scattering and the emission of
electromagnetic radiation, each of which can be detected by
specialized detectors. The beam current absorbed by the specimen
can also be detected and used to create images of the distribution
of specimen current. Electronic amplifiers of various types are used
to amplify the signals which are displayed as variations in brightness
on a cathode ray tube. The raster scanning of the CRT display is
synchronized with that of the beam on the specimen in the
microscope, and the resulting image is therefore a distribution map
of the intensity of the signal being emitted from the scanned area of
the specimen. The image may be captured by photography from a
high resolution cathode ray tube, but in modern machines is
digitally captured and displayed on a computer monitor and saved
to a computer's hard disk.
d) Electrical Conductivity:
Depending on their chiral vector, carbon nanotubes with a small
diameter are either semi-conducting or metallic.
CNTs can be highly conducting, and hence can be said to be
metallic. Their conductivity has been shown to be a function of their
chirality, the degree of twist as well as their diameter. CNTs can be
either metallic or semi-conducting in their electrical behavior.
Conductivity in MWNTs is quite complex. Some types of armchairstructured CNTs appear to conduct better than other metallic CNTs.
Furthermore, interwall reactions within multi walled nanotubes have
been found to redistribute the current over individual tubes nonuniformly. However, there is no change in current across different
parts of metallic single-walled nanotubes. The behavior of the ropes
of semi-conducting single walled nanotubes is different, in that the
transport current changes abruptly at various positions on the CNTs.
The conductivity and resistivity of ropes of single walled nanotubes
has been measured by placing electrodes at different parts of the
CNTs. The resistivity of the single walled nanotubes ropes was of the
order of 104 ohm-cm at 27C. This means that single walled
nanotube ropes are the most conductive carbon fibers known. The
current density that was possible to achieve was 10-7 A/cm2,
however in theory the single walled nanotube ropes should be able
to sustain much higher stable current densities, as high as 10-13
A/cm2. It has been reported that individual single walled nanotubes
may contain defects. Fortuitously, these defects allow the single
walled nanotubes to act as transistors. Likewise, joining CNTs
together may form transistor-like devices. A nanotube with a natural
junction (where a straight metallic section is joined to a chiral semi
conducting section) behaves as a rectifying diode that is, a halftransistor in a single molecule. It has also recently been reported
that single walled nanotubes can route electrical signals at speeds
up to 10 GHz when used as interconnects on semi-conducting
devices.
e) Electronic properties:
The electronic properties of SWNTs have been studied in a large
number of theoretical works. All models show that the
electronic properties vary in a predictable way from metallic to
semi conducting with diameter and chirality. This is due to the
very peculiar band structure of graphene and is absent in
systems that can be described with usual free electron theory.
Electron motion in graphene is equivalent to that of a neutrino or a
relativistic Dirac electron with vanishing rest mass. This
causes the appearance of a nontrivial Berrys phase under 2
rotation in wave-vector space, leading to the absence of
backscattering and in the metallic carbon nanotube resulting
in perfect conduction even in the presence of scatterers. The
energy bands in carbon nanotubes are determined by periodic
boundary conditions with a fictitious Aharonov-Bohm flux
determined uniquely by the circumferential chiral vector. A
nanotube becomes metallic when the flux vanishes and
semiconducting when the flux is nonzero. The conductivity of
graphene is essentially independent of the Fermi energy and
the electron concentration as long as variations in effective
scattering strength are neglected, and therefore graphene
should be regarded as a metal rather than a zero-gap
semiconductor. Various schemes are now being proposed and
tested for the purpose of opening the band gap in graphene.
Basically, all armchair tubes are metallic. One out of three zigzag
and chiral tubes show a small very small band gap due to the
curvature of the graphene sheet, while all other tubes are semiconducting with a band gap that scales approximately with the
inverse of the tube radius. Bandgaps of 0.4 1 eV can be expected
for SWNTs (corresponding to diameters between 0.6 and 1.6 nm).
f) Mechanical properties:
Carbon nanotube is the one of the strongest materials in nature.
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are basically long hollow cylinders of
graphite sheets. Although a graphite sheet has a 2D symmetry,
carbon nanotubes by geometry have different properties in axial
and radial directions. It has been shown that CNTs are very strong in
the axial direction. Young's modulus on the order of 270 - 950 GPa
and tensile strength of 11 - 63 GPa were obtained.
On the other hand, there was evidence that in the radial direction
they are rather soft. The first transmission electron microscope
observation of radial elasticity suggested that even the van der
Waals forces can deform two adjacent nanotubes. Later,
nanoindentations with atomic force microscope were performed by
several groups to quantitatively measure radial elasticity of
multiwalled carbon nanotubes and tapping/contact mode atomic
force microscopy was recently performed on single-walled carbon
nanotubes. Young's modulus of on the order of several GPa showed
that CNTs are in fact very soft in the radial direction.
Radial direction elasticity of CNTs is important especially for carbon
nanotube composites where the embedded tubes are subjected to
large deformation in the transverse direction under the applied load
on the composite structure.
One of the main problems in characterizing the radial elasticity of
CNTs is the knowledge about the internal radius of the CNT; carbon
nanotubes with identical outer diameter may have different internal
diameter (or the number of walls). Recently a method using atomic
force microscope was introduced to find the exact number of layers
and hence the internal diameter of the CNT. In this way, mechanical
characterization is more accurate.
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APPLICATIONS:-
a) Structural
b) ELECTROMAGNETIC
Buckypaper:
It is a thin sheet made from nanotubes that
are 250 times stronger than steel and 10 times lighter that
could be used as a heat sink for chipboards, a backlight for
LCD screens or as a faraday cage to protect electrical
devices/aero planes.
Chemical nanowires:
Carbon nanotubes additionally can
also be used to produce nanowires of other chemicals, such as
gold or zinc oxide. These nanowires in turn can be used to
cast nanotubes of other chemicals, such as gallium nitride.
These can have very different properties from CNTs for
example, gallium nitride nanotubes are hydrophilic, while CNTs
are hydrophobic, giving them possible uses in organic
chemistry that CNTs could not be used for.
Computer circuits:
A nanotube formed by joining
nanotubes of two different diameters end to end can act as a
diode, suggesting the possibility of constructing electronic
computer circuits entirely out of nanotubes. Because of their
good thermal properties, CNTs can also be used to dissipate
heat from tiny computer chips.
Conductive films:
CNTs are also introduced in developing
transparent, electrically conductive films to replace indium tin
oxide(ITO).CNT films are substantially more mechanically
robust then ITO films ,making them ideal for more reliability
touch screens and flexible displays. Printable water based inks
of carbon nanotubes are desired to enable the production of
these films to replace the ITO. Nanotube films show promise
for use in displays for cell phones, computers, PDAs, and
ATMs.
Solar cells:
Organic photovoltaic devices (OPVs) are
fabricated from thin films of organic semiconductors, such as
polymers and small-molecule compounds, and are typically on
the order of 100 nm thick. Because polymer based OPVs can
be made using a coating process such as spin coating or inkjet
printing, they are an attractive option for inexpensively
covering large areas as well as flexible plastic surfaces. A
promising low cost alternative to silicon solar cells, there is a
large amount of research being dedicated throughout industry
and academia towards developing OPVs and increasing their
power conversion efficiency. GEs carbon nanotube diode has
a photovoltaic effect. Nanotubes can replace ITO (Indium tin
oxide) in some solar cells to act as a transparent conductive
film in solar cells to allow light to pass to the active layers and
generate photocurrent.
Superconductor:
Nanotubes have been shown to be
superconducting at low temperatures.
Ultra capacitors:
Nanotubes, when bound to plates of
capacitors increase the surface area and thus increase energy
storage ability.
Displays:
One use for nanotubes that has already been
developed is as extremely fine electron guns, which could be
used as miniature cathode ray tubes in thin high-brightness
low-energy low-weight displays. This type of display would
consist of a group of many tiny CRTs, each providing the
electrons to hit the phosphor of one pixel, instead of having
one giant CRT whose electrons are aimed using electric and
magnetic fields. These displays are known as field emission
displays (FEDs).
Others:
c) CHEMICAL
Biotech container:
Nanotubes can be opened and filled
with materials such as biological molecules, raising the
possibility of applications in biotechnology.
Hydrogen storage:
Research is currently being
undertaken into the potential use of carbon nanotubes for
hydrogen storage. They have the potential to store between
4.2 and 65% hydrogen by weight. This is an important area of
research, since if they can be mass produced economically
there is potential to contain the same quantity of energy as a
50L gasoline tank in 13.2L of nanotubes. See also, Hydrogen
Economy.
Water filter:
Recently nanotube membranes have been
developed for use in filtration. This technique can purportedly
reduce desalination costs by 75%. The tubes are so thin that
small particles (like water molecules) can pass through them,
while larger particles (such as the chloride ions in salt) are
blocked.
Oscillator:
Nanotube membrane:
Liquid flows up to five orders of
magnitude faster than predicted by classical fluid dynamics.
Smooth surface:
d) MECHANICAL
h) OTHER APPLICATIONS
CONCLUSION
Rise in demand and production, and ease of accessibility of carbon
nanotubes would lead to the extensive use of carbon nanotubes in a
wide variety of applications. The use of nanotechnology for human
will become common need in 21st century. As world is suffering from
serious pollution problems, hydrogen will becoming need of 21st
century & carbon nanotubes provide better solution for hydrogen
storage.
Nanotubes market, which was growing at a moderate rate till 20062007, is expected to rise at a skyrocketing pace in the coming years.
Hence we can conclude that most of the demands of human, in this
and fore coming generation will be fulfilled by carbon nanotubes.