Chemistry Module 4 Energy

1. Living organisms make compounds which are important sources of

energy.

Outline the role of photosynthesis in transforming light energy to

chemical energy and recall the raw materials for this purpose.
Photosynthesis is the process by light energy is trapped by the chlorophyll in the
plants leaves and is used to transform the raw materials of carbon dioxide and
water into glucose and oxygen. Photosynthesis occurs in all green plants and is
the source of life of all organisms. Without photosynthesis, no organism would be
able to use the suns energy, thus everything would perish.
Carbon Dioxide + Water

Light
Chlorophyll

Glucose + Oxygen

Photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction as it absorbs energy from sunlight

It is the process by which light energy is converted into chemical energy which is
stored as glucose. It occurs only in green plants.
When the above chemical reaction occurs, 2830kJ of energy is absorbed per mole
of glucose formed. Thus the overall role of photosynthesis is to capture the light
energy of the sun and transform it into chemical energy which is stored in plants.

outline the role of the production of high energy carbohydrates from

carbon dioxide as the important step in the stabilisation of the suns
energy in a form that can be used by animals as well as plants.
Carbohydrates are compound of hydrogen, carbon and oxygen. Common
carbohydrates include glucose, starch and cellulose.
Photosynthesis is a complex multi-step reaction brought about by the chlorophyll
in the leaves plants. Thus the energy that is captured by the plant is chemically
stored in glucose.
Carbohydrates in plants are the energy source of animals. In cellular respiration,
the stored chemical energy is made available to the organism through the
following equation:
Glucose + Oxygen

Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy

The amount of energy released during respiration is the same as was absorbed
during photosynthesis, namely 2830kJ per mole of glucose. Some of this energy
is used for daily activities whereas the majority is dissipated as heat. A small
portion of this energy is transformed into protein and fat (or lipids).
Carbohydrates are considered to be high energy compounds because when they
react chemically as in respiration they release large amount of energy.
Note: Virtually all the solar energy trapped by plants ends up as heat in the
environment to be re-radiated into space.
Note: The longer the food chain, the more inefficient it is.
All forms of life on Earth are dependant upon sunlight for their supply of energy;
without the sun there would no life as we know it. Production of carbohydrates by
photosynthesis is the main way in which solar energy is collected for use by plant.

Identify the photosynthetic origins of the chemical energy in coal,

petroleum and gas.

Plants harvest solar energy to live and grow, and animals live eating plants.
Normally, when plants and animals die, they are decomposed and they are
converted back into carbon dioxide, water and nutrients which are released back
into the environment, so completing the materials and energy cycles that are part
of the living world.
However in certain locations, instead of being fully decomposed to carbon dioxide
and water, some plant and animal material was only partially decomposed and
remained stored in the Earth as energy-rich compounds. These are known as
fossil fuels. They were mainly formed due to intense pressure and extremely high
temperatures for millions of years.
Energy rich compounds are those that release large amounts of energy when
they undergo chemical reactions. The stored energy is known as chemical
energy. By burning fossil fuels we are able to release the stored chemical energy
within them. The common fossil fuels are coal, crude oil and natural gas.
Living matter is mainly made up of compounds of carbon. Therefore fossil fuels
were naturally synthesized by geological processes acting upon compounds of
carbon. Thus it is not surprising when we see that fossil fuels themselves are
compounds of carbon.
Dead Plants and Animals
Underground Temperature and Pressure for millions of years
Without Bacterial Action

With Bacterial Action

Coal (Solid)

Crude Oil (liquid)

Natural Gas (Gas)

The origin of chemical energy in fossil fuels in form the sun. Living organisms
obtain energy directly or indirectly from the sun via photosynthesis.

process and present information from secondary sources on the range of

compounds found in either coal, petroleum or natural gas and on the
location of deposits of the selected fossil fuel in Australia
Fuel
Black coal
Brown coal
Natural Gas
Crude Oil

Major Australian Resources

Bowen Basin in Qld
There is very little coal in the
Sydney Basin in NSW
western half of the continent.
Latrobe Valley in Victoria
Gippsland Basin Victoria
Cooper Basin South Australia
Bass Strait in Victoria (will be exhausted in a few decades).

Coal is a particularly important fossil fuel NSW as we use it to generate most of

our electricity. Burning coal produced steam which drives the turbines to make
electricity. Coal is found in every state in Australia, but Nsw, Vic and Qld are our
main producers.
Coal is a rot consisting mainly of carbon (50-98%), some hydrogen (3-13%) and
oxygen. Coal can also contain small amount of other elements such as sulfur and
nitrogen. Australian coal generally has low sulfur content and most of Australias
coal is found in 5 basins Sydney, Bowen, Clarence-Morton, Surat ad Gippsland.

2. There is a wide variety of carbon compounds.

Identify the position of carbon in the periodic table and describe

its electron configuration.

The element Carbon is located in group 4 of the periodic table. It is also located in
period 2 and has atomic number of 6. Carbons electron configuration is 2,4
indicating the presence of four valence electrons. Carbon is a non-metal but is
able to conduct electricity when in the form of graphite.

Describe the structure of the diamond and graphite allotropes and

account for their physical properties in terms of bonding.

When an element exists as more than one crystalline form, those forms are
known as allotropes. Allotropes are forms of the one elements (in the same
physical state) which have significantly different physical properties (such as
density, hardness, electrical conductivity and colour). There are eight main
allotropes of carbon:
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.

Diamond
graphite
lonsdaleite
single-walled carbon nanotube (also known as buckytube)
Buckminsterfullerene (also known as buckyball)
C540
C70
Amorphous carbon

Diamond:
Diamond has a three-dimensional crystal structure, which consists of an infinite
array of carbon atoms, each of which forms a structure in which each of the
bonds makes equal angles with its neighbours. The ends of the bonds are
connected, and the structure formed is that of a tetrahedron. Every carbon atom
is covalently bonded at the four corners of the tetrahedron to four other carbon
atoms (by single bonds).
This arrangement of layers of carbon atoms explains some of diamonds
properties. It is extremely difficult to destroy such an arrangement of covalent
bonds especially when the covalent bonds are extended throughout the lattice.
This means that a extreme amount of energy is required to break the bonds
between the carbon atoms in diamonds three dimensional lattical structure; thus
giving diamond extreme hardness, high melting and boiling points, reduced
chemical reactivity (since the electrons are tightly bound within the covalent
bonds, they are unable to move or be transferred to other elements thus
minimizing reactivity), non-conductor of electricity (no free electrons).
Furthermore due to the covalent network bonding present in diamond, it is
transparent and high light reflective index. This is simply because the atoms are
arranged in an orderly fashion (as can be seen in the image on the previous
page), this gives diamond its transparency as light is able to pass between the
space between the particles.

Below is a summary of the properties of Diamond:

Property

Explanation in terms of bonding

Hard

Three-dimensional lattical structure (the tetrahedral arrangement of the carbon

atoms arranged systematically in layers that are not flat) and strong covalent
bonds between the carbon atoms that extend across the lattice, give strong
intermolecular bonds which are extremely difficult to break ensuring hardness of
diamond.

High M.P. and

B.P.

Transparency

Nonconductor of
electricity

Minimal
chemical
reactivity

It requires huge amounts of energy to rupture the strong intermolecular bonds

between the carbon atoms due to its covalent network structure in which strong
covalent bonds are extended throughout the lattice, the melting points and boiling
points must be high.
The carbon atoms are arranged in orderly fashion throughout the entire crystal.
This gives the diamond its transparency as light is able to pass between the atoms
giving the diamond its colourless appearance and high light-refractive index
making it extremely attractive.
Diamond is a covalent network substance, this means that the bonds between the
carbon atoms are covalent bonds. This means that the valence electrons of the
carbon atoms are not free to move and since there are no mobile electron there is
no conduction of electricity.
In order for substances to be reactive they must be able to transfer their electrons
easily. In diamond, the electrons are tightly bound due to the covalent bonds,
therefore they are unable to move or be transferred to other elements, giving
diamond a very low reactivity.

High Density

The structure of the diamond shows that the atoms are tightly bound in a strong
three dimensional lattical structure. Also the six-membered rings are stacked on
top of one another, giving diamond a high density (3.5g/mL)

Insoluble in
all solvents

Diamond is a very hard and extremely unreactive substance. Due to this

unreactive state it has because of its covalent network structure (as there are no
free electrons), it is insoluble in all solvents. This simply means that no substance
will be able to chemically react with diamond when the solvent is an aqueous state.

Excellent
Thermal
conductor

All carbon atoms in diamond are strongly bonded via covalent bonds. The diamond
crystal has a symmetric cubic structure. The atoms in diamond are precisely
aligned. Thus diamond is known as an ideal crystal. Atoms in the crystal lattices in
solids vibrate. These are called the atomic vibrations which allow for thermal
conduction in solids. In an ideal crystal, the lattices are aligned so that they dont
interact with each other. Therefore an ideal crystal conducts heat better than a
non-ideal crystal. Diamond being an ideal crystal is a good thermal conductor.

The structure of graphite is significantly different to the structure of diamond and

thus its physical and chemical properties are different as well. Graphite is also a
covalent network solid (covalent lattice) like diamond but in this case each carbon
atom is only three other carbon atoms (in diamond it was bound to four). This
forms a planar structure as shown in the figure above.
Each ring consists of six carbon atoms which is also evident from the diagram.
Since each carbon atom only has three other carbon atoms attached to it, it must
mean that one electron is not covalently bonded (i.e it is free). These extra
valence electrons form a sea of delocalised electrons similar to that in metals. It
is the presence of the sea of delocalised electrons which makes graphite an
electrical conductor (since the electrons can move when influence by an applied
voltage similar to that in metals). However, electricity is only conducted along the
plane of layers, graphite does not conduct electricity at 90 degrees to the plane.
This is simply because the sea of delocalised electrons are only able to move
across the planes and not jump from one plane to another.
It can also be seen that the two-dimensional lattices are packed one upon the
other as shown in the figure above. Since, there are only weak intermolecular
forces between the layers, they can easily slide across one another, and this
explains the slippery-ness of graphite and its good lubricating characteristics.
Another phenomenon when it comes to graphite is that every second layer is
stacked identically upon each other. The crystal structure of graphite amounts to
a parallel stacking of layers of carbon atoms. Within each layer the carbon atoms
lie in fused hexagonal rings that extend infinitely in two dimensions. The stacking
pattern of the layers is ABABA...; that is, each layer separates two identically
oriented layers. 1

Below is a Summary of the properties of graphite:

Property

Slippery
(Good Lubricant)

Explanation in terms of Bonding

As previosuly explains, the carbon atoms in graphite are connected in
hexagonal rings which connect to form a layer. These layers are then
piled one on top of the other. The forces that hold these layers
together are known as the van der Waals forces. These forces are
extremely weak and the layers are seperated by a large distance. Due
to these two factors the layers can slip over each other easy giving
graphite its slippery nature and making it a good lubricant.

"carbon." Encyclopdia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopdia Britannica Online. 07 Jun. 2009

URL: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/94732/carbon

Extremely soft
substance

Medium Density
(2.3 g/mL)

High M.P. and B.P.

Good Electrical
Conductor

The structure of graphite explains why it an extremely soft substance .

This is because despite having strong covalent bonds between carbon
atoms in each layer, the forces between layers are extremely weak
(Van de Waals forces). This allows layers of carbon to slide over each
other in graphite making the substance very soft and greasy.
Graphites density is less than that of diamond. This is due to the
structural layout. The layers are seperated by large distances due to
the weak van der Waals forces which are unable to tightly bind the
layers together. Due to this the carbon atoms are more spread out,
reducing graphites density.
Graphite can be considered as a covalent network substance despite
no bonding in the vertical direction. The carbon atoms are connected
via strong covalent bonds which extend throughout the horizontal
lattice. These intermolecular bonds are hard to break and thus more
energy is required to break them. Consequently, the melting and
boiling points of graphite are high.
In graphite, each carbon atom only has three other carbon atoms
bound to it via single bonds. Therefore it must mean that one electron
is not covalently bound (i.e it is free). These extra valence electrons
form a sea of delocalised electrons similar to that in metals. It is the
presence of the sea of delocalised electrons which makes graphite an
electrical conductor (since the electrons can move when influence by
an applied voltage similar to that in metals). However, electricity is
only conducted along the plane of layers, graphite does not conduct
electricity at 90 degrees to the plane. This is simply because the sea of
delocalised electrons are only able to move across the planes and not
jump from one plane to another.

Note:
Effect of heat: it is the most stable allotrope of carbon. At a temperature of 2500
degree Celsius, it can be transformed into diamond. At about 700 degree Celsius
it burns in pure oxygen forming carbon dioxide.
Chemical activity: it is slightly more reactive than diamond. This is because the
reactants are able to penetrate between the hexagonal layers of carbon atoms in
graphite. It is unaffected by ordinary solvents, dilute acids, or fused alkalis.
However, chromic acid oxidises it to carbon dioxide. 2

Process and present information from secondary sources on the

uses of diamond and graphite and relate their uses to their
physical properties

Uses of Diamond
2

Allotropes of carbon Wikipedia 1st June 2009 Accessed 10 June 2009

URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allotropes_of_carbon

Use

Property(ies) related to use

Jewellery

Abrasives

Lustrous, High Light Refractive Index, Scratch resistant, Hard,

Transparent
Hardest known substance on Earth which means it can cut through any
substance, high melting point also allows it to be used in hot
environments.
Highest thermal conductivity of any substance which allows it to quickly
extract heat from sensitive areas eg. Computer chips have a diamond
layer that is able to quickly remove heat from the area. Also, high
melting point.
Hard, Scratch resistant

Wear resistant parts

Resistant to corrosion, low chemical reactivity

Low friction
microbearings

These are needed in extremely small mechanical devices. Diamond

bearings are used when extreme abrasion resistance and durability are
essential.
transparent, very durable and resistant to heat and abrasion, hard
(security)
Very stiff material (hard), also rapid vibrations will not cause
deformation, therefore it enhances the performance of high quality
speakers.

Industrial purposes
like cutting tools

Heat sinks

Diamond windows
Diamond Speaker
Domes

Uses of Graphite
Use

Property(ies) related to use

Lead Pencils

Soft and slippery nature, layers can easily be separated

Refractory crucibles

High melting and boiling points, when mixed with other substances it
can become extremely hard.

Electrodes

Good electrical conductivity, high melting point

Polishes and paints

Soft, slippery nature, metallic luster

Lubricant in machines
Electrotypes for
printing

Slippery nature, high melting points, greasy nature since layers can be
easily separated.
Good electrical conductivity, high melting point, soft nature so can be
made into a fine powder that is still able to induce an electrical current.

Dry cell batteries

Good electrical conductivity, high melting point

Identify that carbon can form single, double or triple covalent

bonds with other carbon atoms.

Carbon atoms are able to form single, double or triple covalent bonds with other
carbon atoms.
When one pair of electrons is being shared it is known as a single bond.

When two pairs of electrons are being shared it is known as a double bond.
When three pairs of electrons are being shared it is known as a triple bond.
When a hydrocarbon contains only single bonds it is known as an alkane and its
molecular formula can be calculated using CnH2n+2 where n is the number of
carbon
atoms.
When a hydrocarbon contains one or more double bonds it is known as an alkene
and its molecular formula may be calculated using CnH2n
When a hydrocarbon contains one or more triple bonds it is known as an alkyne
and its molecular formula may be calculated using CnH2n-2
Note: If a hydrocarbon is in the form of a ring it is known as a cyclic
hydrocarbon. For example pentane in cyclic form would be known as
cyclopentane.

Explain the relationship between carbons combining power and

ability to form a variety of bonds and the existence of a large
number of carbon compounds.

Carbon forms a huge range of compounds. There are more compounds of carbon
than of any other element (despite hydrogen because it is almost always present
in carbon compounds). There are eight main explanations why the majority of
compounds known to chemists are carbon compounds. These are:
-

Carbon readily forms carbon-carbon bonds

These bonds may be either single, double or triple or a combination of
them
Carbon forms cyclic compounds as well as straight and branched chain
compounds.
The intramolecular bonds (covalent bonds) combining the atoms in carbon
compounds are strong. These strong intramolecular bonds can help the
formation of millions, and even billions of kinds of molecules.
Carbon is able to form compounds that are stable and durable. For this
reason it is able to form a vast array of compounds.
Due to the formation of isotopes, there may be many carbon compounds
with the same molecular formula, yet have different structural formulae.
Thus they are regarded as different substances or different compounds.
There is no limit to the amount of carbon atoms in a chain they bond
indefinitely due to the high combining power of carbon.
Carbon it is able to form four covalent bonds which can arise in different
directions allowing for complex organic compounds to be created.

Under all circumstances, carbon always forms four covalent bonds. The fact that it
has four valence electrons means that it is able to lose or gain electrons. This
means that it can readily combine with both non-metals and metals.

3. A variety of carbon compounds are extracted from organic sources

Describe the use of fractional distillation to separate the components of

petroleum and identify the uses of each fraction obtained.

Crude Oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons formed by geological action on

decayed aquatic plant and animal matter over millions of years. Oil accumulates
under domes of impervious rock hundreds to thousands of meters below the
Earths surface. It has to be refined before it can be used.
The first step in oil refining is fractional distillation. For separating components
of crude oil it is carried out in large steel towers up to 40 meters high. Thus,
during this process, the components of oil are separated according to their boiling
points. Since boiling point increases as the molecular weight increases, the
separation is roughly in order of increasing molecular weights. Crude oil is
vaporized and then fed into a fractionating column. The temperature falls as the
vapour rises up through the column. Thus the least volatile components condense
near the bottom. These liquids are collected at various heights and these are
known as the various Fractions.
Fraction
Gases
Petroleum Ether
Gasoline
Kerosene
Gas oil
Lubricating oil
Grease
Bitumen

B.P.
<30
30-80
70-200
175-250
250-350
350
>350
Residue

C atoms/molecule
1-4
5-6
6-12
12-16
15-18
18-25
>20
>25

Uses
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
Industrial Solvents
Motor fuel
Jet fuel, domestic heating
Diesel fuel, industrial heating
Motor oils
Lubrication
Road making, roofing.

The composition of crude oil varies from one oil field to another. The oil
product in greatest demand is gasoline, which is the fuel for vehicles. However,
the proportion of straight-run gasoline obtained from fractional distillation is not
high enough to meet demand.
Thus a process known as cracking is used. Cracking is the process in which
heavy fractions (long carbon chains) of crude oil are broken (cracked) into smaller
fractions for production of high demand products such as petrol.
There are two main types of cracking: Thermal Cracking
Catalytic Cracking

Identify and use the IUPAC nomenclature for describing straight chained
alkanes and alkenes from C1 C8.

No. - Carbon Atom

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Alkane
Methane
Ethane
Propane
Butane
Pentane
Hexane
Heptane
Octane

Alkene

Alkyne

Ethene
Propene
Butene
Pentene
Hexene
Heptene
Octene

Ethyne
Propyne
Butyne
Pentyne
Hexyne
Heptyne
Octyne

Hydrocarbons in which all the bonds are single bonds are called alkanes.
There is a whole family of alkanes made up of different numbers of carbon atoms
joined together to from a single chain. They are called straight-chained alkanes
meaning that all the continuous string. Straight chain alkanes have all carbon
atoms joined together in one string so that no carbon atom is joined to more than
two other carbon atoms.

In addition there are branched-chain alkanes with carbon skeletons where one
carbon atom is attached to at least three other carbon atoms.

Compare and contrast the properties of alkanes and alkenes C1 C8 and

use the term homologous series to describe a series with the same
functional group.
A family of compounds which can be represented by one general molecular
formula is called an homologous series.
Alkanes:
The simplest alkanes (C1- C4) are gases at room temperature. Alkanes with 5-18
carbon atoms per molecule are colourless liquids, while compounds which exceed
20 carbon atoms per molecules are waxy solids.
The melting and boiling points of alkanes increase as the molecular
weight increases (i.e. Number of carbon atoms per molecule increases)
The densities of both liquid and solid alkanes are significantly less than that of
water. Alkanes are also insoluble in water and do not conduct electricity.
Even though not all alkanes are strictly symmetrical, alkanes are still known as
non-polar molecules. This is because C-C bonds are non-polar, C-H bonds are
slightly polar but they are mostly cancelled out due to the structure of the alkane.
Thus the only intermolecular forces between alkane molecules are dispersion
forces. These are quite weak, thus it is easy to separate the molecules. Thus
alkanes have low melting and boiling points.
Note: Dispersion forces increase as molecular weight increases.
The Volatility of a substance is the ease with which it can be converted to a
vapour. Volatility increases as boiling point decreases. So for alkanes, volatility
decreases as molecular weight increases.
Alkenes:
Hydrocarbons which contain a double bond a pair of carbon atoms are called
alkenes.
The straight chain alkenes have similar physical properties to the alkanes. The
C2-C4 alkenes are gases while the C5 to C17 ones are liquids with boiling
increasing as molecular weight increases. Boiling points of alkenes are slightly
lower than those or corresponding alkanes. Densities are similar to those of
corresponding alkanes. Like alkanes, they are also insoluble in water and do not
conduct electricity.
They are also non polar molecules as C--C bonds are non polar, like C-C bonds.
Thus their only intermolecular force is weak dispersion forces, giving them low
melting and boiling points.
However, alkenes and alkanes are different in that alkanes are saturated (contain
the maximum number of hydrogen atoms that the particular carbon skeleton can
accommodate) where as alkenes are unsaturated (it is possible to attach more
hydrogen by breaking the double bond and forming single bonds to extra
hydrogen atoms i.e converting them to alkanes).

Alkanes are generally more reactive than alkanes.

explain the relationship between the melting point, boiling point and
volatility of the above hydrocarbons, and their non-polar nature and
intermolecular forces (dispersion forces)
Look in above dot point.
Recap:
Even though not all alkanes are strictly symmetrical, alkanes are still known as
non-polar molecules. This is because C-C bonds are non-polar, C-H bonds are
slightly polar but they are mostly cancelled out due to the structure of the alkane.
This lack of polarity accounts for alkanes being insoluble in water (a polar
solvent).
Thus the only intermolecular forces between alkane molecules are dispersion
forces. These are quite weak, thus it is easy to separate the molecules. Thus
alkanes have low melting and boiling points.
Note: Dispersion forces increase as molecular weight increases.
The Volatility of a substance is the ease with which it can be converted to a
vapour. Volatility increases as boiling point decreases. So for alkanes, volatility
decreases as molecular weight increases.
The straight chained alkenes have similar physical properties to the alkanes.

Assess the safety issues associated with the storage of alkanes C1-C8 in
view of their weak intermolecular forces (dispersion forces).
Alkanes, particularly low molecular weight ones such as C1-C8 are extremely
flammable. In addition at high concentrations they can be toxic (poisonous). An
added hazard is the high volatility (low boiling points) of the liquid ones, which
means that if a container is left open to the atmosphere, the liquid quickly
evaporates and forms a flammable or explosive mixture in the air.
Safety Precautions include:
-

Well maintained cylinders and fittings for gaseous hydrocarbons.

Methane and ethane are non-condensable gases ate room temperature
and are therefore stored in high pressure cylinders which provide enough
pressure to overcome the boiling effect and keep them as a liquid.

Add odours that are pungent in order to quickly detect if there is a leak.

Sturdy (preferably metal) containers for liquids + stored in a well

ventilated area in case of a leakage.

Minimize the quantity in use. This will ensure that there is minimal risk of
a hazardous situation arising. Also, if large amounts are being used, they
should be stored away from populated areas and in a located that is well
maintained and ventilated

Keep alkanes away from naked flames or sparks. The alkanes must be
stored in areas where there is no instance of a naked flame or hot
filaments. This is to ensure that no accidental combustion occurs as it
could be potentially dangerous. Also, ensure that all electrical equipment
being used does not produce sparks.

Always handle in well ventilated areas. Due to the poisonous nature of

these substances it is dangerous to use them in confined areas. They
should be handled outdoors when ever possible.

Transportation:
-

The fuel tank is located at the end remote from the hot engine and is
outside the main shell of the vehicle.

The fuel tank has narrow inlet and outlet pipes, which are both at the top
of the tank to minimize chances of leakage during accidents; fuel has to
be pumped from the tank by the engine so that in most cars even a fuel
line rupture will not cause rapid leakage of petrol.

When the petrol is transported by road or rail, heavy steel tanks are
used. These are well sealed and are designed to withstand most
collisions or overturnings without rupture of the tank.

Features are placed in vehicles to dissipate or prevent any build up of

static electricity.

The fuels are also dyed for easy identification in case of leaks. Eg.
Unleaded petrol is colored blue.

4. Combustion provides another opportunity to examine the

conditions under which chemical reactions occur.

Describe the indicators of chemical reactions

Chemical changes are also called chemical reactions. Common indicators that a
chemical reaction has occurred are:
-

If a gas is produced. For example when copper carbonate is decomposed

under the influence of heat it produces carbon dioxide whose presence can be
detected using the limewater test.
If a precipitate is formed. For example when two solutions are mixed, such
as sodium chloride and silver nitrate, silver chloride, which is a white solid
forms.
If there is a permanent colour change. For example when potassium
permanganate solution (which is originally purple) is combined with hydrogen
peroxide, the mixture produced is colourless, indicating a chemical reaction.
Temperature change in the mixture is quite significant. For example
when magnesium ribbon is burnt in air, the metal becomes extremely hot
Disappearance of a solid. This is not just the dissolution of one solid in a
particular solvent but rather a complete re-arrangement of elements in order
to produce new substances. For example when magnesium hydroxide powder
is combined with hydrochloric acid, a clear solution is produced.
New substances are created. For example the electrolysis of water. Where
water (H20) is decomposed into hydrogen gas (H2) and Oxygen gas (O2)
Heat or light is given off. For example, when a piece of magnesium ribbon
is burnt in air, significant amounts of light and heat energy are emitted,
leaving a white powder behind.
Difficult to reverse the process. For example when wood is burnt, it turns
into ash and gases evolve. After the wood has completely burnt burned, it
cannot be restored to its original form.
An odour is produced. For example when sodium hydroxide is added to a
solution of ammonium chloride the pungent odour of ammonia is clear.

Identify combustion as an exothermic chemical reaction

Combustion is a process in which a self sustaining chemical reaction occurs at

temperatures above those of the surroundings. More simply, combustion is
burning. Explosions are also a form of combustion. All combustion reactions
liberate large amounts of heat. They are called exothermic reactions. 3
Combusting (burning) is a process in which a self-sustaining chemical reaction
occurs at temperatures above those of the surroundings. It is a chemical reaction
because we can detect, by using simple tests, the formation of water vapour and
carbon dioxide gas during the burning. Combustion cannot easily be reversed. It
is an exothermic reaction because it releases much heat into the surroundings.
Note: An endothermic reaction is one that absorbs heat making the reaction
much cooler than the surroundings.

Outline the changes in molecules during chemical reactions in

terms of bond breaking and bond making

In chemical reactions, some bonds in reactant molecules are broken and new
bonds are formed to make the product molecules. These two activities occur
3

Direct Quote: Smith, Ronald. Conquering Chemistry - Preliminary Course Australia: McGraw-Hill, 2004

simultaneously in the mixture. Atoms are not created or destroyed during a

chemical reaction, they are just simply rearranged.
Eg 1)

Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq)

Eg 2)

AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl(aq)

FeCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)

In both examples we can see that the actual atoms are not destroyed. Whatever
is on the reactant side of the chemical equation must be present on the products
side. This is known as the law of conservation of matter, which states that matter
cannot be created nor destroyed, but just simply transformed from one form to
another. Therefore, the intramolecular bonds between the compounds are broken
and new bonds are made depending on the valencies and attractions of the
particular elements within the chemical reaction.
Energy must be inputted in order to break chemical bonds. Forming chemical
bonds releases energy.
Common Reactions
a) Metal + Acid

Salt + Hydrogen gas

b) Metal + Water

Metal hydroxide + hydrogen

c) Metal + Salt

New Salt + Metal

d) Acid + Base

Salt + Water

e) Acid + Carbonate
f) Salt + salt

Salt + Carbon dioxide + water

New salts

g) Metal Oxide + water

Acid

h) Combustion
i.

Element + Oxygen

ii.

Hydrocarbon + Oxygen

i)

Heat + Carbonate

j)

Decomposition reaction:

Carbon dioxide + Water

Metal Oxide + Carbon Dioxide

Heating
Visible light or UV
Electrolysis

k) Single displacement reaction:

l)

Element Oxide

Combination reaction:

m) Double displacement reaction:

Explain that energy is required to break bonds and energy is

released when bonds are formed

Energy must be inputted in order to break chemical bonds. Forming chemical

bonds releases energy. In chemical terms, this means that an exothermic reaction
occurs when making bonds, whereas an endothermic reaction occurs when
breaking bonds.
In any substance, energy is stored in the intermolecular bonds that hold the
molecules together in a substance, and also in the intramolecular bonds that hold
the individual atoms together in a molecule.
Every chemical reaction involves changes that result in certain bonds being
broken and others being formed. When a chemical equation is written that
includes energy change, this equation shows the net difference in energy
change
Exothermic reactions result in a net release of energy. I.e. More energy is given
off rather than absorbed.
One example of this is when hydrogen and fluorine gas combine in order to result
in hydrogen fluoride.
H2(g) + F2(g) 2 HF(g) + 546kJ
In the above chemical reaction, the H-H as well as the F-F bonds have to be
broken whereas H-F bonds must be formed. As can be seen the products side has
more energy than the reactants side, indicating that more energy is given off
rather than absorbed. Here the energy produced when forming H-F bonds is
greater than the total energy absorbed when breaking H-H / F-F bonds.
On the other hand, endothermic reactions are those that require a net input of
energy. I.e. More energy is needed to break the bonds than create new ones.
One example of this is when sulfur trioxide decomposes to produce sulfur dioxide
and oxygen gas.
2 SO3(g) + 198kJ 2 SO2(g) + O2(g)
It can be clearly seen from the above equation that there is more energy on the
left hand side of the equation (reactants) than the right hand side (products).
This indicates that more energy is required to break bonds, when compared with
energy require to make the new ones.

H = {energy required to break bonds in reactants} {energy required to make bonds for
products}

Describe the energy needed to begin a chemical reaction as

activation energy

The reason why many reactions do not occur spontaneously is that there is often
an energy barrier between reactants and products.
The activation energy (EA) of a reaction is the minimum amount of energy
reactant molecules must possess in order to form products. A substantial amount
of energy is often necessary for a chemical reaction to occur, this is mainly due to
the intramolecular bonds that have to broken. Thus an energy barrier has to be
surpassed in order for the reaction to occur. The energy required to surpass the
energy barrier is known as the activation energy.
Thus activation energy can be defined as the energy needed to begin a chemical
reaction. The activation energy barrier is essential because it prevents most
reactions from taking place which prevents the decomposition of highly complex
natural molecules, thus ensuring a stable environment for all organisms.
Note: Activation energy is expressed in kJ / mol. Also for exothermic reactions,
once they begin, they are self sustaining. Endothermic reactions however, need a
continuous energy supply in order to operate.

Describe the energy profile diagram for both endothermic and

exothermic reactions

The below figures show graphically the relation between enthalpies of products
and reactants, and
H for endothermic (right) and exothermic (left) reactions.

For endothermic reactions:

- The products have more energy contents than the reactants.
- The energy level has increased so the change in enthalpy is said to be
positive
For exothermic reactions:
- The products have less energy contents than the reactants
- The energy level has dropped so the change in enthalpy is said to be
negative
Note: The difference between the energy of the reactants and the peak is known
as the activation energy. Also, the difference between the energy of reactants
and that of the products is known as
H.

Explain the relationship between ignition temperature and

activation energy

The ignition temperature of a fuel air mixture is the minimum temperature to

which the mixture (or part of it) must be heated in order for combustion to occur
spontaneously.
The greater the activation energy, the higher the ignition temperature.
Note: It is not necessary to heat all of the fuel air-mixture to the ignition
temperature; it is often sufficient to heat just a small portion to the required
temperature. This is because the combustion reaction, being exothermic, once
started at one sport, soon spreads throughout the whole mixture. 4
Petrol has a high ignition temperature, this is why it is suitable as fuel for
vehicles, because it can be placed in open air, without the risk of a spontaneous
reaction occurring.

Identify the sources of pollution which accompany the combustion

of organic compounds and explain how these can be avoided

The combustion of fossil fuels in factories, homes, vehicles and so on are the
main sources of pollution on Earth.
There are four main types of pollution that result from the combustion of fossil
fuels:
1) Carbon pollution:
Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless gas. It is toxic because it combines
with the haemoglobin in red blood cells in preference to oxygen, reducing the
ability of blood to transport oxygen. It is produced by incomplete combustion
when the oxygen supply is limited.
Eg:

2C8H18(l) + 17O2(g)

16CO(g) + 18H2O(l)

If there is insufficient air for the complete combustion of fuel, then some soot
(solid carbon) may be formed.
Eg:

C5H12(g) + 4O2(g)

3C(s) + 2CO(g) + 6H2O(g)

Carbon monoxide production is prominent in petrol engines where the air to fuel
ration is very minimal. Diesel engines and electricity generating stations have a
high air to fuel ratio, and thus produced very little carbon monoxide, however, if
badly designed they can produced a lot of soot.
However, these production of carbon monoxide and soot can be minimised and
this is by allowing the incorporation of excess air into the reaction. I.e. To ensure
that the air to fuel ratio is high. In some engines this is not possible (such as
petrol where ignition then becomes too difficult). Therefore, the minimization of
these substances can be done using a catalyst in the exhaust pipe with is able to
convert and carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide. Thus ensuring complete
combustion.

Direct Quote: Smith, Ronald. Conquering Chemistry - Preliminary Course Australia: McGraw-Hill, 2004

2) Sulfur pollutants
Sulfur dioxide is formed by the combustion of sulfur in fossil fuels. This is mainly
due to the impurities in the fuel mostly from coal. When the combustion of coal
occurs, the sulfur combines with the oxygen to produce sulfur dioxide which is a
pungent gas that can cause breathing difficulties at low concentrations.
S(s) + O2(g)

SO2(g)

Sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere then forms acid rain:

2SO2(s) + O2(g)

2SO3(g)

SO3(s) + H2O(l)

H2SO4(aq)

The way to reduce the emission of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere is to use
low sulfur coals whenever possible. Also, sulfur dioxide can be removed from the
exhaust gas at factories / power stations, but this is generally very expensive to
do.
3) Particulates
Particulates are very small droplets of liquids or small solid particles that result
from the incomplete combustion of fuels. Vehicles produce limited amounts of
particulates, but the main contributors are power generators and industrial
factories. From oil and coal, the particulates rise from the incomplete combustion
of the fuel.
However, these particulates emitted from power stations and industrial factories
can be minimised through the use of electrostatic precipitators. These devices can
generate a high voltage, causing the small particulates to combine with one
another to produce large amounts of substance, which are then easily filtered out
of the exhaust gas.
4) Oxides of Nitrogen
Oxygen nitrogen reactions only occur at extremely high temperatures (above
1000 degrees Celsius), in order to produce nitric oxide:
N2(g) + O2(g)

2NO(g)

The next step occurs, when nitric oxide reacts with oxygen to produce nitrogen
dioxide:
2NO(g) + O2(g)
2NO2(g)
Petrol and diesel engines along with power stations and industrial factories are
the main contributors. The main concern with the production of nitrogen dioxide
is that under the influence of sunlight it can lead to the production of ozone,
which is a very dangerous substance it is known as a photochemical smog.
Nitrogen oxides can cause respiratory problems and also contribute to the
formation of acid rain.
Laws are in place to minimise production of nitrogen oxides from petrol / diesel
engines. Also relocation of power stations from population centres. Also using
catalysts to remove oxides of nitrogen from exhaust gas of power stations. Finally
lowering combustion temperatures to prevent the formation of those oxides.

Extra: Pollution due to Carbon Dioxide The Greenhouse Effect

Carbon dioxide is not considered as a pollutant this is mainly because it has no
damaging affect on humans or any other living organism, and does not spoil any
aspect of the environment. Carbon dioxide is a necessary substance on Earth and
without it there would be no life.
However, the excessive release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere contributes
to what is known as the greenhouse effect. This is when a layer (which is
constantly increasing) of carbon dioxide and other gases surround the earth,
causing the Earth to heat up since they reflect heat back to Earth. This is believed
to cause significant climate changes such as rising levels of oceans.
Combustion of fossil fuels is the most significant contributor to global warming
and the only way to reduce the emission of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere is
to reduce the need for fossil fuels, by creating more efficient vehicles / industries.

Describe chemical reactions by using full balanced chemical

equations to summarise examples of complete and incomplete
combustion

In complete combustion, the only products formed are that of water and carbon
dioxide. For example:
1)

C5H12(g) + 8O2(g)

5CO2(g) + 6H2O(g)

2)

2C8H18(l) + 25O2(g)

16CO2(g) + 18H2O(l)

3)

CH4(g) + 2O2(g)

CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

4)

C2H4(g) + 3O2(g)

2CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

5)

2C4H10(g) + 13O2(g)

8CO2(g) + 10H2O(l)

In all of the above examples, it is clear that the products formed will always be
carbon dioxide and water thus obeying the meaning of complete combustion.
In incomplete combustion (due to lack of oxygen), carbon monoxide and/or
carbon (soot) may from instead of or in addition to carbon dioxide.
1)

C5H12(g) + 4O2(g)

3C(s) + 2CO(g) + 6H2O(g)

2)

2C8H18(l) + 17O2(g)

16CO(g) + 18H2O(l)

3)

C5H12(g) + 6O2(g)

CO2(g) + 4CO(g) + 6H2O(g)

4)

2C2H2(g) + 3O2(g)

4CO(g) + 2H2O(g)

5)

C3H8(g) +

3C(s) +4H2O(g)

2O2(g)

In all of the above examples, it is clear that the products formed will have other
substances than carbon dioxide and water thus obeying the meaning of
incomplete combustion.

identify the changes of state involved in combustion of a burning candle

A solid fuel, such as the large chain hydrocarbons that make up candle wax, must
be melted and vaporized (two changes of state) in order to burn.
The wax melts, the molten wax moves up the wick and then this molten wax
vaporizes. The wax vapour around the wick is what actually burns.
A solid wax cannot be burned directly by a small flame due to its high activation
energy (and thus high ignition temperature). The burning wick melts the wax and
the liquid wax is fed up the wick via capillary action.
The burning wick provides energy to heat this small liquid and vaporizes it. The
vapour wax due to sufficient energy starts a combustion. The heat energy
released from the combustion of the vapour wax hasten further combustion
reactions. The reaction is therefore self-sustaining.

5. The rate of energy release is affected by factors such as types of reactant

Describe combustion in terms of slow, spontaneous and explosive

reactions and explain the conditions under which these occur.
The combustion reactions we use in everyday life proceed at very different rates.
-

Slow Combustion This refers to situations such as stove tops where

large lumps of wood may take many hours to burn.
Fast Combustion This may be the burning of methane in heating
appliances
Explosive combustion This is in the cylinders of petrol engines in cars.

All of the chemical reactions involved in these combustion processes are known as
spontaneous reactions. This means that once the reaction has started they will
continue to operate without any further assistance (energy input), and will remain
continuous until all the fuel is used up.
Slow combustion occurs when we use big lumps of fuel and limit the supply of
air. This means that burning only occurs on the surface of the lump and its speed
is controlled by the limited supply of air.
Fast combustion occurs when fuel (eg coal) is ground into very small particles
that are sprayed into a plentiful supply of air. There is a large surface area of fuel
exposed to an excess of oxygen and there is good mixing to stop oxygen
concentrations becoming depleted near the surface of the particles.
An explosion is just an extremely rapid reaction one that goes to completion
within a few microseconds. Explosions occur when there are high concentrations
of gases or finely divided solid particles of materials that can undergo combustion

Explain the importance of collisions between reacting particles as a

criterion for determining reaction rates.
The Rate of Reaction is the rater of change of concentration with time.
Alternatively, the average rate of reaction over a small time interval is the
change in concentration divided by the time taken for the change to occur.
In terms of a concentration versus time graph, the rate of reaction at any
particular time is the magnitude of the slope (gradient) of the curve at that time.
Reaction rates decrease as the reaction proceeds.
Increasing the concentration of a reactant generally increases the rate of
reaction.
The rate of reaction increases as the temperature is increased.
Substances that increase the rate of a reaction without undergoing permanent
chemical change in the reaction are called Catalysts.
Reactions that occur uniformly throughout a solution are called
homogeneous reactions along with reactions that occur uniformly
throughout the whole gaseous mixture.

There are many reactions that occur at the interface between two phases; such
reactions are called heterogeneous reactions.
Heterogeneous reactions are dependant upon a further two factors:
The state of division of the solid
The rate of stirring which is used.
For some reactions, the rate depends upon the intensity (brightness) of
visible or ultraviolet light shining upon the reactants.
For a reaction to occur the reactant particles (atoms, molecules or ions),
must collide.
Anything that increases the rate at which collisions occur will increase the rate of
reaction. Increasing the concentration of reactants, state of division of a solid
reactant, or rate of stirring increases the rate of collision and so the rate of
reaction.
Concentration: This measures the number of particles of a particular substance
per unit volume. Increasing the concentration puts more particles in unit volume
and so increases the chance of collision between particles of one reactant and
those of another reactant, which increases the reaction rate.
State of Division of a solid: Breaking big lumps of solid into smaller pieces
increases the surface area of the solid. The greater the area of the solid, the more
collisions that can occur in a given time, so the reaction rate increases.
Stirring: This has two effects:
1) It keeps the solid suspended in the solution so the maximum surface
is exposed to the solute / gas.
2) For reactions in solution, stirring quickly replaces solution in which the
reactant has been used up with fresh solution, so ensuring that there is
always plenty of solute for the solid to react with.

Explain the relationship between temperature and the kinetic energy of

particles.
As the temperature increases, the average kinetic energy (and so the
speed) of particles increases.
This means that the rate of collisions will increase, which will cause an increase in
reaction rate.
In order for a reaction to proceed, it is necessary not only for the
reactant molecules to collide, but also for the colliding molecules to
possess a certain minimum amount of kinetic energy so that they can
reach the top of the energy barrier.
If the colliding molecules have insufficient , they just bounce apart and stay as
reactants. Kinetic energy is energy of motion: the faster the particles are moving,
the higher is their kinetic energy.
If the temperature is increased, not only is the average kinetic energy of the
molecules increased, but also the fraction of the molecules having more than

enough kinetic energy to scale the energy barrier is dramatically increased, thus
the reaction rate increases.
Reactions with greater activation energy will have a smaller reaction rate. But
reactions with the higher activation energy will have more rapid reaction rate
increases as the temperature is increases.
Many reactions have quite small activation energies so proceed quite rapidly at
room temperature.

Describe the role of catalysts in chemical reactions, using a named

industrial catalyst as an example.
Catalysts increase the reaction rate. Catalysts may be homogeneous or
heterogeneous. A catalyst is a substance that changes the rate of a chemical
reaction without being used up by the reaction. A catalyst only changes the rate
at which a reaction occurs. It can speed up a reaction by providing an alternate
pathway for the reaction that needs lower activation energy.
Homogeneous Catalysts work throughout the bulk of the reaction mixture (gas
or solution). Nitrogen dioxide is a homogeneous catalyst for the reaction between
sulfur dioxide and oxygen.
Heterogeneous Catalysts provide a surface on which the reaction occurs more
rapidly than it does in the bulk of the reaction mixture. Finely divided nickel
catalyses the reaction between alkenes and hydrogen to form alkanes. The nickel
is a heterogeneous catalyst. The reaction occurs between gaseous hydrogen and
the liquid or gaseous alkene on the surface of the solid nickel particles.
Habers Process Magnetite Heterogeneous Catalyst Fe3O4
N2(g) + 3H2(g)

Oxides of Iron

2NH3(g)

How do heterogeneous catalysts work?

The solid heterogeneous catalyst provides the surface for the reactants to be
absorbed. As the reacting particles are absorbed on the surface of the catalysts,
their chemical bonds are weakened, resulting in more chance for successful
collision to occur. Furthermore, the surface of the catalyst provides a direct route
of contact between the particles more than what would occur naturally.

Explain the role of catalysts in changing the activation energy and hence
the rate of chemical reaction

Catalysts are particularly useful when the uncatalysed reaction has a very high
activation energy (and is therefore very slow). The catalyst usually provides a
pathway of lower activation energy.

Although catalysts decrease the activation energy of reactions, they have

absolutely no effect upon
H, the enthalpy change for the reaction.
The reason for this is that the reactants and the products are exactly the same
for both the catalysed and uncatalysed reactions.

analyse information and use the available evidence to relate the

conditions under which explosions occur to the need for safety in work
environments where fine particles mix with air
Explosions occur when the reactions become extremely rapid. This usually
happens when there is good contact between reactant particles and when the
reaction is highly exothermic with high activation energy.
Once the reaction is initiated, it liberates energy, which heats up the reaction
mixture. This makes the reaction go faster, releasing energy more quickly, so
there is an extremely rapid escalation in temperature and reaction rate, causing
an explosion. In order for the rate to increase this way there must be a good
supply of oxygen available to fuel, otherwise a limiting amount of oxygen will slow
down the reaction.
Large lumps of fuel such as coal rarely explode because they rapidly use up the
oxygen available ate their surfaces. However, very small particles of flammable
material dispersed through a volume of air have great potential for causing
explosions. The total surface area of the particles is large and each particle has a
ready supply of oxygen.
Consequently, one aspect of providing safe working conditions is ensuring that
there can be no build up of concentrations of flammable substances. Formation of
flammable dust should be minimised, and what does form must be efficiently
removed from the air.