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ISSUE13FUTURESSPRING2004

HummingbirdFutures
DANIELROSENBERG

DrawingbyTheodorNelsonfromComputerLib/DreamMachines.CourtesyTheodor
Nelson.

WELCOMETOTHEXANADUMILLENIUM
Westandatthebrinkofanewage,saysavoiceoftheinformation
future.Soon,thewrittenwordwillchange,andcivilizationwillchange
accordingly.Auniversalhypertextnetworkwillmaketextandgraphics,
calledondemandfromanywhere,anelementalcommodity....Therewill
behundredsofthousandsoffileserversmachinesstoringanddishingout
materials.Andtherewillbehundredsofmillionsofsimultaneoususers,
abletoreadfrombillionsofstoreddocuments,withtrillionsoflinksamong
them.Withinafewshortdecades,thisnetworkmayevenbringanew
GoldenAgetothehumanmind.1
ThevoicebelongstoTheodorHolmNelson,inventoroftheterms
hypertextandhypermedia,apostleofthehomecomputer,Web
visionary,selfappointedofficerofthefuture,andforecasterofsomuch
thatwenowtakeforgrantedintheelectronicuniverse.Ifthetenorofthis
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statementfromthe1980sismoretriumphantthanmost,thediscourseis
readilyrecognizable.Indeed,bynow,therhetoricofinformationexplosion
muststrikeusaslesssurprisingthanthetimeframeoftheforecast:
decadesdidntthatseemanawfullylongtimetowait?
Sincethe1960s,TedNelsonspresciencehasbeenhistrademark.Before
thefirsthomecomputers,hecalledforahomecomputerrevolution.He
dreamedofawordprocessorbeforeonewasdesigned.Alreadyinthe60s,
hearguedthattheinformationfuturewouldmaterializeasaninter
connectednetwork.And,mostfamously,hedreamedthatthecomputer
wouldfreewritingfromthestricturesoflinearity,thatelectronictextwould
taketheformofanopenandmultidimensionallinkingstructurethatin
1965henamedhypertext.2
Nelsonisnotknownprincipallyasatechnicalinnovatorhehasprimarily
beenthoughtofasaseer.Hismostfamouswriting,ahypertextmanifesto
calledComputerLib/DreamMachinesselfpublishedin1974,remainsan
undergroundclassicofhackerdom.3Hismorerecentwork,especiallyhis
1980LiteraryMachines,revolvesaroundthestillinprogressdesignofa
transclusivehypertextnetworkcalledXanadu.Tomany,thisproject
seemedchimericalbeforetheriseoftheInternetandthegraphicand
textualinterfacesoftheWorldWideWeb.Sincethen,perceptionsofthe
informationuniversehavechanged,andperceptionsofNelsonhave
changedwiththem.Indeed,somehavearguedthattheimportantpartsof
Nelsonsdreamhavealreadybeenachieved.Nelsondisagrees.Hisconcept
ofXanaduinvolvesadynamicstructuremorepowerfulandmoreflexible
thanthecurrentlyavailablenetwork.Nonetheless,theWebhasmadeit
clearthattheelectronicwordisreformulatingmanyofourassumptions
abouthowtextualityandinformationoperate,inwaysthathavegiven
Nelsonsideasnewcurrency.Inthelastdecade,hehasbeencitedmore
andmoreinacademicandpopularcontexts.Hisolderworkhasbeen
reissued.Asheputit,withtheexplosionoftheWeb,hehasbeenabruptly
promotedfromLunatictoVisionary.4
ButforallitsresonancewithNelsonscareer,thelabelvisionaryhas
neverquitefit.Hisperspectivewasalwaysparadoxical.Likemanyofhis
contemporaries,inthe1960sand1970sNelsonregardedthefuturewith
bothhopeandfear.Hepredictedcomingsocialandecologicaldisasters,
buthearguedagainstacceptingsuchpredictionsaswritteninstone,
believingitisuptoustomake...predictionscomeoutwrong.5For
Nelsoninthe1970sasnow,whateverhopewemighthaveliesina
(computeraided)multiplicationofintellectualpathwaysandpossibilities,in
thesystemofenvisioningcomplexalternativesthathenamed
hypertext.
WHATISHYPERTEXT
Thetermhypertextconjuressomethingradicalandtechnological,with
fourdimensionsperhaps,likeahypercube,orsubjecttospacetime
distortion,asinhyperspace.Buthypertextisanordinarykindofwriting.
Alltextinterconnectsinnonlinearways.Youusehypertextwheneveryou
clickonalinkinanelectronictextandtraveltoadifferentdocument,orto
adifferentplaceinthedocumentthatyouarereading,thoughitisnot
necessarytouseacomputertoreadorwriteinhypertext.Aprintedbook
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presentingtwoadjacentversionsofatext(asinacriticalliteraryedition)is
hypertextual.6Thesamemightbesaidoffootnotesormarginalia,of
nestedglossessuchasthoseintheTalmudormedievalmanuscripts,orof
ChooseYourOwnAdventurestories.Suchtextsallowreaderstomoveby
shifts,jumps,andreturnsthatconfoundthenotionoftextuallinearity.7
AccordingtoNelson,withtheexceptionofthemostrudimentaryexamples,
alltextpointstoothertextoutsideofthesingle,supposedlyclosed
sequenceallsourcesareringedbysatellitesourcesthatencourage
readerstomakeexplicitorimplicitcomparisons,mentalleaps,and
intellectualchoices.AsheexplainsinLiteraryMachines,
Manypeopleconsider[hypertext]tobenewanddrasticandthreatening.
However,Iwouldliketotakethepositionthathypertextisfundamentally
traditionalandinthemainstreamofliterature.Customarywritingchooses
oneexpositorysequencefromamongthepossiblemyriadhypertextallows
many,allavailabletothereader.Infact,however,weconstantlydepart
fromsequence,citingthingsaheadandbehindinthetext.Phraseslikeas
wehavealreadysaidandaswewillseearereallyimplicitpointersto
contentselsewhereinthesequence.8
Thisbroadconceptionofhypertextexplainshowelectronicwritingcanbe
understoodassharingcharacteristicsofotherwrittenforms.Hypertext
canincludesequentialtext,andisthusthemostgeneralformofwriting.
(Inonedirectionofgeneralization,itisalsothemostgeneralformof
language.)9Nowritingorutterancetravelsinastraightline.Nonestands
alone.Hypertextinthelargestsenseisboththeinterconnectivetissueof
lexiasthatmakeupagiventextualunitsuchasabookandthematrixof
externalreferencesfromwhicheverybookmustdrawitsfilaments.From
thisperspective,literatureappearsnotasacollectionofindependent
works,butasanongoingsystemofinterconnectingdocuments.10We
readandwrite,inotherwords,inaworldbiggerthanbooks,andNelson
referstothistheoreticalrealmoflexicalplenitudeasthedocuverse.In
thedocuversethereisliterallynohierarchyandnohorstexte.Theentire
paratextualapparatusinhabitsahorizontal,sharedspace.
BACKTOTHEFUTURE
Ashisdiscussionofhypertextsuggests,Nelsonneveravoidedthefuturistic
rhetoricofinformationrevolution.Atthesametime,hisconceptionof
computerizedpossibilityalwayslookedasmuchbackwardasforward.Allof
hisworksmakeitclearthathecherisheswhatfunctionswellintraditional
textuality.Viewedfromanelasticperspective,printliteraturemight
actuallyofferamoresophisticatedpictureofhypertextualitythando
electronicwritingandnetworkingasweknowthem,andinhislaterwork,
Nelsonrevertsconsistentlytowhathecallstheliteraryparadigm.
Ourdesign[forthehypertextsystemXanadu]issuggestedbytheone
workingprecedentthatweknowof:literature....Wecannotknowhow
thingswillbeseeninthefuture.Wemustassumetherewillneverbea
finalanddefinitiveviewofanything.Andyetthissystemfunctions.
LITERATUREISDEBUGGED.11

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Technology,heargues,allowsustoseedimensionsofliteraturethat
remainedobscuredintheprintera.Atthesametime,literatureand
scholarshipastraditionallyconstruedofferanintellectualandcultural
modelwhich,whilefarfromperfect,hasnonethelessprovedcapableof
expressingcomplexity,ambiguity,andresponsibility.
Theassertionthatliteratureisdebuggedcapturesmuchofwhatmakes
Nelsondifferentfromhistechnologicallyorientedpeersininformation
theory.Buthissystemshumanismisalsoechoedbyanumberof
contemporarycriticswhohavetakenamiddleroadinwhatisoftena
depressinglybinarydebateonthevalueofelectronicwriting.J.HillisMiller,
forone,appreciatesboththeProustianpossibilitiesinherentinhypertextual
errancyandthehypertextualqualityofProustsownmeditations.Atthe
sametime,hewarnsagainstanaveimplementationofhypertext,and
especiallyagainstnavereadingsinit.Forexample,inhisreviewofa
hypertextedversionofTennyson,Millerarguesthattheverypathsand
linksofferedbythesystemimplythat:
aVictorianwork...istobeunderstoodbymoreorlesstraditional
placementofthepoemin...itssocioeconomicandbiographicalcontext,
byreference,forexample,tothebuildingofcanalsinEnglandatthetime.
Theapparentfreedomforthestudenttobrowseamongvarioushypertext
linksmayhidetheimpositionofpredeterminedconnections.Thesemay
reinforcepowerfulideologicalassumptionsaboutthecausalforceof
historicalcontextonliteraryworks....Hypertextcanbeapowerfulwayto
deploywhatKennethBurkecalledperspectivebyincongruity,butitcan
alsobeconservativeinitsimplications.12
Likewise,forTerrenceHarpold,totreatthelinkaspurelyadirectionalor
associativestructureis...tomisstodisavowthedivisionsbetweenthe
threadsinahypertext....Whatyouseeisthelinkaslink,butwhatyou
missisthelinkasgap.13BothargumentspointtoadvantagesinNelsons
conceptoftheXanaduinterfaceasopposedtothesystemsofelectronic
hypertextandtheInternetascurrentlyconfigured.ThepointofXanaduis
tomakeintertextualmessinessmaximallyfunctional,andinthatwayto
encouragetheproliferationandelaborationofideas.
XANADUANDTRANSCLUSION
Whilethegeneralconceptsofhypertextandthedocuverseapplyequallyto
alltextualmechanisms,notalltextualmechanismsfunctionidentically.The
keyfeaturedistinguishingXanadufromtheWebiswhatNelsoncalls
transclusion.14Traditionalprintworksbyinclusion.Externalreferences
areembeddedasquotations,becomingintegralpartsofthereferringtext.
WhilequotationisalsoemployedontheWeb,aseparatetechnicalprinciple
isatwork.UsingatypicalWeblink,youchangecontextandengagewith
newtextasyoumightbygoingtoalibraryandfollowingacitationfrom
booktobook,pursuingaparallelratherthananinclusiverelationship.As
analternativetoboth,Nelsonproposestransclusion,asystemcombining
aspectsofinclusionandlinking.Atransclusivenetworkimplementslinksso
astocombinedocumentsdynamically,allowingthemtobereadtogether
asmutualcitationswhiletheyremaintechnicallydistinct.15

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Suchastructurehasavarietyofadvantages.Nelsonseesaguaranteeof
intellectualproperty:Thissystemallowsalltheappropriatedesiderataof
copyrighttobeachieved:one,paymentfortheoriginatortwo,creditfor
theoriginatorthree,nothingismisquotedfour,nothingisoutof
context.16ThegoalofXanadu,ononehand,istotalinstantaneous
informationaccess.Ontheother,itiscontinuousrevelationof
interconnectednesswithoutthedilutionofspecificity.Atonepolestands
thedreamofauniversalarchive,attheother,thefragmentedand
nomadicappropriationofknowledgeofallsorts.Hypertextbecomesa
systemfortheproductionandmanagementofsuchlooseends.
ThequestionoflooseendshasalwaysbeencrucialforNelson.A
meticuloustakerandretakerofnotes,hewasasociologystudentinthe
early1960swhenhefirstencounteredcomputersandimaginedXanadu.In
thatprewordprocessingage,itwasevidenttoNelsonthatcomputers
couldnotonlybeusedastypewriters,butthattheycouldfunctionas
archiving,database,andcommunicationsystems.If,ashebelieved,the
problemwithconventionalwritingisthatittendstolimitintellectual
optionsbychannelingtheminonlyonedirection,thenelectronichypertext
couldmirrorandsupplementthelightnessandfluidityofcreativethought.
FishingVonnegutlikeforanamethatmightcapturethehumorand
complexityofhypertextuality,hespokeofgrandesigning,piecewhole
diddlework,grandfuddling,metamogrification,andforthatmostexalted
possibility,tagnebulopsis(thevisualizationofstructureintheclouds).A
reporteronceaskedNelsonwhetherthetransclusiveXanaduparadigm
mightnotbesymptomaticofageneralizedattentiondeficitdisorder.He
responded,Weneedamorepositivetermforthat.Hummingbirdmind,I
shouldthink.18Anditmaybethathummingbirdmindhasfinallyfoundits
technology.Thestrikingsuccessofhypertextandhypermediasystemsin
allsortsofapplications,fromreferenceworksandtechnicalmanualsto
worksofliterature,art,andgames,atteststothegeneralityofNelsons
vision.Butthereismore.Vividandsensitiveawriterthatheis,Nelson
alsocapturessomethingliketheunconsciousofthesepractices.
MAGICPLACEOFLITERARYMEMORY
ForNelson,thechallengeofhypertextisinsomesensesautobiographical,
awayofarguingagainsthistoricaltimeanditsexpectedclosures.Thevery
nameXanaduexpressestheproblemofnarrativeendingsasNelsonsees
it.
XANADU
Oneofthegreatunfinisheddreamsofthecomputerfield...Literary
System,StorageEngine,HypertextandHypermediaServer,Virtual
DocumentCoordinator,WriteOnceNetworkStorageManager,Electronic
PublishingMethod,OpenHypermedium,NonHierarchicalFilingSystem,
LinkedAllMediaRepositoryArchive,PaperlessPublishingMedium,and
ReaddressingSoftware.TheMagicPlaceofLiteraryMemory.
Xanadu,friend,ismydream.
ThenamecomesfromthepoemColeridgeslittlestoryoftheartistic
trance(andthePersonfromPorlock)makesitanappropriatenameforthe
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pleasuredomeofthecreativewriter.TheCitizenKaneconnotations,and
anyotherconnotationsyoumayfindinthepoem,aresidebenefits.
IhavebeenworkingonXanadu,underthisandothernames,forfourteen
yearsnow.
Makethattwentysevenyears.19
NelsonsnarrativeechoestheassociativelogicsoftheXanadusystem.It
alsoselfconsciouslyrecallsthewayinwhichtheRomanticpoetsputinto
questiontheideaofcompletionitself.HenceNelsonsfascinationwith
Coleridgesfamouslyunfinishedpoem,KublaKahn.Thepoemisacurious
object.Itisavisionofparadisethatcametothepoetunmediated,ina
dreamstate,orsoColeridgeclaims.ButColeridgenevergiveshisreader
accesstothismoment.Hetellsusthatthepublishedpoemisonlya
fragment,thebitofwritingthathewasabletodobeforehistranscription
wasinterruptedbyavisitorfromPorlock.Whatisinterestingaboutthe
poemisthatitisineverywayamodelhypertext.Inthefirstinstance,the
apparentlyunmediatedversionofthepoemisalreadyavisionofavision,
ColeridgesquotationofwhattheKhansaw.Andintheversionthatweget
asreaders,itiscitationalonanotherlevel:itisColeridgestranscription
andannotationofhisownmemory.Moreover,inkeepingwiththe
Romanticresonanceofthepoem(avisioninadream,afragment),
NelsonsnarrativeofXanadualsogoesbacktochildhood.Hecontrastshis
ownexperienceinschoolwiththefreeplayofideasthatheobserves
amongcontemporarygroupsofcomputerkids.AccordingtoNelson,
schoolsaretheprincipalenforcersofthefictionsoflinearity.Thevery
systemofcurriculum,wheretheworldssubjectsarehackedtofita
scheduleoftimeslots,atoncetransformstheworldofideasintoa
schedule(CurriculummeanslittleracetrackinLatin.)Acurriculum
promotesafalsesimplificationofanysubject,cuttingthesubjectsmany
interconnectionsandleavingaskeletonofsequencewhichisonlya
caricatureofitsrichnessandintrinsicvalue.20ThegoalofXanadu,he
says,istomaketheworldsafeforsmartchildren.Hemightjustaswell
havesaid,smartchildrenofallages,foramongsmartchildren,heclearly
includeshimself.21
ForNelson,writingorreadingisalwaysaprocessofrestoringsomething
lost.If,inthemoremundanesense,everyactofcompositionisanactof
creation,inthetermsofthedocuverse,everyactofcreationis,ineffect,a
mappingofforgottenhypertextualspace.Atadeeperpsychiclevel,every
linguisticactisanactofcontactwithalostbodythroughamagicplaceof
literarymemory.Infodiscourseprovidesuswithanewlystructuredfigure
ofmemory.Itatoncespeaksofsystemstorage,oftheunexaminedand
recapturedlinksbetweenideas,andoftheproblemofconsciousness
slippingfromourgrasp.
Xanadu,then,operatesasprostheticmemory.Itstoreseverythingin
alternateversions.Nothingneedbelost.Amistakenpathcanalwaysbe
retraced,alostreferencerecovered,asilencedvoicerevived.Nelsoneven
comparesthisprocessofversioningtotimetravel,inwhichthepastcan
bechanged.22UsersoftheXanaduprototypenoticethatthecursortakes
theshapeofanhourglass.TOUNDOSOMETHING,YOUMERELYSTEP
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BACKWARDINTIMEbydraggingtheupperpartofthehourglasswiththe
lightpen....Youmaythencontinuetoviewandmakechangesasifthe
last...operationshadnevertakenplace.Historically,ofcourse,writing
hasoftenfiguredasatransitacrosstimeasFriedrichKittlerputsit,every
bookisabookofthedead.Inthisrespect,electronicwritingisno
differentfromotherkinds.Butelectronicwritingalsoenergizesthefantasy
thatdeathmightnotbepermanent,thatthetextwouldnotonlytestifyto
pastactivities,butthatthoseactivitiesthemselvesmightbereor
unwritten.ThroughthechiasmaticXofXanadu,thesandsoftimepass
backandforth.

ThecoversofTheodorNelsonsComputerLib/DreamMachines.Thetwobooksare
boundtogether,upsidedownandbacktoback.CourtesyTheodorNelson.

SCREENMEMORY
Whatistherelationshipbetweencompulsivereturntomemoryand
prophesyofthefuture?InInvisibleCities,ItaloCalvinoproposesa
dialoguebetweenMarcoPoloandKublaiKhan,inwhichPolodescribes
citiesthathehasvisited,whileKhanimaginesseeingorconqueringthem.
Journeystoreliveyourpast?wastheKhansquestion...aquestion
whichcouldalsohavebeenformulated:Journeystorecoveryourfuture?
...AndMarcosanswerwas:Elsewhereisanegativemirror.Thetraveler
recognizesthelittlethatishis,discoveringthemuchhehasnothadand
willneverhave.25InNelsonsimagination,therearetwoworlds,present
andpast,refractedandreversedthroughthechiasmaticprismofthe
computerscreen.Xanaduholdsuponesuchnegativemirror,reflectingand
thuscreatingatemporalelsewhere.
Atthesametime,hypertextembodiesthefantasythatthecomputer
screenmightopen.Here,theorganizingprincipleisnottimesarrowbut
thehumanbody.Todate,perhapsthemostinterestingmeditationonthis
metaphorisShelleyJacksonspioneeringhypertextnovelPatchworkGirl,
whichweavestogetherelementsofMaryShelley,L.FrankBaum,and
varietiesofliterarycriticism.Jacksonexplicitlyenergizesthebody
metaphorbyleadingherreaderthroughphrenologicalmapsand
anatomicalgraveyards,incitingtheconstructionofmultiplePatchwork
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Girls.26Nelsonsmetaphorizingofbodilyratherthanlineartime,
meanwhile,includesafigurationofthelightpen(whichheusesratherthan
amouse)asascalpeltocutacrossthescreen.Ofcoursethebody
metaphorisinnospecialwaytheprovinceofhypertextualrepresentation.
FromthecabalisticmappingofScriptureontothefleshtometaphorslike
theshipofstate,thebodyprovidesanativelycomprehensibletropefor
functionalinterconnectionand/orhierarchy.But,asAnneBalsamoand
othershavepointedout,thehumanbodyalsoplaysacentralrolein
fantasiesofcyberspacepreciselybecausethesefantasiessooftenrelyon
anassumednegationorevacuationofit.27Asmuchasthecomputer
screenisfantasizedasanewdomainoffreedomforconsciousness,italso
seemsalwaystohintatcorporealamputationoratrophy.
Consider,forexample,fantics,Nelsonstermforasciencethatwould
includethetheoreticalstructureofvirtualities,butalsotheoldterrainof
psychology,physiology,andepistemologyeverythingthatconcernsthe
possibleaddressofourperception.Itistheartandscienceofgetting
ideasacross,bothemotionallyandcognitively.28
ShouldIhavecalleditTEACHOTRONICS?SHOWMANSHIPNOGOGY?
INTELLECTRONICS?...THOUGHTOMATION?MEDIATRONICS?...Okay,so
Iwantedatermthatwouldconnote,inthemostgeneralsense,the
showmanshipofideasandfeelingswhetherornothandledbymachine.I
derivefanticsfromtheGreekwordsphainein(show)anditsderivative
phantastein(presenttotheeyeormind).Youwillofcourserecognizeits
cousinsfantastic,fantasy,phantom....Thewordfanticswouldthus
includetheshowingofanything.29
Nelsonsargumentfortherealityoffanticspaceshouldnotcomeasa
surprise,steepedaswenowareinpromotionsofvirtualreality.30What
isinterestingabouthisstatementisthathedispenseswithanyhardand
fastdistinctionbetweenthepresentationofrealityandthatofvirtuality.
Intheorizingscreenbaseddisplay,fanticsexaminestheghostofthe
physicalbodywhichpersistsintheterm,likeaphantomlimb.Inthe
Xanaduuniverse,anelectronicRaptureissupposedtotakeplaceinword
andimage,andourbodiesaswellasourmindswilllinkupwithmachines.
AsNelsonexplains,Everythinghasarealityandavirtuality.Good
examplesarebuildings,equipment,cars....Theextremecasesarethe
movie,whichisallvirtuality,andthefishhook,whichhasnovirtualityno
conceptualstructureorfeeltothevictimuntiltoolate.31Thefantic
computer,inhisconception,becomesanextensionofourselves.Forbetter
orworse,thecomputerbecomesprosthetic.
But,incontrasttomostofhiscontemporaries,Nelsonunderstandsthis
eventualitynotsomuchasapassageintothefutureasapassageintoa
certainkindofpast,intothechildbodyofthemind.Whatweseeinthe
imageofthechildgluedtothecomputerscreen(animagerepeated
throughoutNelsonsworks)isanimaginedexperienceofcommunion,body
andmindreunitedindreamspace.
AlmosteveryoneseemstoagreethatMankind(who?)isonthebrinkofa
revolutioninthewayinformationishandled,andthathisrevolutionisto
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comefromsomesortofmergingofelectronicscreenpresentationand
audiovisualtechnologywithbranching,interactivecomputersystems....
Professionalpeopleseemtothinkthismergingwillbeanintricatemingling
oftechnicalspecialties....Ithinkthisisadelusionandacongame.Ithink
thatwhentherealmediaofthefuturearrive,thesmallestchildwillknowit
rightaway(andperhapsfirst)....Whenyoucanttearateenykidaway
fromthecomputerscreen,wellhavegottenthere.32
ThisisthepresentexperiencetowardwhichallofNelsonsworkaims.
Hypertextisanameforthisphysicalpleasureofthought,forakindof
representationthatreinforcesandoperationalizeshummingbirdmind.
Nelsonseffortsdonotrevolvearoundthefantasyofthedissolutionofthe
bodyintodata,butrathercelebratethereaccessofthelost,free
childbodythroughthemediumoffanticspace.
ThisisthespecialsenseofXanaduasamagicplaceofmemory,arealm
ofunchainedcreativitythatisalwayshypereventuallypresent.Thedesign
expressesNelsonsimaginationoftheinformationfutureasa
hyperexperienceofchildhood,thechiasmaticreturnthroughthelooking
glassofthecomputerscreentoaprecurricularmind.Viaakindoftime
travel,Xanadugivesbody(back)toactsoftextualimagination.Themodel
islessBorgessGardenofForkingPathsthanitisJacksons
operationalizedL.FrankBaum:theencyclopedicdreamaselectronicstory
book.
Inonerespect,suchobservationsmightbemadeofmuchhypertext
writingandtheoryinthelast30years.Therehasbeenageneral
movementtohighlighttheintellectualandimaginativepotentialofnon
linearform,andliteraryutopiahasevolvedintoheteroorhypertopias.
WhatismostinterestingaboutNelsonisnothisundeniablerolein
propellingthismovement,buthisscrupulousproblematizationofa
materialitythatisoftenabsentfromtheworkofotherwriters.Evenas
Nelsonreleasesthemultidimensionalityofseeminglytraditional,linear
texts,heinsistsuponthevalueofsocalledtraditionalwriting,uponits
protectionfromeverythingthatmightseektosupplantitoritsappealto
thecreativeimagination.
ThestorybookanalogysuitsNelson.Likeinstructivefables,hisworkhelps
ustodiscriminateamongtherhetoricsandpracticesofourpossible
informationfutures.Thesenetworksofpraxisarestitchedfromtraditional
fabricsoffutureandpast:fabricsofprogress,revolution,andmillennium
ofnostalgia,memory,andreturn.Inthisrespect,whatisimportantin
Nelsonsworkisnottheideaorpracticeofnonlinearityperse,butrather
theinsistencethatourfutureswereneverallthatlineartobeginwith.The
seamsofthepatchworkshow.Whateverelseitis,Xanaduisasystemfor
markingintellectualpaths,andunlikesomanyinformationandcybernetics
theorists,Nelsonsprimaryconcernhasneverbeenspeedorscopeinitself.
Xanaduisdistinctiveprincipallybecauseitpresentsitselfaspatchwork,
becauseitinsiststhatinfanticspaceallthejointsbeleftshowing.Of
coursethereareelementsofwhatXanadupromisesthatareutopian,
nostalgic.ButifXanaduisaphantasm,andiftimewillnotturnbackward
becausewetouchafloatinghourglasswithamagiccursor,itisequally
truethatourfuturesmakenosenseunlesswereckonwithourlongingfor
suchpossibilities.
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PhotosandillustratedtextfromComputerLib/DreamMachines.CourtesyTheodor
Nelson.

1 TheodorHolmNelson,LiteraryMachines:TheReporton,andof,Project
XanaduConcerningWordProcessing,ElectronicPublishing,Hypertext,
Thinkertoys,TomorrowsIntellectualRevolution,andCertainOtherTopicsIncluding
Knowledge,Education,andFreedom,reviseded.(Sausalito:MindfulPress,1987),
0.1112.
2 ThebasicliteratureonhypertextisGeorgeLandow,ed.,Hyper/Text/Theory
(Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1994)Hypertext2.0:The
ConvergenceofContemporaryCriticalTheoryandTechnology(Baltimore:Johns
HopkinsUniversityPress,1997).
3 TheodorHolmNelson,ComputerLib/DreamMachines(SelfPublished,1974)
idem.,ComputerLib/DreamMachines(Redmond,Wash.:MicrosoftPress,1987).
Thetwobooksareboundtogether,upsidedownandbacktoback.Citationsare
fromthe1987edition.
4 Nelson,ComputerLib,p.16.
5 Nelson,ComputerLib,p.175176.
6 Nelson,DreamMachines,p.50.
7 Nelson,DreamMachines,p.50.
8 Nelson,LiteraryMachines,1.17.
9 Nelson,LiteraryMachines,0.3.
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10 Nelson,LiteraryMachines,2.2.
11 Nelson,LiteraryMachines,2.92.11.
12 J.HillisMiller,TheEthicsofHypertext,Diacritics25.3(Fall1995),pp.2728.
13 TerrenceHarpold,TheContingenciesoftheHypertextLink,Writingonthe
Edge2.2(1991),p.134.
14 SeealsoTheodorHolmNelson,OpeningHypertext:AMemoir,inLiteracy
Online:ThePromise(andPeril)ofReadingandWritingwithComputers,inMyronC.
Tuman,ed.,(Pittsburgh:UniversityofPittsburghPress,1992).
15 Nelson,OpeningHypertext,p.55.
16 Nelson,OpeningHypertext,pp.5556.
17 Nelson,DreamMachines,p.37.
18 GaryWolf,TheCurseofXanadu,WiredMagazine3.06(June1995),
19 www.wired.com/wired/archive/3.06/xanadu.html.Nelsontookissuewith
aspectsofWolfsarticle.SeeTheodorHolmNelson,ErrorsinTheCurseofXanadu
byGaryWolf,17December2002,www.xanadu.com.au/ararat.
20 Nelson,DreamMachines,p.141.
21 Nelson,LiteraryMachines,1.20.
22 Seealso,TheodorHolmNelson,Barnumtronics,SwarthmoreCollegeAlumni
Bulletin(Dec.1970),pp.1315(citedinNelson,DreamMachines,p.5).
23 Nelson,DreamMachines,p.43.
24 Nelson,DreamMachines,p.49.
25 FriedrichKittler,Gramophone,Film,Typewriter,trans.DorotheavonMcke,
October41(1987),p.107.
26 ItaloCalvino,InvisibleCities,trans.WilliamWeaver(NewYork:Harcourt
Brace,1974),p.29.
27 ShelleyJackson,PatchworkGirlbyMary/ShelleyandHerself(AGraveyard,A
Journal,AQuilt,AStory,&BrokenAccents)(Cambridge:EastgateSystems,1995),
environment:Storyspace.
28 AnneBalsamo,TechnologiesoftheGenderedBody:ReadingCyborgWomen
(Durham:Duke,1996).
29 Nelson,DreamMachines,p.75.
30 Nelson,DreamMachines,p.75.
31 Nelson,DreamMachines,p.78.
32 Nelson,DreamMachines,p.68.
33 Nelson,DreamMachines,p.74.

DanielRosenbergisassistantprofessorofhistoryintheRobertD.Clark
HonorsCollegeattheUniversityofOregon.Hisnextbookconcernsthe
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