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CE 332
Consolidation
CE 332
Soil Mechanics I
iniciolu
CE 332
s+Ds
L-dL
s
s+Ds
iniciolu
CE 332
d dc + d s + d d
Other sources of settlement are:
Underground mines
Sinkholes
tunnels
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CE 332
Consolidation settlement
(primary consolidation settlement):
Occurs when a soil is subjected to an increase in vertical
effective stresses, and the individual particles respond by
rearranging into a denser state.
Causes a decrease in the volume of voids (Vv)
If the soil is saturated, the reduction in Vv can occur only if
some of the pore water is squeezed out of the soil
This is usually the most important source of settlement
Expulsion of water
from the voids
sz
sz
sz+Dsz
sz+Dsz
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Distortion settlement
Results from lateral movements of the soil in response to
changes in the vertical effective stress.
These movements occur when the load is confined to a
small area (i.e., structural foundation, near the edges of
large loaded areas).
Distortion
settlement
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Placement of a fill
If the length and width of the fill are large compared to the depth of the
point at which we wish to compute the stresses, and the point is proximate
to the central area of the fill, the we compute szf by simply adding another
layer to the soil:
s zo
+ fill H fill
s zf
If the width and length of the fill are less than about twice the depth to the
point at which stresses are to be computed, or this point is near the edge of
the fill, then we need to evaluate the fill as an area load assuming elastic
soil response.
fill
Hfill
sz0
Initial state
Vvi
Vsi
Final state
sz0+Dsz=
sz0+fill.Hfill
Vvf
Vsf
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CE 332
s zo
+ s z
s zf
induced
Induced vertical stresses are computed assuming soil to be
elastic (i.e., area load, point load, etc.).
1
2
sz)induced
iniciolu
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CE 332
iniciolu
P+DP
Drain holes
u = uh+ue
u = uh
t = t0
P+DP
P+DP
u = uh+ue/2
t = t1
u = uh
t = t2
iniciolu
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CE 332
iniciolu
sand
zw
w.zw
clay
sand
Initial state
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CE 332
fill
sand
ue =0
w.zw
clay
w.zw +.H
w.zw
ue =.H
sand
ue =0
CE 332
iniciolu
Dissipation of excess pore water pressure takes place as a result of the hydraulic
gradient created between the unloaded soils (which are under hydrostatic
condition) and loaded soils (which have excess pore water pressure).
Excess pore water pressure in the clay layer is equal to the load of external
loading.
Excess pore water in the clay layer starts to dissipate at the boundaries where the
flow path is the shortest.
That is why the excess pore water pressures at the permeable boundaries
immediately drop to zero.
fill
sand
ue =0
w.zw
clay
w.zw +.H
w.zw
sand
CE 332
ue =.H
ue =0
iniciolu
As the flow path length increases (towards the midpoint of the clay layer), the
duration for dissipation of excess pore water pressure increases.
As each increment of water is discharged, the solid particles consolidate and begin
to carry part of the new load, just as the spring is compressed.
Thus, Dsz is gradually transferred from the pore water to the soil solids, and the
vertical effective stress, Dsz rises.
fill
sand
ue =0
w.zw
clay
w.zw +.H
w.zw
ue
sand
ue =0
CE 332
iniciolu
Eventually, all of the new load is carried by the solids, the pore water
pressure returns to its hydrostatic value, and the flow of pore water ceases.
The length of this process, which is called consolidation, depends on
various factors, such as:
fill
sand
zw
w.zw
clay
sand
Sufficiently long time after loading
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CE 332
Example 1:
1m
2m
=19kN/m3
Silty sand
4.8m
12m
clay
=16.5kN/m3
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CE 332
2m
=19kN/m3
Silty sand
4.8m
12m
=18.7kN/m3
1m
clay
t
u 200
(kPa)150
100
50
0
=16.5kN/m
t
sz 200
(kPa)150
100
50
0
t
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CE 332
Solution (cont.): Immediately after the placement of the fill, the soil
profile is as below:
5m =19.5kN/m3
fill
1m
=18.7kN/m3
2m
Silty sand
=19kN/m3
4.8m
12m
clay
=16.5kN/m3
Immediately after loading, effective stress does not change in the clay layer because
all the additional load is carried by the pore water.
10
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5m =19.5kN/m
fill
1m
=18.7kN/m3
=19kN/m3
Silty sand
2m
50
4.8m
clay
12m
0
t
u 200
(kPa)150
100
50
0
=16.5kN/m
sz 200
(kPa) 150
100
50
0
t
For the sake of simplicity, stresses and pore water pressures are calculated as if the
construction is completed immediately. In reality, the drainage of pore water should
have started simultaneously with the construction. Therefore pore water pressure should
never be equal to the additional weight of the 5m fill.
iniciolu
CE 332
Solution (cont.):
5m
=19.5kN/m3
fill
=18.7kN/m3
1m
2m
Silty sand
=19kN/m3
4.8m
12m
clay
=16.5kN/m3
As some of the water drains away, this element consolidated and Dsz is
gradually transferred from the pore water to the solids. After a
sufficiently long time, ue=0 and the consolidation is complete. Then:
11
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Solution (cont.):
sz 250
(kPa) 200
150
100
5m =19.5kN/m3
fill
1m
=18.7kN/m3
2m
=19kN/m3
Silty sand
4.8m
12m
clay
50
0
t
u 200
(kPa)150
100
50
0
=16.5kN/m
t
sz 200
(kPa)150
100
50
0
t
CE 332
Solution (cont.):
iniciolu
sz 250
(kPa) 200
150
100
50
0
t
200
u
(kPa)150
100
50
0
t
sz 200
(kPa)150
100
50
0
t
The reason for assuming the stress/pwp variation shown on the right is because a
design based on this assumed stress/pwp values remains on the safe side.
This due to the fact that effective stress (strength) is assumed to remain the same even
though the load (sz) increases to the final value.
12
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iniciolu
Drainage lines
Porous
stones
soil
Drainage
lines
x
Drainage lines
13
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iniciolu
iniciolu
Oedometer test
Soil sample which is cylindrical in shape is placed into the ring of the
oedometer.
The purpose of the ring is to maintain zero horizontal strain, thus producing
one-dimensional consolidation.
Before the placement of the sample a porous stone is placed at the bottom of
the ring and after the placement of the sample another porous stone is placed
at the top.
These porous stones are required to provide permeable boundaries. They are
strong enough to carry the applied loads, yet porous enough to allow water to
Dial
pass through freely.
gage
P
Porous
stones
Drainage lines
soil
x
Drainage lines
14
CE 332
iniciolu
Oedometer test
The porous stones and the sample are saturated in a water bath in order to
keep the soil saturated, thus simulating worst-case conditions in the field.
Drainage lines connect the top and bottom of the sample to the water
table, thus providing hydrostatic conditions.
As a result, under compression, hydraulic gradient is created between the
boundaries and inside the soil sample. Excess pore water pressures
dissipate under this hydraulic gradient.
A dial gage or an LVDT is placed above the sample to measure its
Dial
compression as the test progresses.
gage
Porous
stones
Drainage lines
soil
x
Drainage lines
CE 332
Oedometer test
iniciolu
15
CE 332
iniciolu
Oedometer test
Assumptions:
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Oedometer test
If a load P is applied instantaneously to the loading platen and the valve is kept
closed, then:
No excess pore water pressure can drain from the soil
The change in the volume of the soil is zero (DV=0)
Since excess pore water pressure cannot drain, no load or stress is
transferred to the soil particles (Dsz=0). The pore water carries the
additional total load.
The initial excess pore water pressure in the soil (Duo) is then equal to the
change in the applied vertical stress:
Ds z
P
A
Cross-sectional
area of the soil
16
CE 332
Oedometer test
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CE 332
Oedometer test
iniciolu
17
CE 332
iniciolu
Oedometer test
Primary consolidation (in other words, consolidation) ends when all the excess porewater
pressure is dissipated.
The later time settlement response is called secondary compression.
Secondary compression occurs as a result of ongoing creep.
Creep is the term used to describe the tendency of a solid material to slowly deform
permanently under the influence of stresses. It occurs as a result of long term exposure to
levels of stress that are below the yield strength or ultimate strength of the material.
Therefore creep is a continuous process under the applied loads thus it is effective also
during primary consolidation.
However creep effects are obvious after the completion of primary consolidation. Thus
this portion of the settlement curve is called secondary compression.
The rate of settlement from secondary compression is very slow compared with primary
consolidation.
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CE 332
Drainage path
The distance of the longest vertical path taken by a particle to exit the
soil is called the length of the drainage path.
If the soil is allowed to drain on the top and bottom faces (double
drainage), the length of drainage path, Hdr, is H av average thickness
H dr
Ho + H f
H av
2
2
H o initial thickness
H f final thickness
H dr H av
fill
sand
Hdr=H/2
clay
rock
Longest vertical
path
Hdr=H/2
Drainage
boundaries
Longest vertical
paths
clay
fill
Hdr=H
Drainage
boundary
Impervious
boundary
18
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CE 332
Rate of consolidation
The rate of consolidation for a homogeneous soil depends
on
The soils permeability
The thickness of the soil layer
The length of the drainage path
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Any volume change of the soil (DV) is equal to the change in void ratio
(De).
We can calculate the volumetric strain (ep) from the change in void ratio
as
DV
De
ep
V
1 + eo
Since for one-dimensional consolidation, ez=ep, we can write a
relationship between settlement and the change in void ratio as
ez
Change in
height of
the soil
Dz
De
H o 1 + eo
sz
Dz
DVDe
V = 1+e0
Vv=e0
water
Vs=1
solids
Before loading
Ho
Vv=ef
water
Vs=1
solids
After loading
19
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CE 332
H o 1 + eo
rearranging
Dz H o
De
1 + eo
sz
Dz
DVDe
V = 1+e0
Vv=e0
water
Vs=1
solids
Before loading
Ho
Vv=ef
water
Vs=1
solids
After loading
iniciolu
CE 332
In the e-sz graph, section AB is not linear because the stiffness of the
soil increases as the consolidation proceeds (void ratio decreases).
Accordingly, there isnt a one-to-one relationship between stresses and
settlements.
Segment AB is called the virgin consolidation line or normal
consolidation line (NCL).
In a semi-logarithmic plot of e-sz, NCL is approximately a straight
line.
20
iniciolu
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21
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Coefficient of compression, Cc
Cc
De
e2 e1
s z 2
s z 2
log
log
s z 1
s z 1
22
iniciolu
CE 332
mv
e z 2 e z 1
De z
s z 2 s z 1 s z 2 s z 1
De 1
1 + eo Ds z
iniciolu
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Similarly, the slope of the url can be defined in two ways, using:
Recompression index, Cr.
Modulus of volume recompressibility, mvr.
Recompression index, Cr
Der
e e
Cr 2 1
s z 2
s z 2
log
log
s z 1
s z 1
Subscripts 1 and 2 denote two arbitrarily
selected points on the url.
23
iniciolu
CE 332
Similarly, the slope of the url can be defined in two ways, using:
Recompression index, Cr.
Modulus of volume recompressibility, mvr.
s z 2 s z 1 s z 2 s z 1
Subscripts 1 and 2 denote two arbitrarily
selected points on the url.
Unit of mvr is stress-1, such as m2/kN.
mvr
De z
1
1
Ec Ds z
Ds z
De z
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CE 332
Loading history
24
iniciolu
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Loading history
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Soils whose current vertical effective stress (overburden effective stress), szo,
is less than its past maximum vertical effective stress (preconsolidation stress),
szc, are called overconsolidated soils.
Stress states of overconsolidated soils lie on unloading-reloading lines.
The degree of overconsolidation is called overconsolidation ratio (OCR).
Overconsolidation ratio is used to identify the structure of the soil.
If OCR=1, the soil is normally consolidated.
Stress states of normally consolidated soils lie on normal consolidation lines.
Preconsolidation
pressure
OCR
s zc
s zo
Overburden effective
stress
25
iniciolu
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iniciolu
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Solution:
10m
8m
12m
dry =16kN/m3
sat =20kN/m3
26
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Solution (cont.):
8m
10m
12m
dry =16kN/m3
sat =20kN/m3
Thus
OCR
s zc
180.4kPa
s zo
180.4kPa
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CE 332
Solution (cont.):
8m
10m
12m
dry =16kN/m3
sat =20kN/m3
OCR
s zc
180.4kPa
3.4
s zo
52.4kPa
So the soil is
overconsolidated.
27
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CE 332
sat w z z
s zo
G +e
sat s
w
1+ e
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28
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If OCR>1 (overconsolidated
soil), the path followed during
reloading would be BEF
because we have to reload the
beyond its preconsolidation
pressure, szc, before it
behaves like a normally
consolidated soil.
The average slope of ABE is
Cr.
Once szc (preconsolidation
pressure) is exceeded, the soil
will follow the normal
consolidation line, EF, of
slope Cc.
29
iniciolu
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CE 332
+ Ds z
s fin s zo
Final vertical
effective stress
Initial vertical
effective stress
No
rm
eo
iniciolu
al
co
ns
De
oli
da
n
tio
r pc H o
lin
efin
Cc
szo
sfin
logsz
s fin
Ho
De
Cc log
1 + eo 1 + eo
s zo
30
CE 332
iniciolu
If sfin=szo+Dsz <szc, then consolidation occurs along a single url which can be
computed as
r pc
CE 332
s fin
Ho
Cr log
1 + eo
s zo
iniciolu
r pc
s fin
Ho
s zc
+ Cc log
Cr log
1 + eo
s zo
s zc
31
iniciolu
CE 332
r pc Ho mv Ds z
mv
De z
Dz 1
s z 2 s z 1 H o Ds z
CE 332
iniciolu
The increase in vertical stress due to an area load decreases with depth.
Therefore, the primary consolidation settlement of the upper portion of the soil layer
can be expected to be more than the lower portion.
Accordingly, for better accuracy, when dealing with thick layers (Ho>2m)
1
2
sz)induced
sublayer 1
sublayer 2
sublayer 3
sublayer 4
sublayer 5
sublayer 6
sublayer 7
1
2
sz)induced
32
iniciolu
CE 332
Example 3: A 4m thick fill is to be made on the soil profile shown below. The
final unit weight of the fill will be 20.2kN/m3. Consolidation tests
were performed at points A and B, with the following results:
Sample
Cc
Cr
eo
szc (kPa)
0.59
0.19
1.90
75
0.37
0.14
1.21
95
=14.0kN/m3
2.1m
=17.5kN/m3
4.2m
6.0m
A
Silty sand
(SM)
Soft clay
CL
=13.5kN/m3
2.0m
3.1m
B
Medium clay
=15.0kN/m3 CH
Glacial till
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CE 332
Solution:
3.0m
=14.0kN/m
2.1m
=17.5kN/m3
Initial conditions:
At point A:
H u 14 3 + 17.5 2.1 + 13.5 4.2 9.8 6.3 74kPa
s zo
75kPa s zo
s zc
Therefore the soil is normally consolidated
4.2m
6.0m
A
Silty sand
(SM)
Soft clay
CL
=13.5kN/m3
2.0m
3.1m
B
At point B:
Medium clay
=15.0kN/m3 CH
Glacial till
95kPa s zo
s zc
Therefore the soil is normally consolidated
Proposed fill:
+ fill H fill s zo
+ 20.2kN / m3 4m s zo
+ 81kPa
s zf s zo
33
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CE 332
Solution (cont.):
Using the equation below for each layer
r pc
s fin
Ho
Cc log
1 + eo
s zo
3.0m
=14.0kN/m3
2.1m
=17.5kN/m3
Silty sand
(SM)
At midpoint of layer
H (m)
szo
szf
Cc/(1+eo)
rpc (m)
21
102
0.013
0.03
2.1
50
131
0.013
0.01
64
145
0.2
0.21
Layer
75
156
0.2
0.19
3.1
88
169
0.17
0.15
4.2m
Soft clay
CL
6.0m
A
=13.5kN/m3
2.0m
3.1m
B
Medium clay
=15.0kN/m3 CH
Glacial till
r pc ult r pc 0.59m
CE 332
iniciolu
Overconsolidation margin
s zo
s m s zc
ice
szc=sice+soil.z
OCR=1
szo=soil.z
OCR=szc/szo
now
34
CE 332
iniciolu
Obtain the overconsolidation margin using the preconsolidation pressure obtained from
the sample (szc) and the calculated vertical effective stress at the sample depth (szo):
1 s zo
1
s m s zc
For the depth where it is desired to calculate the preconsolidation pressure, calculate the
vertical effective stress (szo) using the overconsolidation margin which should be
approximately constant throughout the stratum with common geologic origins:
2 s zo
2 +sm
s zc
ice
2 Point of interest
1 sample
szc=sice+soil.z
szo=soil.z
OCR=1
OCR=szc/szo
now
iniciolu
CE 332
Example 4: An 8.5m deep compacted fill is to be placed over the soil profile
shown. Consolidation tests on samples from points A and B produced
the following results:
Sample A
Sample B
Cc
0.25
0.2
Cr
0.08
0.06
eo
0.66
0.45
szc
101kPa
510kPa
Compute the ultimate consolidation settlement due to the weight of this fill.
fill
sat=20.3kN/m3
8.5m
2m
7m
sat=18.3kN/m3
4m
sat=19kN/m3 A Stiff silty clay
10m
18m
Bedrock
35
CE 332
fill
sat=20.3kN/m3
8.5m
Solution:
sat=18.3kN/m3
2m
4m
sat=19kN/m3 A Stiff silty clay
7m
+ fill H fill
s zf s zo
iniciolu
+ 20.3kN / m3 8.5m
s zf s zo
+ 172.6kPa
s zf s zo
10m
18m
At sample A:
Bedrock
55kPa s zc
101kPa s zf
227.6kPa
s zo
use
r pc
s zf
Ho
s zc
+ Cc log
Cr log
1 + eo
s zo
s zc
CE 332
fill
sat=20.3kN/m3
8.5m
Solution (cont.):
sat=18.3kN/m3
2m
4m
sat=19kN/m3 A Stiff silty clay
7m
+ fill H fill
s zf s zo
iniciolu
+ 20.3kN / m3 8.5m
s zf s zo
+ 172.6kPa
s zf s zo
10m
18m
At sample B:
Bedrock
198kPa s zf
370.6kPa s zc
510kPa
s zo
use
r pc
s zf
Ho
Cr log
1 + eo
s zo
36
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CE 332
Solution (cont.):
fill
sat=20.3kN/m3
8.5m
s zo
101kPa 55kPa 46kPa
s m s zc
2m
sat=18.3kN/m3
4m
sat=19kN/m3 A Stiff silty clay
7m
10m
s zo
+ 46kPa
s zc
18m
Bedrock
Layer
H (m)
szo
szc
szf
rpc (mm)
18.3
64.3
190.9
195
50.4
96.4
223
205
82.6
128.6
255.2
216
120.4
293
64
159.2
331.8
53
202.8
375.4
55
251.4
424
47
(rpc)ult =
836
iniciolu
CE 332
Example 5:
A 3m deep compacted fill is to
be placed over the soil profile
shown. A consolidation test on
a sample from point A produced
the following results:
Proposed fill
3m
=19.2kN/m3
1.5m
=18.5kN/m3
2m
=19.5kN/m
Sample A
Cc
0.4
Cr
0.08
eo
1.1
szc
70kPa
4m
10m
Soft clay
=16kN/m3
37
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CE 332
Solution:
Proposed fill
3m
=19.2kN/m3
Initial conditions:
=18.5kN/m
1.5m
At point A:
2m
70kPa s zo
s zc
4m
10m
Soft clay
=16kN/m3
Proposed fill:
+ 19.2kN / m 3m s zo
+ 57.6kPa
s zf s zo
3
Cc
0.40
0.19
1 + eo 1 + eo
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CE 332
Solution (cont.):
Proposed fill
3m
=19.2kN/m3
H (m)
szo
szf
rpc (mm)
1.5
13.9
71.5
37.4
95
56.4
114
175
1.5m
=18.5kN/m3
Fine to medium sand
2m
=19.5kN/m3
4
10m
75
132.6
141
96.7
154.3
155
(rpc)ult =
486
4m
Soft clay
=16kN/m3
The same analysis is used above and below the groundwater table, and both are based
on saturated Cc/(1+eo) values. This is conservative because the soils above the
groundwater table are probably less compressible.
38
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CE 332
20m
Water tank
3m
1.5m
2m
=19.2kN/m3
1
2
=19.5kN/m
=18.5kN/m3
3
10m
10m
Proposed fill
Fine to medium sand
4m
Soft clay
A
=16kN/m3
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CE 332
Solution:
The settlement due to the fill is now complete.
Therefore the values of szf from the solution of Example 5 are now the initial
stresses, s zo.
We will compute szf values using Dsz from the elasticity theory, using the
approximate method for circular loaded areas (Poulos and Davis, 1974):
1
s z q 1
B
1 + 2 z
f
20m
Water tank
1.50
10m
3m
1.5m
2m
Stress increases at
different depths will be
different since the weight
is distributed over a larger
area as depth increases.
Proposed fill
Fine to medium sand
Soft clay
10m
39
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CE 332
Solution (cont.):
B2 H
Wwater Vtank w
1kN
2900kN
1000 N
2029.5m
4
9.8kN / m3 29200kN
The weight of the water is much greater than that of the empty tank, so it is
reasonable for us to assume the bearing pressure q is constant across the bottom of
the tank:
W 2900kN + 29200kN
102kPa
A
202 / 4
20m
Water tank
3m
1.5m
2m
=19.2kN/m3
1
2
=19.5kN/m
4
5
Proposed fill
=18.5kN/m3
3
10m
10m
4m
Soft clay
A
=16kN/m3
Dense sand and gravel
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Solution (cont.):
Using the approximate method and ignoring the layering, we can compute the
stress increases, Dsz, at different depths:
1.50
(s z )induced 102kPa 1
2
20m
1
+
2 z
20m
Water tank
10m
zf
3m
1.5m
2m
Proposed fill
Fine to medium sand
Soft clay
10m
40
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Solution (cont.):
At midpoint of layer
szo
zf
(sz)induced
szf
Cc/(1+eo)
28.8
1.5
101.7
130.5
0.002
1.5
71.5
3.7
97.7
169.2
0.008
95
5.5
90.6
185.6
0.008
114
77.1
191.1
0.19
128
132.6
11
60.7
193.3
0.19
93
154.3 14.5
45.1
199.4
0.19
85
(rpc)ult =
319
Layer H (m)
If the tank was built immediately after the fill was placed, then szo would be the
same as in Example 5, and everything else would remain unchanged. Such a
solution illustrates the use of superposition of stresses.
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Rate of Consolidation
Unlike other material that civil engineers deal with, for soils deformation
response to loading is not always instantaneous.
This is especially true for saturated clays. Many years or decades may be
necessary for the full settlement to complete under the imposed loading.
Therefore geotechnical engineers often need to evaluate both the magnitude and
the rate of consolidation.
Karl Terzaghis (the father of soil mechanics) most significant contribution to
geotechnical engineering was his theory of consolidation (one-dimensional
consolidation theory) which he developed in Istanbul (Robert College) between
1919 and 1923.
Although other had studied the problem, it was Terzaghis work that properly
identified and quantified the underlying physical processes.
During this time he identified the principle of effective stress.
Terzaghi, a mechanical engineer, was inspired by the thermodynamic processes
to come up with the one-dimensional consolidation theory.
41
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42
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qv dA
and the outflow over the elemental thickness dz is
qv + qv / z dz dA
The change in flow is then
V qv
dzdA
t
z
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ep
Therefore
e
dzdA
1 + eo
De z
e
De 1
m s
s z 2 s z 1 1 + eo Ds 1 + eo v
e
dzdA mv s dzdA mv udzdA
1 + eo
V
e
V 1 + eo
V qv
dzdA
t
z
qv u
mv
z
t
43
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h
z
qv
2h
kz
z
z 2
u h w
By substituting into
Equating
qv
2h
kz
z
z 2
qv u
mv to
z
t
we get
we get
2h
z 2
1 2u
w z 2
qv k z 2u
z w z 2
qv k z 2u
z w z 2
k 2u
u
z
t mv w z 2
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for
kz
Cv
mv w
u
2u
Cv
t
z 2
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u
2u
Cv
t
z 2
A solution for the governing consolidation equation which satisfies these boundary
conditions is obtained using the Fourier series:
Mz
2Duo
2
Du z, t
sin
exp M Tv
M
H
dr
m 0
Tv
Cvt
2
H dr
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Du z, t
Mz
2Duo
2
sin
exp M Tv
M
H
dr
m 0
gives the variation of excess porewater pressure with depth at different times.
For example, below a plot for an arbitrarily selected isochrone at any time t (or
time factor Tv) is shown:
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0.2
0.8
z/H 1.0
0.9
05
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.
0.4
0.3
0.4
Tv
0.
1
0.
2
1.5
0.6
u
u0
0.5
0
0
0.2
0.4
Uz
0.6
0.8
1.0
uo
At time t >0, the total applied vertical stress increment Dsz at a depth z is equal to the
sum of vertical effective stress increment, Dsz, and excess porewater pressure, Duz.
At time t, the excess porewater pressure decreases to zero ( Duz=0) and the vertical
effective stress increment becomes equal to the vertical total stress increment
(Dsz=Dsz).
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Mz
Ds z
Du z
2
2
Uz
Duo
Duo
m 0 M
sin
exp M Tv
H dr
U 1
M 2 exp M 2Tv
2
m 0
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M 2 exp M 2Tv
2
m 0
with time factor Tv for a uniform and a triangular distribution of excess porewater
pressure:
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Tv
for U 60%
4 100
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4m
Final gwt
10m
sand
8m
clay
mv=0.83m2/MN
Cv=4.4m2/year
sand
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Initial gwt
4m
Solution:
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Final gwt
10m
sand
8m
clay
mv=0.83m2/MN
Cv=4.4m2/year
sand
The change in the vertical effective stress due to the lowering of the groundwater table
Ds z 4m w 4 9.8kN / m3 39.2kPa
Then, the final consolidation settlement is found as
1 40
t 2 1.615 years
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8m
t 1.615 years and under double drainage d
4m
2
C t 4.4 1.615
then Tv v2
0.444
d
42
Solution (cont.):
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4m
Final gwt
10m
sand
8m
clay
mv=0.83m2/MN
Cv=4.4m2/year
sand
U 0.73
Settlement after 2 years U r pc 0.73 260mm 190mm
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Example 8: A layer of saturated clay is 10m thick, the lower boundary being
Solution:
U 0.90 Tv 0.848
or use
Therefore
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Tv d 2 0.848 102
8.8 years
Cv
9.6
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Solution:
Due to double drainage condition
H dr
Tv
H 12m
6m
2
2
Cvt
2
H dr
zdr 2.7m
0.45
H dr
6m
6m 2
0.3549
ue
ue
Ds z 0.34 75kPa
Ds z
ue 25.5kPa
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Example 10: For a normally consolidated clay specimen drained on both sides,
the following are given:
so=150kN/m2, e=eo=1.1
so+ Ds=300kN/m2, e=0.9
Thickness of clay specimen = 25mm
Time for 50% consolidation = 2min.
a. Determine the hydraulic conductivity (in minutes) of the clay for
the loading range.
b. How long (in days) will it take for a 1.8m clay layer in the field
(drained on one side) to reach 60% consolidation?
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Solution:
a.
cv
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k
mv w
k cv mv w
Desired
parameter
To be
calculated
The coefficient of compressibility (mv) is mv
De 1
1 + eo Ds
1.1 + 0.9
De 1.1 0.9 0.2 Ds 300 150 150kPa eo eav
1
2
For U 50% Tv 0.197
De 1
0.2 1
mv
6.35 104 m2 kN
1 + eo Ds 1 + 1150
Tv
cvt
2
H dr
cv
2
Tv H dr
t
2
25
0.197
2 1000
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Solution:
b.
T60
cvt60
2
H dr
t60
2
T60 H dr
cv
t60
2
T60 H dr
cv
25
0.287
2 1000
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et e p De ;
log t t p log t t p
t tp
t p , e p coordinate at the intersection of the tangents to the primary consolidation and secondary compression parts
t , et coordinate at any point on the secondary compression curve
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r sc
Ho
1 + e p
t
C log
tp
53
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Coefficient of Consolidation
Terzaghi theory lumps all of the soil parameters (other than
drainage distance) into one parameter, the coefficient of
consolidation, cv.
Since cv is dependent on k, cv is very small in clays and very large
in sands.
We need to have some means of measuring cv before we can
perform time-settlement analyses.
One method of doing so might be to assess each of the parameters
in cv=k/(mvw) and calculate cv. However this rarely done because it
requires conducting more than one test.
Instead, engineers usually measure the rate of consolidation in a
laboratory consolidation test and back-calculate cv by performing a
time-settlement analysis in reverse.
Because Hdr in the lab is very small, the rate of consolidation is
much faster than that in the field, but cv should, in theory, be equal
to the field value.
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tA
56
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cvt
2
H dr
cv
2
0.848H dr
t90
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lab
Cvtlab
Cvt field
lab field
2
H dr
2
H dr
Tv
field
and, by simplification
t field
tlab
H dr2 field
H dr2 lab
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Example 11: In an oedometer test a specimen of saturated clay 19mm thick reaches
50% consolidation in 20min.
a) How long would it take a layer of this clay 5m thick to reach the
same degree of consolidation under the same stress and drainage
conditions?
b) How long would it take the layer to reach 30% consolidation?
Solution: Using
t field
tlab
H dr2 field
H dr2 lab
Thus
5000mm
2500mm
2
19mm
9.5mm
2
H dr field
H dr lab
2.63 years
2
2
19.5mm 60 min 24hr 365days
H dr lab
It takes 2.63 years for the layer in the field to reach 50% consolidation.
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Solution (cont.):
The time for the layer in the field to reach 30% consolidation.
Since
Tv
Cvt1
Then
So
Tv1
Tv2
H dr 2
Cvt2
H dr 2
t0.30 t0.50
Cvt
2
H dr
U2
t1 4 1
t2 U 2
2
4
0.302
0.502
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Example 12: The data shown in the table below were obtained from a laboratory
consolidation test on a normally consolidated clay.i The sample was
62mm in diameter, 25mm tall and was tested under a double
drainage condition. Compute cv.
hour
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
time
minute
1
3
8
16
30
59
54
second
1
16
35
39
15
17
29
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Solution:
hour
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
time
minute
1
3
8
16
30
59
54
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second
1
16
35
39
15
17
29
time (min)
1.02
3.27
8.58
16.65
30.25
59.28
54.48
sqrt[time] (min0.5)
1.01
1.81
2.93
4.08
5.50
7.70
7.38
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Solution (cont.):
cvt90
2
H dr
0.848
cv 0.022day
25
2 1000
6 103 m2 day
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When highly compressible layers are present and large consolidation settlemtns are
expected after loading, precompression of the soil may be used to minimize
postconstruction settlement.
In many instances, sand drains and prefabricated vertical drains are used in the
field to accelerate consolidation settlement in soft, normally consolidated clay layers
and to achieve precompression before the construction of a desired foundation.
Sand drains are constructed by drilling holes through the clay layer(s) in the field at
regular intervals. The holes then are backfilled with sand.
After backfilling the drill holes with sand, a surcharge is applied at the ground
surface.
This surcharge will increase the pwp in clay, which will dissipate by drainage both
vertically and radially to the drains- which accelerates the settlement of the clay
layer.
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Prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs), which also are referred to as wick or strip
drains, originally were developed as a substitute for the commonly used sand drain.
These drains are manufactured from synthetic polymers.
PVDs normally are manufactured with a corrugated or channeled synthetic core
enclosed by a geotextile filter.
Installation rates reported in the literature are on the order of 0.1 to 0.3m/s,
excluding equipment mobilization and setup time.
The main advantage of PVDs over sand drains is that they do not require drilling
and, thus, installation is much faster.
64