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iniciolu

CE 332

Consolidation
CE 332
Soil Mechanics I

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CE 332

Compressibility and settlement


Increment of stresses in materials always produces strains.
Therefore, whenever sv increases, there will always be a
corresponding settlement.
In the case of induced stresses, the geotechnical engineer
has to make sure that the magnitude of settlements are
within tolerable limits.
s

s+Ds

L-dL

s
s+Ds

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CE 332

Compressibility and settlement


The three most common physical processes that produce
settlement in soils:
Consolidation settlement (dc)
Secondary compression settlement (ds)
Distortion settlement (dd)

The settlement at the ground surface, d, is the sum of these


three components:

d dc + d s + d d
Other sources of settlement are:
Underground mines
Sinkholes
tunnels

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CE 332

Consolidation settlement
(primary consolidation settlement):
Occurs when a soil is subjected to an increase in vertical
effective stresses, and the individual particles respond by
rearranging into a denser state.
Causes a decrease in the volume of voids (Vv)
If the soil is saturated, the reduction in Vv can occur only if
some of the pore water is squeezed out of the soil
This is usually the most important source of settlement
Expulsion of water
from the voids

sz

sz

sz+Dsz

sz+Dsz

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CE 332

Secondary compression settlement:


Occurs due to particle reorientation, creep, and
decomposition of organic materials.
Does not require the expulsion of water
Can be significant in highly plastic clays, organic soils, and
sanitary fills
Negligible in sands and gravels.
Unlike consolidation settlement, it is not due to changes in
vertical effective stress

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CE 332

Distortion settlement
Results from lateral movements of the soil in response to
changes in the vertical effective stress.
These movements occur when the load is confined to a
small area (i.e., structural foundation, near the edges of
large loaded areas).
Distortion
settlement

Lateral soil movements

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CE 332

Changes in vertical effective stress


Settlement analyses are based on changes in effective
stress, not total stress.
The initial vertical effective stress, sz0, at a point in the
soil is the value of sz before the event that causes
settlement occurs.
The final vertical effective stress, szf, is the value after the
event has occurred and the settlement is complete.
The method of computing szf depends on the kind of event
that is causing the stresses to increase. The most common
events are:
Placement of a fill
Placement of an external load
Changes in groundwater elevation

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CE 332

Placement of a fill

If the length and width of the fill are large compared to the depth of the
point at which we wish to compute the stresses, and the point is proximate
to the central area of the fill, the we compute szf by simply adding another
layer to the soil:

s zo
+ fill H fill
s zf

If the width and length of the fill are less than about twice the depth to the
point at which stresses are to be computed, or this point is near the edge of
the fill, then we need to evaluate the fill as an area load assuming elastic
soil response.
fill

Hfill

sz0
Initial state

Vvi
Vsi

Final state

sz0+Dsz=
sz0+fill.Hfill

Vvf
Vsf

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CE 332

Placement of an external load


External loads, such as structural foundations, also produce
increases in sz:

s zo
+ s z
s zf
induced
Induced vertical stresses are computed assuming soil to be
elastic (i.e., area load, point load, etc.).

1
2

sz)induced

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CE 332

Changes in the groundwater table


Sometimes groundwater table level changes due to natural
events or construction activities (rainy or dry seasons,
pumping from wells, construction of a dam, etc.).
When the groundwater table changes from one elevation to
some lower elevation, the porewater pressure, u, in the
underlying soil decreases and the vertical effective stress,
sz, increases.
For the method of computation, check Example 6 in the
lecture stresses.

CE 332

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Piston and Spring Analogy


P

P+DP

Drain holes

u = uh+ue

u = uh

t = t0
P+DP
P+DP

u = uh+ue/2

t = t1

u = uh

t = t2

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CE 332

Consolidation process in the field


Buildup of excess pore water pressure as a result of
loading is more complicated in the field than the piston
analogy.
The buildup of excess pore water pressure depends on
Vertical stresses
Horizontal stresses
Dilatancy of soil (volume change during shearing)

However, the problem will be simplified by assuming the


excess pore water pressure, ue, immediately after loading
to be equal to the increment of vertical load, Dsz.

CE 332

Consolidation process in the field

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The soil in the field is under equilibrium before loading.


Water pressure is hydrostatic and increases linearly with
depth.
There are no excess pore water pressures present.

sand
zw
w.zw

clay

sand
Initial state

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CE 332

Consolidation process in the field

Immediately after loading the pore pressures increase an amount equal to


the additional load (=H).
However, since the hydraulic conductivities of sand layers are very high,
instantaneous dissipation of the excess pore water pressure is assumed.
The excess pore water pressure in the clay layer cannot dissipate
instantaneously because of low hydraulic conductivity.

fill
sand

ue =0

w.zw
clay
w.zw +.H
w.zw

ue =.H

sand

Immediately after loading

ue =0

CE 332

Consolidation process in the field

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Dissipation of excess pore water pressure takes place as a result of the hydraulic
gradient created between the unloaded soils (which are under hydrostatic
condition) and loaded soils (which have excess pore water pressure).
Excess pore water pressure in the clay layer is equal to the load of external
loading.
Excess pore water in the clay layer starts to dissipate at the boundaries where the
flow path is the shortest.
That is why the excess pore water pressures at the permeable boundaries
immediately drop to zero.

fill
sand

ue =0

w.zw
clay
w.zw +.H
w.zw

sand

Immediately after loading

CE 332

ue =.H

ue =0

Consolidation process in the field

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As the flow path length increases (towards the midpoint of the clay layer), the
duration for dissipation of excess pore water pressure increases.
As each increment of water is discharged, the solid particles consolidate and begin
to carry part of the new load, just as the spring is compressed.
Thus, Dsz is gradually transferred from the pore water to the soil solids, and the
vertical effective stress, Dsz rises.

fill
sand

ue =0

w.zw
clay
w.zw +.H
w.zw

ue

sand

Some time after loading

ue =0

CE 332

Consolidation process in the field

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Eventually, all of the new load is carried by the solids, the pore water
pressure returns to its hydrostatic value, and the flow of pore water ceases.
The length of this process, which is called consolidation, depends on
various factors, such as:

Thickness of the clay layer,


Hydraulic conductivity of the layer
Drainage conditions (one-sided or double sided)
Magnitude of loading

fill
sand

zw
w.zw

clay

sand
Sufficiently long time after loading

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CE 332

Example 1:

Consider a soil element A at a depth 7.8m. Calculate sz0, u0, sz0


before and szf, uf, szf immediately after the placement of a proposed
fill that is 5m thick with a unit weight of 19.5kN/m3.
=18.7kN/m3

1m

2m

=19kN/m3

Silty sand

4.8m
12m

clay

=16.5kN/m3

Solution: Stresses before the placement of the fill:


s z 0 18.7kN / m3 1m + 19kN / m3 2m + 16.5kN / m3 4.8m 136kPa

u0 w zw 9.8kN / m3 6.8m 67kPa

s z 0 s z 0 u0 136kPa 67kPa 69kPa

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CE 332

Solution (cont.): Stresses and pore water pressure at point A


before the initiation of construction.
sz 250
(kPa) 200
150
100
50

2m

=19kN/m3

Silty sand

4.8m
12m

=18.7kN/m3

1m

clay

t
u 200
(kPa)150
100

50
0

=16.5kN/m

t
sz 200
(kPa)150
100
50
0
t

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CE 332

Solution (cont.): Immediately after the placement of the fill, the soil
profile is as below:
5m =19.5kN/m3

fill

1m

=18.7kN/m3

2m

Silty sand

=19kN/m3
4.8m

12m

clay

=16.5kN/m3

s zf s z 0 + fill H fill 136kPa + 19.5kN / m3 5m 234kPa


u uh + ue uh + fill H fill 67kPa + 19.5kN / m3 5m 165kPa

s z s z u 234kPa 165kPa 69kPa

Immediately after loading, effective stress does not change in the clay layer because
all the additional load is carried by the pore water.

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CE 332

Solution (cont.): Stresses and pore water pressure at point A


during the construction process.
sz 250
(kPa) 200
150
100

5m =19.5kN/m

fill

1m

=18.7kN/m3

=19kN/m3

Silty sand

2m

50

4.8m
clay

12m

0
t

u 200
(kPa)150
100

50
0

=16.5kN/m

sz 200
(kPa) 150
100
50
0
t

For the sake of simplicity, stresses and pore water pressures are calculated as if the
construction is completed immediately. In reality, the drainage of pore water should
have started simultaneously with the construction. Therefore pore water pressure should
never be equal to the additional weight of the 5m fill.

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CE 332

Solution (cont.):

5m

=19.5kN/m3

fill
=18.7kN/m3

1m

2m

Silty sand

=19kN/m3
4.8m

12m

clay

=16.5kN/m3

As some of the water drains away, this element consolidated and Dsz is
gradually transferred from the pore water to the solids. After a
sufficiently long time, ue=0 and the consolidation is complete. Then:

u uh + ue 67kPa + 0kPa 67kPa

s z s z u 234kPa 67kPa 167kPa

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CE 332

Solution (cont.):

sz 250
(kPa) 200
150
100

5m =19.5kN/m3

fill

1m

=18.7kN/m3

2m

=19kN/m3

Silty sand

4.8m
12m

clay

50
0
t
u 200
(kPa)150
100
50
0

=16.5kN/m

t
sz 200
(kPa)150
100
50
0
t

CE 332

Solution (cont.):

Classical Soil Mechanics Approach

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sz 250
(kPa) 200
150
100
50
0
t
200

u
(kPa)150
100

50
0
t
sz 200
(kPa)150
100
50
0
t

Actual behavior in clay

Assumed behavior in clay

The reason for assuming the stress/pwp variation shown on the right is because a
design based on this assumed stress/pwp values remains on the safe side.
This due to the fact that effective stress (strength) is assumed to remain the same even
though the load (sz) increases to the final value.

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CE 332

Assumed behavior in clay

CE 332

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Assumed behavior in sand

Assumed behavior in sand

Consolidation Test Oedometer Test

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To predict consolidation settlement in soil, we need to know its stress-strain


(sz-ez) properties.
This is usually achieved by bringing a soil sample to the laboratory,
subjecting it to a series of loads, and measuring the corresponding
settlements.
The laboratory testing equipment used for this purpose is called an
oedometer.
Dial
gage

Drainage lines

Porous
stones

soil

Drainage
lines

x
Drainage lines

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Consolidation Test Oedometer Test

CE 332

Since a geotechnical engineer is interested in


the behavior of the soil in the field,
consolidation tests are usually performed on
high-quality undisturbed samples.
It is relatively easy to obtain undisturbed
samples in soft to medium clays.
Unfortunately it is almost impossible to
obtain high-quality undisturbed samples in
uncemented sands.
Therefore, instead of sampling sands,
empirical correlations or in-situ tests are used
to assess the stress-strain properties.
It is also important to preserve the saturation
state of the samples to prevent structural and
behavioral changes.

CE 332

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Oedometer test

Soil sample which is cylindrical in shape is placed into the ring of the
oedometer.
The purpose of the ring is to maintain zero horizontal strain, thus producing
one-dimensional consolidation.
Before the placement of the sample a porous stone is placed at the bottom of
the ring and after the placement of the sample another porous stone is placed
at the top.
These porous stones are required to provide permeable boundaries. They are
strong enough to carry the applied loads, yet porous enough to allow water to
Dial
pass through freely.
gage
P

Porous
stones

Drainage lines

soil

x
Drainage lines

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CE 332

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Oedometer test

The porous stones and the sample are saturated in a water bath in order to
keep the soil saturated, thus simulating worst-case conditions in the field.
Drainage lines connect the top and bottom of the sample to the water
table, thus providing hydrostatic conditions.
As a result, under compression, hydraulic gradient is created between the
boundaries and inside the soil sample. Excess pore water pressures
dissipate under this hydraulic gradient.
A dial gage or an LVDT is placed above the sample to measure its
Dial
compression as the test progresses.
gage

Porous
stones

Drainage lines

soil

x
Drainage lines

CE 332

Oedometer test

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To understand the process of one-dimensional consolidation, we will


analyze the changes in an oedometer during a consolidation test:

In the oedometer setup shown, expelled water is transported by tubes to a burette.


A valve is used to control the flow of the expelled water into the burette. Thus, the
lab technician can open and close the valve permitting and preventing drainage at
the top and bottom boundaries.
Three porewater pressure transducers are mounted in the side wall of the
oedometer ring to measure the excess porewater pressure near the porous stone at
the top (A), at a distance one-quarter the height (B), and at the midheight of the
soil.

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CE 332

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Oedometer test

Assumptions:

Porewater and soil particles are incompressible


Initial porewater pressure is zero (hydrostatic pressure is insignificant)
Volume of expelled water is equal to the volume change of the sample
Since the ring is rigid, no lateral or circumferential displacements can
occur (er = eq = 0)
Due to one-dimensional straining, volumetric strain (ep = ez+eq+er) is
equal to the vertical strain (ez =Dz/H0).

CE 332

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Oedometer test

If a load P is applied instantaneously to the loading platen and the valve is kept
closed, then:
No excess pore water pressure can drain from the soil
The change in the volume of the soil is zero (DV=0)
Since excess pore water pressure cannot drain, no load or stress is
transferred to the soil particles (Dsz=0). The pore water carries the
additional total load.
The initial excess pore water pressure in the soil (Duo) is then equal to the
change in the applied vertical stress:

Ds z

P
A

Cross-sectional
area of the soil

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CE 332

Oedometer test

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If the valve is opened so that the initial excess porewater


pressure can drain:
The total volume of soil at time t1 decreases by the amount of
excess porewater that drains from it as indicated by the change in
the volume of water in the burette.
At the top and bottom boundaries the porewater pressure is
immediately zero since these are the drainage boundaries.
The decrease of initial excess porewater pressure at the middle of
the soil is the slowest because the drainage path is the longest.

CE 332

Oedometer test

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Settlement of the soil (Dz) is not linear with time.


Most of the settlement occurs close to the beginning of consolidation.
This part, known as primary consolidation, is the drainage of water from the
voids.
Drainage occurs under the hydraulic gradient created as a result of loading.
As time passes and soil consolidates, the hydraulic gradient decreases.
Moreover, as the soil gets compresses, void space decreases and thus the
hydraulic conductivity decreases.
Consequently velocity of seepage decreases and so the rate of consolidation.

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CE 332

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Oedometer test

Primary consolidation (in other words, consolidation) ends when all the excess porewater
pressure is dissipated.
The later time settlement response is called secondary compression.
Secondary compression occurs as a result of ongoing creep.
Creep is the term used to describe the tendency of a solid material to slowly deform
permanently under the influence of stresses. It occurs as a result of long term exposure to
levels of stress that are below the yield strength or ultimate strength of the material.
Therefore creep is a continuous process under the applied loads thus it is effective also
during primary consolidation.
However creep effects are obvious after the completion of primary consolidation. Thus
this portion of the settlement curve is called secondary compression.
The rate of settlement from secondary compression is very slow compared with primary
consolidation.

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CE 332

Drainage path

The distance of the longest vertical path taken by a particle to exit the
soil is called the length of the drainage path.
If the soil is allowed to drain on the top and bottom faces (double
drainage), the length of drainage path, Hdr, is H av average thickness

H dr

Ho + H f
H av

2
2

H o initial thickness

H f final thickness

If only one of the top or bottom boundaries is permeable (single


drainage), then the length of drainage path, Hdr, is

H dr H av

fill

sand

Hdr=H/2

clay

rock

Longest vertical
path

Hdr=H/2

Drainage
boundaries

Longest vertical
paths

clay

fill

Hdr=H

Drainage
boundary

Impervious
boundary

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CE 332

Rate of consolidation
The rate of consolidation for a homogeneous soil depends
on
The soils permeability
The thickness of the soil layer
The length of the drainage path

As the hydraulic conductivity increases, rate of


consolidation increases
As the thickness of the soil layer and the length of the
drainage path increases, the rate of consolidation
decreases.

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CE 332

Void ratio and soil thickness during consolidation

Any volume change of the soil (DV) is equal to the change in void ratio
(De).
We can calculate the volumetric strain (ep) from the change in void ratio
as
DV
De
ep

V
1 + eo
Since for one-dimensional consolidation, ez=ep, we can write a
relationship between settlement and the change in void ratio as

ez

Change in
height of
the soil

Dz
De

H o 1 + eo

Initial height of the soil


sz+Ds

sz

Dz

DVDe
V = 1+e0

Vv=e0

water

Vs=1

solids
Before loading

Ho

Vv=ef

water

Vs=1

solids
After loading

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CE 332

Void ratio and soil thickness during consolidation


Dz
De

H o 1 + eo

rearranging

Dz H o

De
1 + eo

If settlement due to primary consolidation is denoted rpc, then


De
r pc H o
1 + eo
Then the void ratio at the end of consolidation is
Dz
e f eo De eo
1 + eo
Ho
sz+Ds

sz

Dz

DVDe
V = 1+e0

Vv=e0

water

Vs=1

solids
Before loading

Ho

Vv=ef

water

Vs=1

solids
After loading

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CE 332

Stress-strain behavior during consolidation

In the e-sz graph, section AB is not linear because the stiffness of the
soil increases as the consolidation proceeds (void ratio decreases).
Accordingly, there isnt a one-to-one relationship between stresses and
settlements.
Segment AB is called the virgin consolidation line or normal
consolidation line (NCL).
In a semi-logarithmic plot of e-sz, NCL is approximately a straight
line.

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CE 332

Stress-strain behavior during consolidation

If at any point on the NCL, the sample is unloaded (sz is decreased),


the soil swells by absorbing water from the perimeter. This part is the
retrieval of the elastic part of deformation.
During swelling void ratio increases. But this increase is much less
than the decrease in void ratio for the same stress increment on the
NCL.
The reason of this difference is that swelling is an elastic process.
However deformations along the NCL includes both elastic and plastic
deformations. Therefore soil is an elastoplastic material.

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CE 332

Stress-strain behavior during consolidation

Unloading (concave) and reloading (convex) paths are different.


However diffence of the average slopes is insignificant.
Therefore unloading reloading paths will be represented by an average
slope BC which will be referred to as an unloading-reloading line (url)
or recompression line.
Once the past maximum vertical stress, szc, is exceeded, the slope of
the path followed by the soil, DE is the same as that of the initial
loading path AB.
Additionally, slopes of any urls will be similar to each other.

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CE 332

Stress-strain behavior during consolidation

The slopes on the consolidation plot reflect the compressibility of the


soil:
Steep slopes mean a given increase in sz will cause a large strain (or a
large change in void ratio). Such soils are called highly compressible.
Shallow slopes indicate the same increase in sz will produce less strain.
Such soils are slightly compressible.

The stress-strain (in other words, the load-settlement) behavior during


consolidation can be expressed mathematically through the slopes of
the curves on the e-sz plot.

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CE 332

Stress-strain behavior during consolidation

There are two different definitions of the slope of the NCL:


Coefficient of compression or compression index, Cc.
Modulus of volume compressibility, mv.

Coefficient of compression, Cc
Cc

De
e2 e1

s z 2
s z 2
log
log
s z 1
s z 1

Subscripts 1 and 2 denote two arbitrarily


selected points on the ncl.
Cc does not have units.

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CE 332

Stress-strain behavior during consolidation

There are two different definitions of the slope of the NCL:


Coefficient of compression or compression index, Cc.
Modulus of volume compressibility, mv.

Modulus of volume compressibility, mv

mv

e z 2 e z 1
De z

s z 2 s z 1 s z 2 s z 1

De 1
1 + eo Ds z

Subscripts 1 and 2 denote two arbitrarily


selected points on the ncl.
Unit of mv is stress-1, such as m2/kN.

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CE 332

Stress-strain behavior during consolidation

Similarly, the slope of the url can be defined in two ways, using:
Recompression index, Cr.
Modulus of volume recompressibility, mvr.

Recompression index, Cr
Der
e e
Cr 2 1
s z 2
s z 2
log
log
s z 1
s z 1
Subscripts 1 and 2 denote two arbitrarily
selected points on the url.

Cr does not have units.

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CE 332

Stress-strain behavior during consolidation

Similarly, the slope of the url can be defined in two ways, using:
Recompression index, Cr.
Modulus of volume recompressibility, mvr.

Modulus of volume recompressibility, mvr


e z 2 e z 1
De zr
mvr

s z 2 s z 1 s z 2 s z 1
Subscripts 1 and 2 denote two arbitrarily
selected points on the url.
Unit of mvr is stress-1, such as m2/kN.

mvr

De z
1
1

Ec Ds z
Ds z
De z

Constrained effective Youngs modulus


(since the soil is confined laterally in the oedometer)

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CE 332

Loading history

The stiffness of a soil depends on its loading history.


If the soil is at a stress state which is less than its past maximum vertical
effective stress than the stress state is located on an unloading-reloading line.
On unloading-reloading lines, the deformations are elastic and the loaddeformation response is stiff.
Once the past maximum vertical effective stress is reached, then the soil
becomes normally consolidated.
If the stress state is located on the normal consolidation line, then the
deformations are both elastic and plastic and the soil is highly compressible.

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CE 332

Loading history

Past maximum vertical effective stress is called the preconsolidation


stress/pressure.
Preconsolidation stress defines the limit of purely elastic behavior.
If the loading imposed by a structure does not exceed the preconsolidation
pressure, then the settlement of the structure would be small.
If the preconsolidation pressure is exceeded, then significant permenant
settlements would occur.
For stresses greater than the preconsolidation stress the soil would behave like
an elastoplastic material.

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CE 332

Overconsolidation ratio (OCR)

Soils whose current vertical effective stress (overburden effective stress), szo,
is less than its past maximum vertical effective stress (preconsolidation stress),
szc, are called overconsolidated soils.
Stress states of overconsolidated soils lie on unloading-reloading lines.
The degree of overconsolidation is called overconsolidation ratio (OCR).
Overconsolidation ratio is used to identify the structure of the soil.
If OCR=1, the soil is normally consolidated.
Stress states of normally consolidated soils lie on normal consolidation lines.

Preconsolidation
pressure

OCR

s zc

s zo

Overburden effective
stress

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CE 332

Consolidation soil states


Unloading of a soil or reloading it cannot bring it to soil
states right of the normal consolidation line.
States at the right of the normal consolidation line are
impossible states.
Possible soil states only occur on or to the left of the
normal consolidation line.

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CE 332

Example 2: An excavation, that is 8m deep, is made in a normally consolidated


clay. If the excavation is assumed to be completed instantaneously,
calculate the OCR of a soil layer that is 12m below the original
ground surface
a) immediately after excavation
b) Long time after the completion of the excavation.
The groundwater table is at 10m and sat=20kN/m3 and dry=16kN/m3.

Solution:
10m

8m

12m

dry =16kN/m3

sat =20kN/m3

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CE 332

Solution (cont.):

8m

10m

12m

dry =16kN/m3

sat =20kN/m3

(a) Immediately after the excavation


Due to its low hydraulic conductivity, effective stresses does not
change in the clay layer. So the overburden effective stress and
preconsolidation pressure are equal:
s zc
16kN / m3 10m + (20kN / m3 9.8kN / m3 ) 2m 180.4kPa
s zo

Thus

OCR

s zc
180.4kPa

s zo
180.4kPa

So the soil is still normally


consolidated.

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CE 332

Solution (cont.):

8m

10m

12m

dry =16kN/m3

sat =20kN/m3

(b) Long time after the completion of the excavation


The consolidation (swelling) process has been completed and the
effective stresses are adjusted to their new values. Thus
16kN / m3 2m + (20kN / m3 9.8kN / m3 ) 2m 52.4kPa
s zo

Preconsolidation pressure did not change, szc=180.4kPa


Thus

OCR

s zc
180.4kPa

3.4

s zo
52.4kPa

So the soil is
overconsolidated.

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CE 332

Effects of soil sampling to stress-strain behavior

The current vertical effective stress, szo, (or


overburden effective stress) on soil sample in the
field is (considering the water table at the ground
surface)

sat w z z
s zo

and the current void ratio can be found from

G +e

sat s
w
1+ e

iniciolu

CE 332

Effects of soil sampling to stress-strain behavior

To obtain a sample, a borehole is


opened and the soil above the point
is removed.
Thus, the act of removing the soil
and extracting the sample reduces
the total stress to zero.
Consequently, the sample swells and
the stress path follows the url AB as
the effective stress reaches zero
(void ratio increases).
At this point if we were to reload the
soil sample, the reloading path
followed during reloading depends
on the OCR.

28

iniciolu

CE 332

Effects of soil sampling to stress-strain behavior

If OCR=1 (normally consolidated soil), the path followed during


reloading would be BCD.
The average slope of ABC is Cr.
Once szo=szc (preconsolidation pressure) is exceeded, the soil will
follow the normal consolidation line, CD, of slope Cc.

iniciolu

CE 332

Effects of soil sampling to stress-strain behavior

If OCR>1 (overconsolidated
soil), the path followed during
reloading would be BEF
because we have to reload the
beyond its preconsolidation
pressure, szc, before it
behaves like a normally
consolidated soil.
The average slope of ABE is
Cr.
Once szc (preconsolidation
pressure) is exceeded, the soil
will follow the normal
consolidation line, EF, of
slope Cc.

29

iniciolu

CE 332

Effects of soil sampling to stress-strain behavior

Therefore, in order to know the stress-strain behavior, we have to know the


preconsolidation stress, szc, and the current in-situ stress, szo.

CE 332

If the vertical stress on a normally consolidated soil increases due to a


construction activity, then the final vertical effective stress at the point
can be calculated as

+ Ds z
s fin s zo

Final vertical
effective stress

Increase in stress due to


construction activity

Initial vertical
effective stress

No

Since De Cc log s fin s zo

rm

eo

iniciolu

Primary consolidation settlement


Normally Consolidated Soils

al
co
ns

De

oli
da

The primary consolidation settlement is

n
tio

r pc H o

lin

efin

Cc

szo

sfin

logsz

s fin
Ho
De

Cc log

1 + eo 1 + eo
s zo

This equation is valid for normally


consolidated soils.

30

CE 332

Primary consolidation settlement


Overconsolidated Soils

iniciolu

If the soil is overconsolidated, we have to consider two


cases depending on the magnitude of Dsz:
If sfin=szo+Dsz <szc
If sfin=szo+Dsz >szc

If sfin=szo+Dsz <szc, then consolidation occurs along a single url which can be
computed as

r pc

CE 332

s fin
Ho
Cr log

1 + eo
s zo

Primary consolidation settlement


Overconsolidated Soils

iniciolu

If the soil is overconsolidated, we have to consider two


cases depending on the magnitude of Dsz:
If sfin=szo+Dsz <szc
If sfin=szo+Dsz >szc

If sfin=szo+Dsz >szc, we have to consider two components of settlement one


along the url and the other along the ncl. This is achieved by using the equation

r pc

s fin

Ho
s zc
+ Cc log
Cr log


1 + eo
s zo
s zc

31

iniciolu

CE 332

Primary consolidation settlement

Primary consolidation settlement can also be calculated using


modulus of volume compressibility, mv.
However, unlike Cc, which is constant, mv varies with stress levels
Therefore, it is necessary to compute an average value of mv over the
stress range szo to sfin.
The primary consolidation settlement using mv is

r pc Ho mv Ds z

mv

De z
Dz 1

s z 2 s z 1 H o Ds z

CE 332

Primary consolidation settlement


Thick soil layers

iniciolu

The increase in vertical stress due to an area load decreases with depth.
Therefore, the primary consolidation settlement of the upper portion of the soil layer
can be expected to be more than the lower portion.
Accordingly, for better accuracy, when dealing with thick layers (Ho>2m)

Soil layer should be divided into sublayers (# dependent on Ho)


Stress increase should be computed for each sublayer seperately
Settlement for each sublayer should be calculated
Settlement of each sublayer should be added up to find the total primary consolidation
settlement.

1
2

sz)induced

sublayer 1
sublayer 2
sublayer 3
sublayer 4
sublayer 5
sublayer 6
sublayer 7

1
2

sz)induced

32

iniciolu

CE 332

Example 3: A 4m thick fill is to be made on the soil profile shown below. The
final unit weight of the fill will be 20.2kN/m3. Consolidation tests
were performed at points A and B, with the following results:
Sample

Cc

Cr

eo

szc (kPa)

0.59

0.19

1.90

75

0.37

0.14

1.21

95

Additionally, the silty sand layer is normally consolidated with Cc/(1+eo)=0.013.


Determine the ultimate consolidation settlement due to the weight of this fill.
3.0m

=14.0kN/m3

2.1m

=17.5kN/m3

4.2m
6.0m
A

Silty sand
(SM)

Soft clay
CL

=13.5kN/m3
2.0m

3.1m
B

Medium clay
=15.0kN/m3 CH
Glacial till

iniciolu

CE 332

Solution:

3.0m

=14.0kN/m

2.1m

=17.5kN/m3

Initial conditions:
At point A:
H u 14 3 + 17.5 2.1 + 13.5 4.2 9.8 6.3 74kPa
s zo

75kPa s zo

s zc
Therefore the soil is normally consolidated

4.2m
6.0m
A

Silty sand
(SM)

Soft clay
CL

=13.5kN/m3
2.0m

3.1m
B

At point B:

Medium clay
=15.0kN/m3 CH
Glacial till

H u 14 3 + 17.5 2.1 + 13.5 6 + 15 2 9.8 10.1 91kPa


s zo

95kPa s zo

s zc
Therefore the soil is normally consolidated
Proposed fill:

+ fill H fill s zo
+ 20.2kN / m3 4m s zo
+ 81kPa
s zf s zo

33

iniciolu

CE 332

Solution (cont.):
Using the equation below for each layer

r pc

s fin
Ho

Cc log

1 + eo
s zo

3.0m

=14.0kN/m3

2.1m

=17.5kN/m3

Silty sand
(SM)

At midpoint of layer
H (m)

szo

szf

Cc/(1+eo)

rpc (m)

21

102

0.013

0.03

2.1

50

131

0.013

0.01

64

145

0.2

0.21

Layer

75

156

0.2

0.19

3.1

88

169

0.17

0.15

4.2m

Soft clay
CL

6.0m
A

=13.5kN/m3
2.0m

3.1m
B

Medium clay
=15.0kN/m3 CH
Glacial till

r pc ult r pc 0.59m

CE 332

iniciolu

Overconsolidation margin

The szc (preconsolidation pressure) values from the laboratory only


represent the preconsolidation stress at the sample depth.
However, we sometimes need to compute szc at other depths.
To do so, we compute the overconsolidation margin, sm, using szo at
the sample depth and the following equation:

s zo

s m s zc
ice

szc=sice+soil.z

OCR=1

During the ice age

szo=soil.z

OCR=szc/szo

now

34

CE 332

Calculating preconsolidation pressure using


overconsolidation margin

iniciolu

Obtain the overconsolidation margin using the preconsolidation pressure obtained from
the sample (szc) and the calculated vertical effective stress at the sample depth (szo):

1 s zo
1
s m s zc

For the depth where it is desired to calculate the preconsolidation pressure, calculate the
vertical effective stress (szo) using the overconsolidation margin which should be
approximately constant throughout the stratum with common geologic origins:

2 s zo
2 +sm

s zc
ice

2 Point of interest
1 sample
szc=sice+soil.z

szo=soil.z

OCR=1

OCR=szc/szo
now

During the ice age

iniciolu

CE 332

Example 4: An 8.5m deep compacted fill is to be placed over the soil profile
shown. Consolidation tests on samples from points A and B produced
the following results:
Sample A

Sample B

Cc

0.25

0.2

Cr

0.08

0.06

eo

0.66

0.45

szc

101kPa

510kPa

Compute the ultimate consolidation settlement due to the weight of this fill.
fill
sat=20.3kN/m3

8.5m
2m
7m

sat=18.3kN/m3

4m
sat=19kN/m3 A Stiff silty clay

10m
18m

Very stiff clay


sat=19.5kN/m3

Bedrock

35

CE 332

fill
sat=20.3kN/m3

8.5m

Solution:

sat=18.3kN/m3

2m

4m
sat=19kN/m3 A Stiff silty clay

7m

+ fill H fill
s zf s zo

iniciolu

+ 20.3kN / m3 8.5m
s zf s zo
+ 172.6kPa
s zf s zo

10m
18m

Very stiff clay


sat=19.5kN/m3

At sample A:

Bedrock

18.3kN / m3 2m + 19kN / m3 2m 9.8kN / m3 2m 55kPa


s zo
+ 172.6kPa 55kPa + 172.6kPa 227.6kPa
s zf s zo

55kPa s zc
101kPa s zf
227.6kPa
s zo
use

r pc

s zf

Ho
s zc
+ Cc log
Cr log


1 + eo
s zo
s zc

CE 332

fill
sat=20.3kN/m3

8.5m

Solution (cont.):

sat=18.3kN/m3

2m

4m
sat=19kN/m3 A Stiff silty clay

7m

+ fill H fill
s zf s zo

iniciolu

+ 20.3kN / m3 8.5m
s zf s zo
+ 172.6kPa
s zf s zo

10m
18m

At sample B:

Very stiff clay


sat=19.5kN/m3

Bedrock

18.3kN / m 2m + 19kN / m 7m + 19.5kN / m 10m 9.8kN / m3 17m 198kPa


s zo
3

+ 198kPa 198kPa + 172.6kPa 370.6kPa


s zf s zo

198kPa s zf
370.6kPa s zc
510kPa
s zo
use

r pc

s zf
Ho
Cr log

1 + eo
s zo

36

iniciolu

CE 332

Solution (cont.):

fill
sat=20.3kN/m3

8.5m

s zo
101kPa 55kPa 46kPa
s m s zc

2m

sat=18.3kN/m3

4m
sat=19kN/m3 A Stiff silty clay

7m

Then preconsolidation pressure at other


levels are calculated as

10m

s zo
+ 46kPa
s zc

18m

Very stiff clay


sat=19.5kN/m3

At the midpoint of layer

Bedrock

Layer

H (m)

szo

szc

szf

rpc (mm)

18.3

64.3

190.9

195

50.4

96.4

223

205

82.6

128.6

255.2

216

120.4

293

64

159.2

331.8

53

202.8

375.4

55

251.4

424

47

(rpc)ult =

836

Clearly the upper layer


settles more since it
reaches the normal
consolidation line where
the stiffness reduces
significantly.

iniciolu

CE 332

Example 5:
A 3m deep compacted fill is to
be placed over the soil profile
shown. A consolidation test on
a sample from point A produced
the following results:

Proposed fill

3m

=19.2kN/m3

1.5m

=18.5kN/m3

2m

=19.5kN/m

Fine to medium sand


3

Sample A
Cc

0.4

Cr

0.08

eo

1.1

szc

70kPa

This sample is representative


of the entire clay stratum.
Compute the ultimate
consolidation settlement due to
the weight of this fill. (For
sand, Cc/(1+eo) = 0.008).

4m

10m

Soft clay
=16kN/m3

Dense sand and gravel

37

iniciolu

CE 332

Solution:

Proposed fill

3m

=19.2kN/m3

Initial conditions:
=18.5kN/m

1.5m

At point A:

Fine to medium sand


=19.5kN/m3

2m

18.5 1.5 + 19.5 2 + 16 4 9.8 6 72kPa


s zo

70kPa s zo

s zc

4m

Therefore the soil is normally consolidated. Since the


sample is representative of the entire layer, then the entire
stratum is normally consolidated.

10m

Soft clay

=16kN/m3

Proposed fill:

Dense sand and gravel

+ 19.2kN / m 3m s zo
+ 57.6kPa
s zf s zo
3

For the clay layer =

Cc
0.40

0.19
1 + eo 1 + eo

iniciolu

CE 332

Solution (cont.):

Proposed fill

3m

=19.2kN/m3

At the midpoint of layer


Layer

H (m)

szo

szf

rpc (mm)

1.5

13.9

71.5

37.4

95

56.4

114

175

1.5m

=18.5kN/m3
Fine to medium sand

2m

=19.5kN/m3

4
10m

75

132.6

141

96.7

154.3

155

(rpc)ult =

486

4m

Soft clay
=16kN/m3

Dense sand and gravel

The same analysis is used above and below the groundwater table, and both are based
on saturated Cc/(1+eo) values. This is conservative because the soils above the
groundwater table are probably less compressible.

38

iniciolu

CE 332

Example 6: After the settlement due to the fill described in Example 5 is


completed, a 20m diameter, 10m tall cylindrical steel water tank is to
be built. The bottom of the tank will be at the top of the fill, and it
will have an empty mass of 300,000kg. Ultimately, the water inside
will be 9.5m deep. Compute the ultimate consolidation settlement
beneath the center of this tank due to the weight of the tank and its
contents. Assume the fill is overconsolidated with Cr=(1+eo) = 0.002.
(for sake of simplicity the thicknesses of the soil layers will be taken
as the initial thicknesses in Example 5.)

20m
Water tank
3m
1.5m
2m

=19.2kN/m3
1
2

=19.5kN/m

=18.5kN/m3

3
10m

10m
Proposed fill
Fine to medium sand

4m
Soft clay

A
=16kN/m3

Dense sand and gravel

iniciolu

CE 332

Solution:
The settlement due to the fill is now complete.
Therefore the values of szf from the solution of Example 5 are now the initial
stresses, s zo.
We will compute szf values using Dsz from the elasticity theory, using the
approximate method for circular loaded areas (Poulos and Davis, 1974):



1
s z q 1

B

1 + 2 z
f
20m

Water tank

1.50

10m

3m
1.5m
2m

Stress increases at
different depths will be
different since the weight
is distributed over a larger
area as depth increases.
Proposed fill
Fine to medium sand

Soft clay

10m

Dense sand and gravel

39

iniciolu

CE 332

Solution (cont.):

Wtank Mg 300, 000kg 9.8m / s 2

B2 H

Wwater Vtank w

1kN
2900kN
1000 N

2029.5m
4

9.8kN / m3 29200kN

The weight of the water is much greater than that of the empty tank, so it is
reasonable for us to assume the bearing pressure q is constant across the bottom of
the tank:

W 2900kN + 29200kN

102kPa
A
202 / 4
20m
Water tank

3m
1.5m
2m

=19.2kN/m3
1
2

=19.5kN/m

4
5

Proposed fill

=18.5kN/m3

Fine to medium sand

3
10m

10m

4m
Soft clay

A
=16kN/m3
Dense sand and gravel

iniciolu

CE 332

Solution (cont.):
Using the approximate method and ignoring the layering, we can compute the
stress increases, Dsz, at different depths:
1.50

(s z )induced 102kPa 1

2

20m

1
+
2 z

20m
Water tank

10m

zf

3m
1.5m
2m

Proposed fill
Fine to medium sand

Soft clay

10m

Dense sand and gravel

40

iniciolu

CE 332

Solution (cont.):
At midpoint of layer
szo

zf

(sz)induced

szf

Cc/(1+eo)

28.8

1.5

101.7

130.5

0.002

1.5

71.5

3.7

97.7

169.2

0.008

95

5.5

90.6

185.6

0.008

114

77.1

191.1

0.19

128

132.6

11

60.7

193.3

0.19

93

154.3 14.5

45.1

199.4

0.19

85

(rpc)ult =

319

Layer H (m)

Cr/(1+eo) (rpc)ult (mm)

If the tank was built immediately after the fill was placed, then szo would be the
same as in Example 5, and everything else would remain unchanged. Such a
solution illustrates the use of superposition of stresses.

iniciolu

CE 332

Rate of Consolidation

Unlike other material that civil engineers deal with, for soils deformation
response to loading is not always instantaneous.
This is especially true for saturated clays. Many years or decades may be
necessary for the full settlement to complete under the imposed loading.
Therefore geotechnical engineers often need to evaluate both the magnitude and
the rate of consolidation.
Karl Terzaghis (the father of soil mechanics) most significant contribution to
geotechnical engineering was his theory of consolidation (one-dimensional
consolidation theory) which he developed in Istanbul (Robert College) between
1919 and 1923.
Although other had studied the problem, it was Terzaghis work that properly
identified and quantified the underlying physical processes.
During this time he identified the principle of effective stress.
Terzaghi, a mechanical engineer, was inspired by the thermodynamic processes
to come up with the one-dimensional consolidation theory.

41

iniciolu

CE 332

Rate of Consolidation / 1D Consolidation Theory


It is important to recognize that the theory of consolidation is not
simply an emprical description of settlement data obtained in the
field.
It is a rational method based on a physical model of the
consolidation process.
This is an important distinction, because it illustrates the
difference between organized empricism and the development of
more fundamental understandings of soil behavior.
The various soil parameters needed to implement the theory of
consolidation are normally obtained from a site characterization
program, including laboratory consolidation tests.
Therefore the parameters obtained contain errors which may
result in deviations of the solution from the field behavior.
However the validity of the theory has been confirmed, and it is
the basis for nearly all time-settlement computations.

iniciolu

CE 332

One-Dimensional Consolidation Theory


To keep the computational process from becoming too
complex, the assumptions for the derivation of the theory for
the time rate of settlement are:

The soil is saturated, isotropic, and homogeneous.


Darcys law is valid.
Flow only occurs vertically.
The strains are small.

Moreover, we will rely on the following observations that are


linked to the previous assumptions:
The change in volume of the soil (DV) is equal to the change in volume
of porewater expelled (DVw), which is equal to the change in the volume
of the voids (DVv).
Since the area of the soil is constant (the soil is laterally constrained),
the change in volume is directly proportional to the change in height.
At any depth, the change in vertical effective stress is equal to the
change in excess porewater pressure at that depth. That is sz=u.

42

iniciolu

CE 332

One-Dimensional Consolidation Theory

We will consider a soil element of thickness dz and cross-sectional area dA =


dxdy.
Since the flow is vertical, the inflow of water is

qv dA
and the outflow over the elemental thickness dz is

qv + qv / z dz dA
The change in flow is then

(qv + qv / z dz )dA qv dA qv / z dzdA

The rate of change in volume of water expelled, which is


equal to the rate of change of volume of the soil, must equal
the change in flow. That is,

V qv

dzdA
t
z

iniciolu

CE 332

One-Dimensional Consolidation Theory


Recall that the volumetric strain is

ep

Rearranging for V=dzdA, we get V


Remembering mv

Therefore

e
dzdA
1 + eo

De z
e
De 1

m s

s z 2 s z 1 1 + eo Ds 1 + eo v

e
dzdA mv s dzdA mv udzdA
1 + eo

Inserting this equation into


We get

V
e

V 1 + eo

V qv

dzdA
t
z

qv u

mv
z
t

43

iniciolu

CE 332

One-Dimensional Consolidation Theory


Darcys law for one-dimensional flow is qv Ak z i Ak z

h
z

Partial differentiation of this equation with respect to z is

qv
2h
kz
z
z 2

The pore water pressure is

u h w

Twice partial differentiation of this equation with respect to z yields

By substituting into

Equating

qv
2h
kz
z
z 2

qv u

mv to
z
t

we get

we get

2h
z 2

1 2u

w z 2

qv k z 2u

z w z 2

qv k z 2u

z w z 2

k 2u
u
z
t mv w z 2

iniciolu

CE 332

One-Dimensional Consolidation Theory


k 2u
u
z
t mv w z 2

for

kz
Cv
mv w

u
2u
Cv
t
z 2

General equation for one-dimensional consolidation


Cv is called the coefficient of consolidation.
The units for Cv length2/time (i.e. m2/year).
This equation describes the spatial variation of excess porewater pressure ( Du)
with time (t) and depth (z).
This equation is sometimes called Terzaghis one-dimensional consolidation
equation because Terzaghi (1925) developed it.
In the derivation, it has been assumed that kz and mv are constants. This is not
the case since kz decreases as e decreases and mv is not linearly related to sz.
Therefore, in reality, Cv is not constant.
In practice Cv is assumed to be constant throughout the depth of the soil and
with time and this assumption is reasonable for small stress changes.

44

iniciolu

CE 332

Solution of consolidation equation

In order to obtain the solution for the spatial variation of excess


porewater pressure with time and depth, initial distribution of excess
porewater pressures at the boundaries should be specified.
Various distributions of porewater pressure are possible. Two of these
are:
Uniform distribution of initial excess porewater pressure with depth
Triangular distribution of initial excess porewater pressure with depth

iniciolu

CE 332

Solution of consolidation equation

The boundary conditions for a uniform distribution of initial excess


porewater pressure in which double drainage occurs are
When t = 0, Du = Duo = Dsz.
At the top boundary, z = 0, Du = 0.
At the bottom boundary, z = 2Hdr, Du = 0 where Hdr is the length of the
drainage path.

u
2u
Cv
t
z 2

A solution for the governing consolidation equation which satisfies these boundary
conditions is obtained using the Fourier series:

Mz
2Duo
2
Du z, t
sin
exp M Tv
M
H
dr
m 0

where M=(/2)(2m+1) and m is a positive integer with values from 0 to and

Tv

Cvt
2
H dr

where Tv is known as the time factor; it is a dimensionless term.

45

iniciolu

CE 332

Solution of consolidation equation


A plot of the solution for the governing consolidation equation

Du z, t

Mz
2Duo
2
sin
exp M Tv
M
H
dr

m 0

gives the variation of excess porewater pressure with depth at different times.
For example, below a plot for an arbitrarily selected isochrone at any time t (or
time factor Tv) is shown:

iniciolu

CE 332

Solution of consolidation equation


1.0 0.8
2.0

0.2

0.8

z/H 1.0

0.9

05
0.5
0.6
0.7

0.

0.4

0.3
0.4

Tv

0.
1
0.
2

1.5

0.6

u
u0

0.5
0
0

0.2

0.4

Uz

0.6

0.8

1.0

At time t = 0 (Tv = 0) the initial excess


porewater pressure (Duo) is equal to the
applied vertical stress throughout the soil
layer.
As soon as drainage occurs, the initial excess
porewater pressure will immediately drop to
zero at the permeable boundaries.
The maximum excess porewater pressure
occurs at the center since the drainage path
there is the longest.

uo

At time t >0, the total applied vertical stress increment Dsz at a depth z is equal to the
sum of vertical effective stress increment, Dsz, and excess porewater pressure, Duz.
At time t, the excess porewater pressure decreases to zero ( Duz=0) and the vertical
effective stress increment becomes equal to the vertical total stress increment
(Dsz=Dsz).

46

iniciolu

CE 332

Solution of consolidation equation

The amount of consolidation completed at a particular time and depth


is defined as

Mz
Ds z
Du z
2
2
Uz

Duo

Duo

m 0 M

sin
exp M Tv
H dr

Uz is called the degree of consolidation or consolidation ratio.


At t =0, Uz=0
At t , Uz=1
A geotechnical engineer is often concerned with the average degree of
consolidation, U, of a whole layer at a particular time rather than the
consolidation at a particular depth.

U 1

M 2 exp M 2Tv
2

m 0

iniciolu

CE 332

Solution of consolidation equation


The variation of the average degree of consolidation
U 1

M 2 exp M 2Tv
2

m 0

with time factor Tv for a uniform and a triangular distribution of excess porewater
pressure:

47

iniciolu

CE 332

Solution of consolidation equation


Equations relating Tv to U, , are obtained by curve fitting to the figure. These are,
for double drainage

Tv

for U 60%
4 100

Tv 1.781 0.933log 100 U for U 60%


The time factors corresponding to 50% and 90% consolidation are often used in
interpreting consolidation test results. These are Tv =0.848 for 90% and Tv =0.197
for 50% consolidation.

iniciolu

CE 332

Example 7: A 10m depth of sand overlies an 8m layer of clay, below which is a


further depth of sand. For the clay, mv=0.83m2/MN and Cv=4.4m2/year.
The water table is at surface level but is to be lowered permenantly by
4m, the initial lowering taking place over a period of 40 weeks.
Calculate
a) the final settlement due to consolidation of the clay and
b) the settlement 2 years after the start of lowering.
Initial gwt

4m

Final gwt
10m

sand

8m

clay
mv=0.83m2/MN
Cv=4.4m2/year

sand

48

CE 332

Initial gwt

4m

Solution:

iniciolu

Final gwt
10m

sand

8m

clay
mv=0.83m2/MN
Cv=4.4m2/year

sand

The change in the vertical effective stress due to the lowering of the groundwater table

Ds z 4m w 4 9.8kN / m3 39.2kPa
Then, the final consolidation settlement is found as

r pc mv Ds z H 0.83m2 / MN 39.2kPa 8m 260mm


The lowering of the groundwater table takes 40 weeks. Therefore the time for
consolidation should be corrected. Thus

1 40
t 2 1.615 years
2 52

CE 332

8m
t 1.615 years and under double drainage d
4m
2
C t 4.4 1.615
then Tv v2
0.444
d
42

Solution (cont.):

iniciolu

From the curve


Initial gwt

4m

Final gwt
10m

sand

8m

clay
mv=0.83m2/MN
Cv=4.4m2/year

sand

or from the equations


0.444

U 0.75 for U 60% Incorrect


4 100
0.444 1.781 0.933log 100 U U 0.73 for U 60% Correct

U 0.73
Settlement after 2 years U r pc 0.73 260mm 190mm

49

iniciolu

CE 332

Example 8: A layer of saturated clay is 10m thick, the lower boundary being

Solution:

impermeable; an embankment is to be constructed above the clay.


The coefficient of consolidation for the clay is Cv=9.6m2/year.
Determine the time required for 90% consolidation of the clay layer.

U 0.90 Tv 0.848
or use

Therefore

CE 332

Tv 1.781 0.933log 100 90 =0.848 for U 60%

Tv d 2 0.848 102

8.8 years
Cv
9.6

iniciolu

Example 9: A 12m thick saturated clay stratum with double drainage is to be

subjected to a Dsz of 75kPa. The coefficient of consolidation in this


soil is 3.5x10-3m2/day. Using the plot of the solution of the governing
consolidation equation, compute the excess porewater pressure at a
point 2.7m above the bottom of this stratum 10 years after the
placement of the load.

50

iniciolu

CE 332

Solution:
Due to double drainage condition
H dr

Tv

H 12m

6m
2
2

Cvt
2
H dr

zdr 2.7m

0.45
H dr
6m

3.5 103 m2 day 10 yr 365day year

6m 2

0.3549

From the figure


ue Ds z 0.34
Thus

ue

ue
Ds z 0.34 75kPa
Ds z

ue 25.5kPa

iniciolu

CE 332

Example 10: For a normally consolidated clay specimen drained on both sides,
the following are given:
so=150kN/m2, e=eo=1.1
so+ Ds=300kN/m2, e=0.9
Thickness of clay specimen = 25mm
Time for 50% consolidation = 2min.
a. Determine the hydraulic conductivity (in minutes) of the clay for
the loading range.
b. How long (in days) will it take for a 1.8m clay layer in the field
(drained on one side) to reach 60% consolidation?

51

CE 332

Solution:
a.

cv

iniciolu

k
mv w

k cv mv w

Desired
parameter

To be
calculated
The coefficient of compressibility (mv) is mv

De 1
1 + eo Ds
1.1 + 0.9
De 1.1 0.9 0.2 Ds 300 150 150kPa eo eav
1
2
For U 50% Tv 0.197

De 1
0.2 1
mv

6.35 104 m2 kN
1 + eo Ds 1 + 1150

Tv

cvt
2
H dr

cv

2
Tv H dr

t
2

25
0.197

2 1000

cv 1.53 105 m 2 min

k cv mv w 1.53 105 6.35 104 9.81 95.3 109 m min

iniciolu

CE 332

Solution:
b.

T60

cvt60
2
H dr

t60

2
T60 H dr
cv

For U 60% Tv 0.287


2

t60

2
T60 H dr

cv

25
0.287

2 1000

60565 min 42days


1.53 105

52

iniciolu

CE 332

Secondary compression settlement


On the e-logt plot, primary consolidation is assumed to end at the intersection
of the two straight parts of the curve.

The secondary compression index is

et e p De ;
log t t p log t t p

t tp

t p , e p coordinate at the intersection of the tangents to the primary consolidation and secondary compression parts
t , et coordinate at any point on the secondary compression curve

iniciolu

CE 332

Secondary compression settlement

The secondary compression settlement is

r sc

Ho

1 + e p

t
C log
tp

53

iniciolu

CE 332

Coefficient of Consolidation
Terzaghi theory lumps all of the soil parameters (other than
drainage distance) into one parameter, the coefficient of
consolidation, cv.
Since cv is dependent on k, cv is very small in clays and very large
in sands.
We need to have some means of measuring cv before we can
perform time-settlement analyses.
One method of doing so might be to assess each of the parameters
in cv=k/(mvw) and calculate cv. However this rarely done because it
requires conducting more than one test.
Instead, engineers usually measure the rate of consolidation in a
laboratory consolidation test and back-calculate cv by performing a
time-settlement analysis in reverse.
Because Hdr in the lab is very small, the rate of consolidation is
much faster than that in the field, but cv should, in theory, be equal
to the field value.

iniciolu

CE 332

Determination of the coefficient of consolidation


There are two popular methods that can be used to calculate Cv:
Square root of time fitting method proposed by Taylor (1948)
Log time method proposed by Casagrande and Fadum (1940)

Both these methods use oedometer data and measure Cv


graphically. Both these methods are explained in any Soil
Mechanics textbook.

54

iniciolu

CE 332

Determination of the coefficient of consolidation


One of the special curve-fitting methods to obtain cv from
laboratory data is the square root of time fitting method
developed by Taylor (1948).
This method is as follows using the results of an oedometer test:
1. Plot the displacement gauge reading versus square root of times.

iniciolu

CE 332

Determination of the coefficient of consolidation


2. The initial portion of the curve should be fairly straight. If there
is no data point for t=0 extrapolate it back to t1/2=0. This locates
point O.

55

iniciolu

CE 332

Determination of the coefficient of consolidation


3. Draw the best straight line through the initial part of the curve
intersecting the ordinate (displacement reading) at O and the
abscissa (time1/2) at A.

iniciolu

CE 332

Determination of the coefficient of consolidation


4. Note the time at point A; let us say it is

tA

56

iniciolu

CE 332

Determination of the coefficient of consolidation


5. Locate a point B, 1.15 t A , on the abscissa.

iniciolu

CE 332

Determination of the coefficient of consolidation


6. Join OB.

57

iniciolu

CE 332

Determination of the coefficient of consolidation


7. The intersection of the line OB with the curve, point C, gives
the displacement gauge reading and the time for 90%
consolidation (t90). You should note that the value read off the
abscissa is t
90
Now from Tv

cvt
2
H dr

knowing that U 90%, Tv 0.848,


we obtain

cv

2
0.848H dr
t90

iniciolu

CE 332

Determination of the coefficient of consolidation


Casagrande presented another commonly used method of finding
cv from laboratory test data. As explained previously, it is called
the logarithm of time fitting method.
This method plots the data on a settlement vs. log time diagram
and locates the point where U=100%.
The procedure then locates U=50% and the corresponding time, t50.
Most geotechnical engineers prefer the square root of time method
because it permits the next load to be placed as soon t90 has been
reached, whereas the logarithm of time method requires the load be
left on long enough to identify t100.
Since consolidation tests are very long anyway, this difference can
have a significant impact on the cost of performing the test.

58

iniciolu

CE 332

Determination of the preconsolidation pressure


Using the method proposed by Casagrande (1936), preconsolidation pressure can
be obtained from a e-logsz graph. The procedure is as follows:
1. Identify the point of maximum curvature, point D, on the initial part of the
curve.

iniciolu

CE 332

Determination of the preconsolidation pressure


Using the method proposed by Casagrande (1936), preconsolidation pressure can
be obtained from a e-logsz graph. The procedure is as follows:
2. Draw a horizontal line through D and then draw a tangent to the curve at D.

59

iniciolu

CE 332

Determination of the preconsolidation pressure


Using the method proposed by Casagrande (1936), preconsolidation pressure can
be obtained from a e-logsz graph. The procedure is as follows:
3. Bisect the angle formed by the tangent and the horizontal line at D.

iniciolu

CE 332

Determination of the preconsolidation pressure


Using the method proposed by Casagrande (1936), preconsolidation pressure can
be obtained from a e-logsz graph. The procedure is as follows:
4. Extend backward the straight portion of the curve (ncl) BA to intersect the
bisector line at F. The abscissa of F is the preconsolidation pressure, szc.

60

CE 332

Relationship between laboratory and field


consolidation

iniciolu

If two layers of the same clay have the same degree of


consolidation, then their time factors and coefficients of
consolidation are the same. Hence
Tv

lab

Cvtlab

Cvt field

lab field
2
H dr

2
H dr

Tv

field

and, by simplification
t field
tlab

H dr2 field

H dr2 lab

iniciolu

CE 332

Example 11: In an oedometer test a specimen of saturated clay 19mm thick reaches
50% consolidation in 20min.
a) How long would it take a layer of this clay 5m thick to reach the
same degree of consolidation under the same stress and drainage
conditions?
b) How long would it take the layer to reach 30% consolidation?

Solution: Using

t field
tlab

H dr2 field

H dr2 lab

Due to double drainage conditions

Thus

5000mm
2500mm
2
19mm

9.5mm
2

H dr field
H dr lab

H dr2 field 2500mm2


20 min
t field
tlab

2.63 years
2
2
19.5mm 60 min 24hr 365days
H dr lab

It takes 2.63 years for the layer in the field to reach 50% consolidation.

61

iniciolu

CE 332

Solution (cont.):
The time for the layer in the field to reach 30% consolidation.
Since

Tv

U 2 (for U 60%) and Tv

Cvt1

Then

So

Tv1
Tv2

H dr 2

Cvt2

H dr 2

t0.30 t0.50

Cvt
2
H dr

U2
t1 4 1

t2 U 2
2
4

0.302
0.502

2.63 years 0.36 0.95 years

iniciolu

CE 332

Example 12: The data shown in the table below were obtained from a laboratory
consolidation test on a normally consolidated clay.i The sample was
62mm in diameter, 25mm tall and was tested under a double
drainage condition. Compute cv.

hour
0
0
0
0
0
0
1

time
minute
1
3
8
16
30
59
54

second
1
16
35
39
15
17
29

dial reading (mm)


7.21
7.74
8.4
9.01
9.6
10.11
10.35

62

CE 332

Solution:

hour
0
0
0
0
0
0
1

time
minute
1
3
8
16
30
59
54

iniciolu

second
1
16
35
39
15
17
29

time (min)
1.02
3.27
8.58
16.65
30.25
59.28
54.48

sqrt[time] (min0.5)
1.01
1.81
2.93
4.08
5.50
7.70
7.38

dial reading (mm)


7.21
7.74
8.4
9.01
9.6
10.11
10.35

iniciolu

CE 332

Solution (cont.):

t90 5.7 t90 32 min 0.022day


T90

cvt90
2
H dr

0.848

cv 0.022day
25

2 1000

6 103 m2 day

63

CE 332

Methods for Accelerating Consolidation Settlementiniciolu

When highly compressible layers are present and large consolidation settlemtns are
expected after loading, precompression of the soil may be used to minimize
postconstruction settlement.
In many instances, sand drains and prefabricated vertical drains are used in the
field to accelerate consolidation settlement in soft, normally consolidated clay layers
and to achieve precompression before the construction of a desired foundation.
Sand drains are constructed by drilling holes through the clay layer(s) in the field at
regular intervals. The holes then are backfilled with sand.
After backfilling the drill holes with sand, a surcharge is applied at the ground
surface.
This surcharge will increase the pwp in clay, which will dissipate by drainage both
vertically and radially to the drains- which accelerates the settlement of the clay
layer.

CE 332

iniciolu

Methods for Accelerating Consolidation Settlement

Prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs), which also are referred to as wick or strip
drains, originally were developed as a substitute for the commonly used sand drain.
These drains are manufactured from synthetic polymers.
PVDs normally are manufactured with a corrugated or channeled synthetic core
enclosed by a geotextile filter.
Installation rates reported in the literature are on the order of 0.1 to 0.3m/s,
excluding equipment mobilization and setup time.
The main advantage of PVDs over sand drains is that they do not require drilling
and, thus, installation is much faster.

64

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