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Garment washed jeans: impact of

launderings on physical
properties
Ayanna Card
Carters Atlanta, Atlanta, Georgia, USA

Mary Ann Moore

Garment washed
jeans

43
Received May 2005
Accepted September 2005

College of Human Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida,

USA, and

Mary Ankeny
Cotton Incorporated, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
Abstract
Purpose This paper reports on the effects of laundering on physical properties (pilling and edge
abrasion) of washed denim fabrics.
Design/methodology/approach Garment washed denim blue jeans were subjected to repeated
launderings; the effects of the cycles on pilling and edge abrasion were determined. Data were collected
by means of a laboratory experimental factorial design. Analysis of variance was used to determine
significant differences in the three garment washed treatments; pre-washed, stone washed and enzyme
treated blue jeans. Duncans test of multiple range determined the source of significance.
Findings The pre-washed jeans were more prone to pilling than the enzyme and stone washed
jeans. On the other hand, the pre-washed jeans experienced the least amount of edge abrasion while the
stone washed experienced the most.
Practical implications The results can be used by the denim garment manufacturers to design
and engineer their products to suit the customer demands.
Originality/value Jeans are an important part of a consumers wardrobe and a large portion of
denim garments are manufactured with some type of garment wash treatment. Results of this study
will provide denim garment manufacturers with pilling and abrasion information regarding garment
washing treatments to allow them to utilize the garment treatment that best meets their needs.
Keywords Clothing, Abrasion, Wear resistance
Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction
Denim jeans evolved into a part of the fashion gamut during a time when the median
age of the American population was declining (Behling, 1985-1986) and popular culture
has embraced denim since its inception into the fashion world in the 1960s (Magiera,
1989). The success of denim is due to its ability to change with every social
and cultural evolution (Spevack, 1997, p. 7). Denim jeans evolved into a fashion icon
and the universal uniform [that] could simultaneously express the highest level of
individualism (Wilson, 1991, p. 124). Currently, denim jeans are still a major part of
Americas consumer wardrobe. Cotton Incorporated Lifestyle Monitore (2004)
reported for 2003 that . . .consumers reported that they owned, on average, eight pairs
of jeans and 16 denim garments. For the 2004, 25 percent said they would likely buy

International Journal of Clothing

Science and Technology
Vol. 18 No. 1, 2006
pp. 43-52
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0955-6222
DOI 10.1108/09556220610637503

IJCST
18,1

44

several more denim items, while nearly half (47 percent) admitted they might buy one
or two.
Denim garment manufacturers are interested in producing garments that
consumers want to purchase. Consumers demand for blue jeans with a distressed
or aged look began a revolution in denim processing (Hargraves et al., 1991).
Consumers are interested in broken in finishes and want all the aging work done to
the jeans now, by the manufacturer, instead of doing it themselves (Cone Denim, 1996,
p. 2). Noting this increase in demand, the idea of garment washing was initiated with
pre-washed jeans in the mid 1980s (Cotton Incorporated, 1992; OGrady, 1991). The
pre-washed treatment removed sizing applied during the manufacturing process. In a
garment, many layers are sewn together in areas making them rigid, and thus more
susceptible to abrasion (p. 2) than the adjacent single layers because of their tendency
to hold position while being subjected to abrading forces in garment washing. On
indigo denim, as abrasion occurs, the surface of the yarn is worn away exposing the
un-dyed core of the yarn (Hatch, 1993). The decreased amount of dyed fiber on the
surface of the fabric gives the illusion of an aged look.
By the late 1980s, 60 percent of all domestically produced denim garments received
some type of garment wash treatment (Hargraves et al., 1991). Not long after the
introduction of pre-washed jeans, the idea of using abrasive stones to accelerate the
aging process was developed and stone washing was born, creating an even more
broken-in look (Cotton Incorporated, 1992, p. 1). Stones were incorporated in the
manufacturing process after the garment had been desized and laundered. Abrasion
resulted by removing fibers from the fabrics surface. However, the use of pumice
stones created many problems and the process was very labor intensive (Zimmerman,
1993). Because the stones were a product of volcanic eruptions, they were not always
available in abundance and were expensive to acquire (Hoffer, 1993). The removal of
used stones from stitching and pockets, as well as removal of sediments from the wash
water had to be incorporated into the manufacturing process. Problems with the
machinery and the environment resulted from the use of the stones. The interior of the
laundry machines wore out prematurely and sediments from the stones clogged sewer
lines (Hargraves et al., 1991; Mock and Rucker, 1991).
By the early 1990s, 90 percent of all domestically produced garments received some
type of garment wash treatment (Hargraves et al., 1991). Given these percentages, it is
likely that consumers own or will own denim garments that have been processed
through a wash treatment. With this increased use of garment washes, solutions to
some of the manufacturing problems were developed. To avoid waste-water
contamination from impurities found in pumice stones, manufacturers began to use
synthetic stones as an alternative to natural ones. Since synthetic stones are able to be
manufactured into consistent sizes and shapes, reproducibility of the garment
treatment was improved. Synthetic stones seemed to solve many of the problems, but
still created some of their own. The stones, made of ceramics, coal or other materials,
were very expensive and required a longer drying period than pumice stones
(Hargraves et al., 1991; Sullivan, 1997).
As technologies advanced, denim garment manufacturers discovered that the stone
washed look could be achieved with cellulase enzymes (Cotton Incorporated, 1992). Use
of cellulase enzymes was more appealing to denim manufacturers than the use of
stones due to the alleviation of many problems the stones created (Zimmerman, 1993).

Life of the garment washing equipment was not lessened and the liquor ratio required
was decreased, allowing more garments to be processed at one time (Kochavi et al.,
1990). In addition, there were no stones or grit to remove from the garments,
wastewater or sewer lines.
Enzymes are naturally occurring, specialized proteins that catalyze biochemical
reactions in all living cells (Stewart, 1996). Over 3000 enzymes have been discovered
(Pedersen et al., 1992). Each enzyme works on one specific reaction for one specific
organic material. Cellulase enzymes are a mixture of multiple enzymes that
depolymerize cellulose to glucose and other lower molecular weight polysaccharides
(Clarkson et al., 1994; Stewart, 1996). Cellulase enzymes are added to the bath with the
garments in the same manner as stones (Cotton Incorporated, 1992). In fabrics that
contain cellulosic fibers, the cellulase enzymes remove surface fibers, including those
that hold dye, by partially hydrolyzing the surface of the fabric (Kochavi et al., 1990).
Cellulase enzymes were introduced to gradually replace the use of stones and
therefore the problems stones created (Cavaco-Paulo and Almeida, 1995; Lantto et al.,
1996); however, the enzymes also had negative attributes. To gain desired results, the
garment washing process-using enzymes had to be carefully controlled (Zimmerman,
1993). According the Hargraves et al. (1991), the amount and temperature of the water
used, the time of garment exposure to the enzymes and the pH of the liquor had to
remain at specific settings. Any fluctuation in these settings could cause an increase or
decrease in surface fiber.
Once in the consumers possession, denim jeans are subjected to repeated
launderings. Laundering significantly alters the appearance of garments and accounts
for 50 percent of abrasion damage to garments (Bresee et al., 1994). According to Annis
and Bresee (1990), fuzz is formed during the abrasion process when fibers partially
separate from the surface of the garment. Lint is formed when the fibers completely
separate and pills are formed when those separated individual fibers tangle together
and remain on the fabric surface; therefore, pills affect the appearance of garments.
Wilcock and Van Delden (1985) found that pilling increased to a point and then
decreased with repeated launderings in 100 percent cotton momie (or granite weave)
cloth. The researchers attributed this finding to the possibility that the fibers holding
the pills to the surface of the garment weakened with subsequent launderings. Given
these results, it can be purported that repeated launderings can therefore increase
pilling (Bhavani and Shailaja, 1997; Raheel and Dever Lien, 1982).
Edge abrasion is another form of abrasion that alters the appearance of the
garments surface. Edge abrasion is best described as wear occurring at fabric folds
producing a frayed appearance (Hatch, 1993). This form of abrasion is commonly seen
in all garments but especially in denim jeans because of the rigid areas such as seams
and cuffs. Areas that are layered are firm and tend to hold their position during
laundering more so than the adjacent flat areas. This held position or rigid area also
leads to an increase in abrasive damage during laundering (Morris and Prato, 1975).
Ruppenicker et al. (1972) found that repeated home launderings increased edge
abrasion in durable press and untreated cotton twill fabrics. Likewise, Morris and
Prato (1975) found that laundering resulted in some edge discoloration on all of the
cotton samples regardless of the treatment used (p. 397). Morris and Harper (1994)
when evaluating the influence of repeated launderings on the cuffs of durable press
cotton twill trousers, also found that repeated launderings increased edge abrasion.

Garment washed
jeans

45

IJCST
18,1

46

Farias (1998) reports that abrasion in wrinkle-resistant slacks tend to be located at

contact points such as pockets, cuffs, and belt loop areas and also particularly on the
crease lines. In addition, Tyndall (1999) elaborates that this white edge line is
primarily formed by abrasion along the crease. The. . .undyed areas within the yarn
bundle are caused by the lack of dye penetration into the yarn bundle.
Information is available regarding the physical condition of garment washed denim
jeans after processing; however, there is a void in the literature on the effect of
laundering on garment washed denim jeans. Card et al. (2005) found that these three
types of garment washed and laundering cycles had a significant effect strength,
stiffness, and the interaction between denim type and fabric direction had a significant
effect on breaking elongation. The purpose of this experimental laboratory study was
to evaluate and compare the pilling and edge abrasion of 100 percent cotton garment
washed denim blue jeans that have been pre-washed, washed with stones, or washed
with cellulase enzymes. Independent variables were the garment washed denim jean
samples and laundering cycles. Dependent variables, pilling and edge abrasion, were
evaluated after repeated launderings. Information from this study will aid
manufacturers of blue jeans in selecting the garment washing method that suits
their marketing/manufacturing plans.
2. Garment washed jeans
Samples of 100 percent cotton denim jeans were supplied by four manufacturers based
on the companys method of production. The use of actual samples was chosen because
the seams and cuffs allowed for a more realistic depiction of the effect of laundering on
pilling and edge abrasion of jeans than the use of flat denim fabric. And the use of
denim jean samples from four different denim manufacturers allows for a more
representative sample of the population identified for this study. Pre-washed, stone
washed, and cellulase enzyme washed were the garment washed denim treatments that
were used.
3. Experimental method
A completely randomized factorial laboratory experimental design was used; factors
were garment washed denim jeans samples and laundering cycles. Laundering cycles
were zero or control, five and 25; pilling and edge abrasion were the parameters by
which the laundering cycles were measured. A total of 90 samples were utilized; 30 of
each of the three garment washed denim treatments (pre-washed, stone washed, and
cellulase enzyme washed). From each group of 30 samples, ten samples were randomly
assigned to each of the three laundering cycles (0/5/25). Provisions were made to assure
even and random distribution of the samples from the manufacturers. Samples were
laundered according to AATCC test method 143: appearance of apparel and other
textile end products after repeated home laundering using standard washing
procedure 8.22, machine wash. Each sample was laundered in a water temperature of
49 ^ 38C (120 ^ 58F) on the normal/cotton sturdy wash cycle using 66.0 0.1 g of
1993 AATCC standard reference detergent and enough 100 percent cotton wash load
ballast type one to make a 1.8 ^ 0.06 kg (4.00 ^ 0.13 lb) load. Upon completion of each
laundering cycle, the entire load (sample and ballast fabrics) was dried in an automatic
tumble dryer on the cotton/sturdy cycle using the high exhaust temperature
(150 ^ 108F) and a cool down of five minutes. Prior to evaluation, the samples were

conditioned for at least 4 hours at 70 ^ 28F (21 ^ 18C) and 65 2 percent RH

according to ASTM D 1776, standard practice for conditioning textiles for testing prior
to evaluation.
3.1 Pilling
Pilling ratings were determined after 0, 5 and 25 cycles based on procedures for
evaluating pilling as determined by Bresee et al. (1994). Subjective human evaluation
procedures were used to rate pill grades. Three trained observers, using a viewing
room with standard lighting, compared the samples to ASTM photographic rating
standards as prescribed in ASTM test method 3512, standard test method for pilling
resistance and other related surface changes of textile fabrics: random tumble pilling
tester. Each observer viewed the samples at a 458 angle. Observers worked
independently, were not given a time restraint and were allowed to reevaluate any
sample as needed. Each observer rated pilling on a scale of grade five (no pilling) to
grade one (very severe pilling).
3.2 Edge abrasion
Samples were independently rated for edge abrasion after laundering intervals
according to the procedure used by Morris and Harper (1994). Subjective human
evaluation by three trained observers was conducted. Edge abrasion was evaluated at
the bottom cuff and side seam areas of each sample and rated on scale of four or no
damage to one or major damage. The samples were examined using either the human
eye or a stereomicroscope.
4. Results and discussion
Statistics generated by the statistical package for the social sciences (SPSS) were used
to investigate the differences in pilling and edge abrasion for the pre-washed, stone
washed and cellulase enzyme washed denim blue jean samples after laundering.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine the presence of significant
differences among the denim types and laundering cycles. A p-value # 0.05 was used
as the level of significance of differences between means of the variables. Duncans test
of multiple ranges was used in each data set to determine the source of any significance
determined.
4.1 Pilling
Analysis of variance showed that garment washed treatment had a significant effect
( p 0.000) on pilling after laundering while laundering cycle ( p 0.412) was not
significant (Table I). Post hoc analysis (Table II) revealed that the source of significance
for the denim treatment was the pre-washed (mean 4.21); the pre-washed garments
experienced significantly more pilling than the enzyme and stone washed garments.
Duncans also revealed there was no significant difference in the amount of pilling for
the enzyme (mean 4.47) and stone washed (mean 4.61) garment. The reason for
more pills on the pre-washed is because the surface fibers of pre-washed jeans have not
been dissolved by enzyme washing or abraded away by stone washing. Table III
illustrates that laundering did not have a significant effect on the pilling for all three
garment washed denim treatments. After five launderings, the pre-washed and enzyme
washed samples had an increase in pilling (noting that an increase in pilling is signified

Garment washed
jeans

47

IJCST
18,1

48

by a decrease in pilling rating) while the stone washed experienced a decrease. After
25 launderings, the amount of pilling was similar to the controls for all three garment
washed denim treatments. A possible explanation is that after 25 cycles, the surface
fibers were weakened by the mechanical abrasion action of laundering and were
removed so that there was nothing available to form pills. Overall, both the enzyme
treated and the stone washed garments experienced less pilling than the pre-washed
garments. Therefore, both enzyme and stone wash treatments offer serviceable denim
blue jeans with respect to pilling.
4.2 Edge abrasion
There was a significant difference found for the main effects of denim treatment
( p 0.000) and laundering cycles ( p 0.000) for edge abrasion (Table IV). The
two-way interaction between fabric and laundering was not significant ( p 0.130).
Duncans multiple range test (Table V) shows that the three garment washed
treatments were significantly different from each other. The pre-washed garments
experienced the least amount of edge abrasion (mean 2.86) followed by the enzyme
treatment (mean 2.42) while the stone washed samples had the most edge abrasion
(mean 1.91). There was no significant difference between the amount of edge
abrasion after 5 cycles (mean 2.33) compared to after 25 cycles (mean 2.171) as
presented in Table VI. Overall laundering did have a significant effect on edge
abrasion compared to the controls whose mean was 2.96.
There was significantly more edge abrasion in the stone washed control jeans
because processing with stones results in torn surface fibers. The high level of
mechanical action generated through stone washing accelerates the edge abrasion
activity. The stones aggressively removed fibers from the fabric surface thereby
exposing lower yarn surfaces that can be worn away further. Further abrasion from
laundering aggravates the torn fibers, causing a more worn appearance. The desizing
process of pre-washing removes the sizing agents from the blue jeans after

Sources

Table I.
Analysis of variance for
effect of cycles on pilling

Table II.
Duncans multiple range
test for pilling by denim
treatment

Main effects
Treatment (T)
Laundering (L)
2 2
TL
Explained
Residual
Total

SS

dF

MS

2.62
2.42
0.208
0.309
0.309
2.93
9.40
12.3

4
2
2
4
4
8
81
90

0.656
1.21
0.104
0.077
0.077
0.367
0.116
0.139

5.65
10.4
0.896
0.665
0.665
3.16

0.000
0.000
0.412
0.618
0.618
0.004

Denim

Pre-washed

Enzyme washed

Stone washed

Mean
Subset

4.21
A

4.47
B

4.61
B

Sig.

10.40

0.000

Variable
Overall
Control
Pre-washed
Stone washed
Enzyme washed
5 Launderings
Pre-washed
Stone washed
Enzyme washed
25 Launderings
Pre-washed
Stone washed
Enzyme washed

Sources
Main effects
Treatment (T)
Laundering (L)
TL
Explained
Residual
Total

Denim type

Mean

Standard deviation

Variance

398.67
134.50
43.00
45.83
45.67
131.02
40.67
46.50
43.83
133.19
42.67
45.83
44.67

4.43
4.48
4.30
4.58
4.57
4.37
4.01
4.65
4.38
4.44
4.27
4.58
4.67

0.37
0.29
0.32
0.24
0.32
0.33
0.38
0.21
0.39
0.38
0.36
0.35
0.44

0.14
0.09
0.10
0.06
0.10
0.11
0.14
0.05
0.15
0.15
0.13
0.13
0.19

SS

dF

MS

17.68
13.41
4.27
1.33
19.01
14.74
550.56

4
2
2
4
8
81
90

4.42
6.71
2.14
0.33
2.38
0.18

23.37
35.45
11.29
1.83
13.05

0.000
0.000
0.000
0.130
0.000

Stone washed

Enzyme washed

Pre-washed

Sig.

1.91
A

2.42
B

2.86
C

35.45

0.00

Mean
Subset

Laundering interval
Mean
Subset

Sum

25

Control

Sig.

2.171
A

2.33
A

2.69
B

35.45

0.00

construction. Pre-washing removes the starch by reducing the starch to a simple sugar
that is water-soluble; therefore, this results in little fiber damage (Table VII).
5. Conclusions
Denim jeans as well as denim garments have a strong presence in todays fashion
world; denim has a stable and viable foundation. And garment washing is a technology
incorporated by garment manufacturers to be able to provide a product in response to

Garment washed
jeans

49

Table III.
Summary of pilling by
denim treatment and
laundering interval

Table IV.
Analysis of variance for
effects of cycles on
edge abrasion

Table V.
Duncans multiple range
test for edge abrasion by
denim treatment

Table VI.
Duncans multiple range
test for edge abrasion by
laundering cycles

IJCST
18,1

50
Table VII.
Summary of edge
abrasion by denim
treatment and laundering
cycles

Variable
Overall
Control
Pre-washed
Stone washed
Enzyme washed
5 Launderings
Pre-washed
Stone washed
Enzyme washed
25 Launderings
Pre-washed
Stone washed
Enzyme washed

Sum

Mean

Standard deviation

Variance

215.67
80.67
32.67
20.67
27.33
70.00
29.00
18.33
22.67
65.00
24.00
18.33
22.67

2.3963
2.69
3.27
2.07
2.73
2.33
2.90
1.83
2.27
2.17
2.40
1.83
2.27

0.6160
0.33
0.38
0.34
0.26
0.36
0.23
0.28
0.58
0.52
0.60
0.28
0.56

0.3790
0.11
0.14
0.12
0.07
0.13
0.05
0.08
0.34
0.27
0.37
0.08
0.32

consumers wants. This comparison of the effects of repeated launderings on pilling

and edge abrasion of garment washed jeans provides garment manufacturers with
information about methods to allow them to seek the garment treatment that best
meets their needs. This study revealed the following regarding garment washed
treatments:
(1) The pre-washed garments experienced more pilling than the enzyme treated or
stone washed garments.
(2) The enzyme and stone washed treated garments performed similarly with
respect to pilling; therefore, both should offer serviceable denim jean with
respect to pilling.
(3) The pre-washed garments experienced the least amount of edge abrasion after
repeated home launderings.
(4) The stone washed garments experienced the most amount of edge abrasion
after repeated home launderings.
(5) The enzyme treated garments experienced more edge abrasion than the
pre-washed jeans, but less abrasion than the stone washed jeans after repeated
home laundering.
(6) The change in edge abrasion was significant when measured against the
unwashed samples for all denim treatments after 25 cycles.
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American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC) (2003), Technical Manual,
AATCC, Research Triangle Park, NC.
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) (2003), Annual Book of ASTM Standards
(Vol. 7.01 and 7.02), ASTM, Philadelphia, PA.
Corresponding author
Ayanna Card is the corresponding author.

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