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Materials in Construction
1.1
Design
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Unit 2: Science and Materials for Construction and the Built Environment
Construction
Builders are legally obliged to build-well and this includes a responsibility to use
specified materials in the correct manner and to identify potential defects.
Maintenance
Repair
A wide choice of repair systems is now available for many materials. Informed
and efficient use of such systems hinges upon an understanding of decay
processes, how to arrest decay, and how the repair materials interact with the
original materials.
Demolition/recycling
1.2
Performance Criteria
Structural Safety
Fire
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Unit 2: Science and Materials for Construction and the Built Environment
Durability
The material should fulfil the above performance criteria as required for the
planned lifetime of the building.
Health/safety
Comfort
Resistance to weathering
Serviceability
Appearance
1.3
Availability/cost.
Ease with which material can be incorporated into the building
(buildability).
Environmental aspects for example, energy demand of the materials
during manufacture and ability to conserve energy in use.
Most new buildings are produced with the aid of some written specification,
which may often take the form of detailed annotations to drawings, a bill of
quantities, or separate documents which are part of the contract. Some form of
written specification is highly desirable because it communicates to the
construction team exactly what is required and provides the client with a basis
on which unsatisfactory performance may be identified and remedied.
It is important to appreciate the background to the production of specifications,
standards and, ultimately, regulations for a particular item or context. In order
to be enforceable there is a need for each stage of the process to be precise
and repeatable. The developmental stage that lie behind any specific standards
or regulations are shown in the following figure.
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Unit 2: Science and Materials for Construction and the Built Environment
Specify
Identify
Define
Measure
Standardise
Regulate
For example, imagine the resistance to fire spread through a walling component.
Identify
Define
Measure
Standardise
Specify
Regulate
1.3.1 Standards
There exists two main standards which most of all the European countries are
obliged to follow. These standards are the;
British Standards
European codes and standards
British Standards
The British standards were produced at the beginning of the twentieth century
and now cover a vast range of materials and components, including most of
those used in the construction industry. They are produced by committees
representing manufacturers, researchers, users and government organisations.
With the advent of Eurostandards, British Standards now operate only on a care
and maintenance basis they will eventually be replaced by their European
counterparts which have validity in Europe as a whole. Because this process is
gradual, many British standards still exist; indeed new versions may be
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Unit 2: Science and Materials for Construction and the Built Environment
produced in the transition period (for example, the latest edition of BS 4449 for
steel reinforcement was published in 1997 during the preparation of EN 10080,
the European equivalent), but such standards will only be valid until the
European equivalent is operational. However, the final versions of European
Standards, on adoption by member states of the EU in the appropriate language,
again become national standards. For example, EN 10080 will be BS EN 10080
and will be available from the British Standards Institution.
European codes and standards
These provide a mechanism by which construction products and materials can be
traded and used freely throughout the European Common Market. They are
produced by Technical Committees of the European Committee for
Standardisation (CEN), which are of international composition reflecting the
viewpoints of member states. Although December 1992 was considered to be
the implementation date for these standards, their introduction and validation
are gradual processes and at present many standards are incomplete. As with
British Standards, there is a need for recognised testing and validating
authorities in each member state, and this infrastructure inevitably takes time to
introduce.
At present there are nine Eurocodes:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Stability
Safety in fire
Safety in use
Health
Noise
Heat retention
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Unit 2: Science and Materials for Construction and the Built Environment
As with British Standards, European Standards must be developed with great
care, representing the viewpoints of various interested parties. They are
therefore produced first as prestandards, or ENVs, which have no legal status;
these being followed by the full standard after a period of about three years. Any
product which complies with the essential requirements given in the standard is
eligible to carry a CE mark.
The use of CE mark does not necessarily indicate full compliance with a given
standard. The use of CE marks becomes mandatory once product directives are
issued by the European Union. Any standard will require a level of attestation
which demonstrates that it has been adequately assessed.
ISO Standards
These are standards produced by the International Standards Organisation and
they are intended to have world-wide validity. They may be adopted by
individual countries as national standards; for example, ISO 9000: Quality
Systems, has been adopted by the BSI and the European Union and has the full
title BS ISO 9000.
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Unit 2: Science and Materials for Construction and the Built Environment
1.4
Quality
Quality
Control
Quality
Management
1.4.1 BS Kitemark
The British Standards Institution awards the kitemark to products produced and
assessed to a quality system operated to BS EN ISO 9000. The kitemark is most
commonly awarded against British standards, but it can be obtained against any
national, European or ISO standards for the product. It has widespread
recognition and is synonymous with high standards of production and quality
control.
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Unit 2: Science and Materials for Construction and the Built Environment
1.5
Stability (structural)
Safety in fire
Durability
Safety in use and health
Environmental and issues
Strength
Strength may be defined as the ability to resist
failure or excessive plastic deformation under stress.
Compression
Tension
Bending
Shear
Torsion
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Unit 2: Science and Materials for Construction and the Built Environment
L = 2D
L=D
L = D
Testing
Compression testing needs special care because:
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Unit 2: Science and Materials for Construction and the Built Environment
It may well be argued that a pure compression test should not cause failure
since the forces are assisting atomic bonds and should therefore tend to hold the
materials together. While this is true, uniaxial compression (compression in one
direction only) also includes shear forces (figure 3) and tensile stresses as the
material swells in a lateral direction.
Tension testing can be difficult, especially with materials such as ceramics
because gripping specimens of uniform section produces stresses within the
grips which tend to cause premature fracture there (figure 4). Such problems
can be overcome by, for example, wasting the specimen, but this adds to the
cost of the test.
Figure 4: Additional stresses acting on a specimen when tensile stress is applied via friction grips.
(The diagram is schematic only; the friction grips would operate, for example, by pivots and scissors
actions.)
Bending produces compression, tension and shear stresses within the material,
the balance between these depending upon the shape of the sample. These
stresses can be calculated but the calculations presuppose simple bending
theory and it is known that such theory cannot be applied accurately to many
materials (such as timber and concrete).
Torsion, or twisting, occurs quite commonly when loads are applied
eccentrically. For example, if a beam supports a further beam at right angles to
it at mid-span, the carrier beam will be under a torsional stress. The calculation
of torsional stresses and resistance of materials to torsion can be quite complex.
All stresses should be measures in Newtons per square mm (N/mm2). Note that
fracture is not necessary for strength failure. For example, steel for practical
purposes has failed when it yields (see figure 5) though yielding does not
initially damage the metal. There are, on the other hand, many materials
ceramics, for example where sudden fracture is the first indication that
strength has been exceeded.
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Unit 2: Science and Materials for Construction and the Built Environment
1 - Ultimate Strength
3 - Rupture
5 - Necking region
Stiffness
Stiffness is the ability of a material to resist
elastic deformation under load.
Elastic deformation is deformation which is recovered when the load is removed.
High deformations, even if elastic, may cause problems for example, unsightly
appearance or failure of plaster coatings if attached to a substrate which has
large deflections. It is normal practice, therefore, to check deflections as part of
the structural design. Stiffness is normally measure by:
( )
Since strain has no units (= fractional change of length), E values have the units
of stress. Measured strains are usually small, typically less than 0.001, leading
to large values of E. They are, therefore, usually measured in kN/mm2.
Note: 1 kN/mm2 = 1000 N/mm2
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Unit 2: Science and Materials for Construction and the Built Environment
Toughness
Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb
energy by impact or sudden blow.
Strong materials are not always tough for example, cast iron. Relatively weak
materials can have high toughness for example, leather. Figure 6 illustrates a
typical impact test such as that used to measure the behaviour of toughened
glass.
Figure 6: Impact tester suitable for testing toughness of glass (Adapted from BS 6206: 1981)
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Unit 2: Science and Materials for Construction and the Built Environment
Hardness
Hardness is resistance to indentation under
stress.
Hardness is relevant to floor and wall surfaces (figure 7) and depends on a
combination of strength and stiffness properties.
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Unit 2: Science and Materials for Construction and the Built Environment
Creep
Creep is the effect of long-term stress, leading
to additonal distortion or failure.
Creep does not necessarily produce a safety risk though marked deflections in,
say, beams can appear alarming. In extreme cases, creep may lead to ultimate
failure. Materials subject to creep are timber, clay, lead, concrete,
thermoplastics, and, to a small extent, glass. Creep can be tested using rigs of
the form shown in figure 9. Simple mechanical systems are preferred and the
strain can be measured by a demountable dial gauge. Alternatively, deflections
of simply supported beams such as timber could be measured.
Figure 9: Bench-mounted machine which demonstrates the phenomenon of creep under different conditions and in
2
different materials
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Unit 2: Science and Materials for Construction and the Built Environment
Fatigue
Fatigue is the effect of load reversals such as vibrations
which lead to failure at relatively low stresses.
All materials are subject to fatigue effects and, in some situations for example,
roads or floors subject to heavy moving loads, or machine frames fatigue may
be the critical factor in design. The fatigue life of components is measured in
cycles since each cycle adds to the level of damage. For metals, fatigue lives of
several million cycles may be required in situations at risk.
Material
Density
(kg/m3)
Tensile
Strength
(N/mm2)
Elastic
modulus
(kN/mm2)
Toughness
Hardness
Creep
resistance
Softwood
(pine)||to grain
500
90
High
Low
Low
Hardwood
(oak) ||to grain
700
140
10
High
Moderate
Moderate
Elastomer
(butyl rubber)
900
10
0.1
High
Very Low
Low
Thermo-plastic
(rigid PVC)
1100
50
205
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Clay facing
brick (stock)
1900
20
Low
High
High
Concrete
(normal)
2300
30
Moderate
High
Moderate
Glass (glazing)
2600
100
70
Low
High
Moderate
Glass (fibre
reinforcement)
2600
3000
70
Moderate
High
High
Steel (mild)
7800
300
210
High
Very High
Very High
Steel
(prestressing)
7800
2000
210
High
Very High
Very High
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Unit 2: Science and Materials for Construction and the Built Environment
Figure 10: The fire triangle: if any one ingredient is missing the fire cannot start.
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Unit 2: Science and Materials for Construction and the Built Environment
Evaluating fire hazard is a highly complex process and this is reflected in practice
by the numerous BS tests for the different aspects of fire. The chief hazards can
be summarised:
Building and Fire Regulations are chiefly concerned with escape. The welfare of
the structure itself is of secondary importance, though insurance companies will
be anxious to minimise building damage in addition and the fire services will
also be concerned about provisions in the building for tackling fires effectively
without undue risk to personnel.
Illustration of some current British Standards are given in figure 11.
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Unit 2: Science and Materials for Construction and the Built Environment
1.5.3 Durability
Service lives for components of less than the building life may be appropriate
where replacement is straightforward, where there is a severe cost penalty of
longer life or where replacement arising from changing user requirements may
be desirable.
It is often very difficult to predict the durability of individual components. Also,
since failures in a very small proportion of the items in use may be
unacceptable, the only safe course of action may be to over-design them so
that materials in the worst likely situation should be satisfactory. In
consequence, many buildings last much longer than their design lifetime. The
following table summarises some of the main modes of deterioration of major
materials groups.
Type
Form of deterioration
Surface deterioration by
electrolytic corrosion in damp
conditions
Recommendation
Use resistant metal
such as stainless steel
or apply coating to
exclude moisture.
Metals
Bricks, stone,
concrete (porous)
Use non-permeable
forms; weatherings to
shed water;
impermeable coatings
to prevent water
penetration
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Unit 2: Science and Materials for Construction and the Built Environment
Fungal attack (damp conditions).
Ultraviolet Degradation
Polymeric
materials
It will be noted that the majority of modes are associated with the effect of
water. A further important point is that if these modes of deterioration are
avoided, as should be the case with good practice, long life should be achieved;
most materials do not age except by these specific mechanisms. There are, for
example, samples of timber, concrete and metals over 1000 years old and in
good condition.
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Unit 2: Science and Materials for Construction and the Built Environment
Common construction industry materials: risks
Substance
Situation
Risk
Lead
Formerly in paints,
pipes, solders
Asbestos
Polyvinyl
chloride
(PVC)
During storage,
transportation and
at or soon after
application
Not currently used
but may be present
as insulation or
other forms
especially in older
buildings
Widely used for
waste systems,
windows,
miscellaneous
applications.
Plasticised version
in fabrics
Solventbased paints
Bitumen
Site application
Health risk if
ingested, especially
to children
Remedy
Remove existing lead
pipework. Specify
lead-free paints and
solders
Radioactive gas
Isolate ground
beneath buildings
Adequate ventilation
after installation
Check specifications
for products which
might contain CFCs.
Less harmful
substitutes now
available
Risk to human,
animal or plant life
Chief risk is in
manufacture, where
chloride pollution in
effluent is a risk.
Small risk of toxic
gas in fire
Stringent precautions
during manufacture.
Normal fire
precautions
Use water-based
paints where
possible.
Take precautions
during use
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Unit 2: Science and Materials for Construction and the Built Environment
Embodied energy
Recycling potential
Environmental management
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Unit 2: Science and Materials for Construction and the Built Environment
Major groups of building materials: embodied energies
Material
Extraction
Manufacture
Timber
Low: felling
and
transport
Very low:
machining/
seasoning
Concrete
Clay bricks
Low:
aggregate
extraction
Low
Medium:
requires 1020% of
cement-a
high-energy
material
High: bricks
must be
heated to
1100oC
Plastics
Medium
obtained
from oil
High: complex
manufacturing
process
Steel
High: ore
must be
obtained
and
transported
Very high:
steel is molten
during
manufacture
Aluminium
High: ore
must be
obtained
and
transported
Very high:
high electricity
cost in
process used
Cost in
use
Generally
low:
Low: timber yard
requires
to site
occasional
protection
Transportation
Comments
Timber
overall
scores
highly
Low:
provided
material is
durable
Overall
moderate
energy cost
Very low:
provided
material is
durable
Overall high
energy cost
Low: low-density
material
Medium:
usually
limited life
Low:
provided
rust
protection
applied
Medium
Very low:
usually
protected
by oxide
coating
High energy
cost, offset
by
advantages
for common
applications
A highenergy
material,
with
significant
structural
advantage
A highenergy
material:
advantages
are
durability
and
lightness
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Unit 2: Science and Materials for Construction and the Built Environment
Recycling Potential
This may conveniently be described as a hierarchy of Rs, as shown in the
following table. Only when none of these is feasible should disposal be
considered. Materials/situations in which disposal is the only practical option
should be regarded as failures in an environmental sense.
Recycling may have various goals:
In any one context the aims of recycling should be established and the feasibility
of recycling examined bearing in mind the following:
Recycling options
Options
Comments
Reduce
Problems can be avoided at source if wastage in production is
reduced and materials have inherently low maintenance
characteristics
Reuse
This implies minimum recovery/reprocessing cost - for example,
reusing limestone after a building is demolished
Recycle
Some manufacturing is involved for example, lead, steel,
glass. Solid wood could be reprocessed into chipboard
Recover
This may still be worthwhile if combustible materials such as
energy
timber, plastics and rubber are incinerated and the heat
recovered is used for district heating schemes
Disposal
Should be the last resort
Environmental Management
There are calls for sustainable construction, which is a subset of a sustainable
society. Such a society should be able to continue to operate without
compromising prospects for operation of future societies. In environmental
terms, this means avoiding the following:
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Unit 2: Science and Materials for Construction and the Built Environment
At the present time these criteria are rarely fulfilled and there is an urgent need
to address issues, especially where it is believed that measurable adverse
changes are already taking place. In addition to the BS ISO 9000 Quality
Management Systems described above, many organisations are now operating
Environmental Management Systems in which environmental implications of all
operations are systematically considered and controlled. The ISO version of this
BS EN ISO 14001 and the corresponding European Standard is the
Ecomanagement and Auditing Scheme. Such schemes may be driven by local
authority initiative or, in the case of for example, materials suppliers, by public
perception and demand.
1.6
1.
2.
3.
Explain the difference between the terms quality control and quality
management systems.
4.
Explain the difference between the terms strength and stifness. Give
examples of materials of
5.
a)
b)
c)
d)
in compression;
b)
in tension.
6.
7.
8.
a)
timber;
b)
concrete;
c)
steel.
Describe the options available other than disposal at the demolition stage
of a building.
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Unit 2: Science and Materials for Construction and the Built Environment
1.7
BS 476:
BS ISO 9000:
of
under
ambient
1.8
measurement
Systems.
Specification
with
Final Note:
These notes were taken from the book Materials in Construction by G.D.Taylor.
All the pictures were taken from the internet to illustrate what was being
described. Some of the notes are related to English Standards. We only adopt
these standards when these are still not written in the European Standards. In
Malta we have also our own standards as well. In general, when a research is
done, we first try to find the Maltese standards, and then if such standards dont
exits, we try the other options.
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