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Cognitive Therapy and Research, Vol. 26, No. 6, December 2002 (

Cognitive Vulnerability to Hopelessness Depression:

A Chain Is Only as Strong as Its Weakest Link
John R. Z. Abela1,2 and Sabina Sarin1

The hopelessness theory proposes that depressogenic inferential styles about the self,
consequences, and causes serve as vulnerability factors to hopelessness depression.
Previous research on the diathesisstress component of the theory has examined each
inferential style separately. Doing so, however, is likely to provide an inaccurate test
of the theory because individuals who possess only one depressogenic inferential style
but who show increases in symptoms following negative events will appear to support
the theory in some analyses but to contradict the theory in others. The weakest link
hypothesis posits that an individual is as vulnerable to hopelessness depression as her
most depressogenic inferential style makes her. Therefore, according to this hypothesis,
when testing the theory, researchers should determine each participants degree of vulnerability using her most depressogenic inferential style. The goal of the current study
was to test the diathesisstress and symptom components of the hopelessness theory in
seventh grade children using both the traditional and weakest link approaches. Seventynine children completed measures of depressogenic inferential styles and depressive
symptoms (Time 1). Ten weeks later (Time 2), they completed measures of depressive symptoms and negative events. Neither depressogenic inferential styles about the
self, consequences, nor causes interacted with negative events to predict increases in
symptoms of hopelessness depression. In line with hypotheses, however, childrens
weakest links interacted with negative events to predict increases in hopelessness
depression symptoms. In addition, in line with the symptom component of the theory,
this interaction did not predict increases in nonhopelessness depression symptoms.
KEY WORDS: hopelessness theory; children; depression; diathesisstress.

Prevalence rates of depression in Western cultures have soared in recent years

to epidemic proportions (Lewinsohn, Rohde, Seeley, & Fisher, 1993). In response
to such statistics, a vast amount of research has been conducted on the etiology of
1 Department

of Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.

whom correspondence should be directed to John R. Z. Abela, Department of Psychology, McGill
University, Stewart Biological Sciences Building, 1205 Dr. Penfield Avenue, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
H3A 1B1; e-mail: abela@ego.psych.mcgill.ca.

2 To

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depression. One theory that has obtained promising results in both child and adult
samples is the hopelessness theory (Abramson, Metalsky, & Alloy, 1989).
The hopelessness theory is a cognitive diathesisstress theory that proposes a
series of contributory causes that interact with each other to culminate in the proximal sufficient cause of a specific subtype of depression: hopelessness depression
(Abramson et al., 1989). The theory proposes three distinct inferential styles that
serve as distal contributory causes of hopelessness depression. The first is the tendency to attribute negative events to global and stable causes. The second is the
tendency to perceive negative events as having many disastrous consequences. The
third is the tendency to infer negative characteristics about the self when negative
events occur. Each of these depressogenic inferential styles predisposes individuals to
hopelessness depression by making it more likely that they will make depressogenic
inferences following negative events. Making such inferences increases the likelihood
that hopelessness will develop. Once hopelessness develops, hopelessness depression
is inevitable because the theory views hopelessness as a proximal sufficient cause of
depression.
An extensive amount of research has been conducted examining the etiological
chain of the hopelessness theory. The majority of studies using adolescent and adult
populations have found strong support for the diathesisstress component of the
theory (e.g., Abela, 2002; Abela & Seligman, 2000; Alloy & Clements, 1998; Alloy,
Just, & Panzarella, 1997; Hankin, Abramson, & Siler, 2001; Metalsky, Halberstadt,
& Abramson, 1987; Metalsky & Joiner, 1992, 1997; Metalsky, Joiner, Hardin, &
Abramson, 1993). Research examining the diathesisstress component of the hopelessness theory in child populations, however, has yielded more mixed results. Although several studies have found strong support for the diathesisstress component
(Dixon & Ahrens, 1992; Hilsman & Garber, 1995; Joiner, 2000; Panak & Garber,
1992; Robinson, Garber, & Hilsman, 1995), other studies have yielded either more
inconsistent support (Abela, 2001; Nolen-Hoeksema, Girgus, & Seligman, 1986, 1992;
Turner & Cole, 1994) or no support at all (Cole & Turner, 1993; Hammen, Adrian,
& Hiroto, 1988).
Because research examining the etiological component of the hopelessness theory has yielded discrepant results in child samples, researchers have attempted to
identify factors that may account for such inconsistencies. Turner and Cole (1994)
offered one possible explanation. They proposed that attributional styles are acquired during the transition from late childhood to early adolescence when children
develop the capacity for abstract reasoning and formal operational thought. They
argued that in younger children, attributions may simply be a direct consequence
of negative events and subsequent environmental feedback rather than the result
of an attributional style. Turner and Cole (1994) noted that this developmental hypothesis is in line with past findings. For example, Turner and Cole (1994) found
that in a sample of 409 fourth, sixth, and eighth grade children, a depressogenic attributional style interacted with negative events to predict increases in depressive
symptoms in eighth but not fourth or sixth grade children. Similarly, in a 5-year longitudinal study of 352 third grade children, Nolen-Hoeksema et al. (1992) found that
although early in childhood only negative events predicted increases in depressive
symptoms, later in childhood the interaction between attributional style and negative

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events predicted increases in such symptoms. Because most previous studies examining the attributional vulnerability hypothesis of the hopelessness theory in children
used participants in the middle of the transition period from late childhood to early
adolescence as well as grouped together participants from different grade levels,
inconsistencies can be expected.
Abela (2001) subsequently tested the developmental hypothesis in a sample
of 152 third and 230 seventh grade children. In support of the developmental hypothesis, Abela (2001) found that a depressogenic attributional style interacted with
negative events to predict increases in depressive symptoms in seventh grade children but not in third grade children. In contrast to the developmental hypothesis,
however, depressogenic inferential styles about consequences and the self interacted
with negative events to predict increases in depressive symptoms in both third and
seventh grade children. Although these results support Turner and Coles hypothesis
regarding the emergence of attributional style as a vulnerability factor to depression
(Turner & Cole, 1994), they also suggest that depressogenic inferential styles about
the self and consequences emerge as vulnerability factors earlier than attributional
style.
Researchers have posited that a second factor that may account for inconsistencies in past research is the failure to examine the symptom component of the hopelessness theory. Hopelessness theorists have posited that hopelessness depression is
characterized by a unique symptom profile. Hypothesized primary symptoms include
motivational deficits and sad affect. Hypothesized secondary symptoms include suicidal ideation, lack of energy, psychomotor retardation, sleep disturbance, poor concentration, low self-esteem, and increased dependency. Although some symptoms
of hopelessness depression overlap with the diagnostic criteria for major depression
in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders , 4th ed. (DSM-IV;
American Psychiatric Association [APA], 1994), others are unique to hopelessness
depression (i.e., mood exacerbated negative cognitions, increased dependency, and
low self-esteem). Furthermore, some symptoms that are incorporated in the diagnostic criteria for DSM-IV major depression (i.e., anhedonia, irritability, psychomotor
agitation, and appetite disturbance) are not hypothesized to be part of the hopelessness depression symptom constellation.
The majority of studies using adolescent or adult samples have provided support for the hopelessness theorys symptom component (Alloy et al., 1997; Alloy &
Clements, 1998; Hankin et al., 2001; Joiner, 2000, 2001; Joiner et al., 2001; Metalsky &
Joiner, 1997; Spangler, Simons, Monroe, & Thase, 1993; Whisman, Miller, Norman,
& Keitner, 1995; Whisman & Pinto, 1997). Equally strong support for this hypothesis
has been obtained in child samples (Abela & DAlessandro, 2001; Abela & Gagnon,
2001). For example, Abela and DAlessandro (2001) examined the relationship between hopelessness and depressive symptoms in a sample of schoolchildren between
the ages of 7 and 13. In line with the theory, hopelessness depression symptoms exhibited a significantly greater association with hopelessness than did nonhopelessness
depression symptoms. In another study, Abela and Gagnon (2001) examined associations between attributional style, stress, and depressive symptoms in a sample of 39
children between the ages of 7 and 13 who were exhibiting clinically significant levels of depressive symptoms. Children were categorized into hopelessness depression

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and nonhopelessness depression subgroups on the basis of whether or not they met
criteria for hopelessness depression as defined by (1) possessing a depressogenic
attributional style and (2) experiencing a negative event prior to the onset of their
symptoms. Children in the hopelessness depression subgroup exhibited higher levels
of hopelessness but not nonhopelessness depression symptoms than children in the
nonhopelessness depression subgroup. In addition, although children in both groups
were equally likely to receive a diagnosis of major depression, dysthymia, and adjustment disorder, children in the hopelessness depression group were more likely than
children in the nonhopelessness depression group to receive a diagnosis of hopelessness depression based on criteria set forth by Alloy et al. (2000). These studies thus
provide preliminary support for the applicability of the symptom component of the
theory to children. Future research examining the diathesisstress component of the
theory in children should incorporate a test of the symptom component because the
diathesisstress interactions are hypothesized to predict increases in hopelessness
but not nonhopelessness depression symptoms. The fact that past research has failed
to do so may partially account for inconsistencies in findings.
Another possible reason why past research examining the diathesisstress component of the hopelessness theory in children is likely to have obtained inconsistent
results is that past researchers have examined each of the three inferential styles
in isolation without considering possible relationships between them. As such, past
research is unlikely to have provided a complete or accurate test of the diathesis
stress component of the theory. Consider the following example: suppose that within
a particular sample, scores on measures of the inferential styles of self, causes, and
consequences range from 1 to 5 with a mean of 3 and a standard deviation of 1.
Sigmunds score on the CASQ was a 5. His score on the CCSQ was a 1 for the self
diathesis and a 1 for the consequences diathesis. Sigmund experiences several negative events between Time 1 and Time 2. The hopelessness theory would predict that
Sigmund is likely to become depressed. This follows from the theorys claim that people who possess a depressogenic attributional style are likely to become depressed
in the face of negative events. When employing traditional approaches to analysis,
most researchers would examine the following three questions: (1) Does Sigmunds
attributional style interact with negative events to predict increases in depressive
symptoms? (2) Does Sigmunds inferential style about the self interact with negative
events to predict increases in depressive symptoms? (3) Does Sigmunds inferential
style about consequences interact with negative events to predict increases in depressive symptoms? When examining the interaction between negative events and
either Sigmunds inferential style about the self or consequences, however, a vital
piece of information is lost. Consequently, in such analyses, Sigmunds case appears
to be a failure of the theory. The current version of the hopelessness theory does not
explicitly offer a solution to this problem as it does not discuss the possible relationships between the three depressogenic inferential styles. The theory simply states that
each of these three inferential styles serves as a vulnerability factor to hopelessness
depression.
One potential approach to resolving this conflict would be to use a composite
score for each participant that is equal to the sum of his or her three diatheses. This
additive approach, however, would not adequately solve the problem. This can be

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illustrated in the following example: Annas score on each of the three diatheses is a
3. Anna experiences as many negative events between Time 1 and 2 as does Sigmund.
Because Annas composite score is a 9 and Sigmunds is a 7, this would indicate that
Anna is more likely than Sigmund to become depressed. The hopelessness theory
of depression, however, would predict the opposite because Anna only received an
average score on each of the three diatheses. Similar reasoning can be extended to
a multiplicative approach to resolving this problem under which Annas composite
score would be 27 and Sigmunds would be 5. Such an approach would once again
predict, in contrast to the hopelessness theory, that Anna is more likely to become
depressed than Sigmund.
We propose that the correct solution to this problem is based on the following
analogy: A chain is only as strong as its weakest link. In other words, an individual is as vulnerable to hopelessness depression as his or her most depressogenic
inferential style makes him or her. According to this approach, Sigmund would receive a score of 5 and Anna would receive a 3. Consequently, we would correctly
predict that Sigmund is more likely than Anna to become depressed when experiencing negative events. The weakest link approach thus adequately detects such
subtle distinctions that both the additive and multiplicative approaches miss. It is
important to note that we are not suggesting that researchers should abandon examining each of the diathesisstress interactions alone, for doing so could incorrectly
lead to accepting the current theory as it is when only one or two of its diatheses are accurate predictors. Doing so could also lead to prematurely rejecting the
entire theory although one or two of its diatheses are strong predictors. Rather,
researchers should continue to look at each of these interactions in conjunction
with examining the interaction between childrens stress and weakest link scores.
Through looking at both of these types of interactions, researchers will be able to see
how the theory is doing as a whole, as well as how each of its components is faring
alone.
The goal of the current study was to test the diathesisstress and symptom components of the hopelessness theory in a sample of seventh grade children, using
both traditional and weakest link approaches. Seventh grade children were chosen
because they are the youngest population that has been shown to possess all three
vulnerability factors, thus allowing for a strong test of the weakest link hypothesis
(Abela, 2001). The procedure involved an initial assessment of depressive symptoms
and depressogenic inferential styles about causes, consequences, and the self. The
procedure also involved a follow-up assessment 10 weeks later during which depressive symptoms and the occurrence of negative events were assessed. In line with
traditional approaches, we hypothesized that depressogenic inferential styles about
the self, consequences, and causes would interact with the occurrence of negative
events to predict increases in hopelessness depression but not nonhopelessness depression symptoms. In line with the weakest link hypothesis, we hypothesized that
childrens weakest link would interact with the occurrence of negative events to
predict increases in hopelessness depression but not nonhopelessness depression
symptoms even after controlling for the proportion of variance in hopelessness depression symptom scores accounted for by each of the individual diathesisstress
interactions.

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METHOD
Participants
Consent forms were sent to all seventh grade children at participating schools.
Consent rates varied from 75 to 85% with a median rate of 80%. The final sample
consisted of 79 children (63 girls and 16 boys). Participants came from one urban
private girls school (18 children) and one suburban private school (61 children). The
final sample was 96.6% Caucasian. The mother tongue of 90.1 % of the sample was
French. The mean age of the participants was 12 years and 3 months. Although data
on the socioeconomic status of students families is not available, all schools were
located in predominantly upper middle class regions of the city.
Procedure
After consent forms were collected, researchers went to each school to meet
with the children. At the start of each assessment, students were told that their participation was voluntary and they could choose to not participate if they desired. No
children decided to not participate. During the first meeting, children completed the
Childrens Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs, 1981), the Childrens Attributional
Style Questionnaire (CASQ; Seligman et al., 1984), and the Childrens Cognitive
Style Questionnaire (CCSQ; Abela, 2001). Ten weeks later, researchers met again
with participating children. During this follow-up assessment, children completed
the CDI (Kovacs, 1981) and the Childrens Life Events Scale (CLES; Coddington,
1972; Kanner, Feldman, Weinberger, & Ford, 1987). Following the completion of
these questionnaires, the children were fully debriefed.
Measures
All questionnaires were translated into French by a certified EnglishFrench
translator. The French translations were then backtranslated into English by a certified FrenchEnglish translator. The backtranslations were then compared to the
original English versions of the questionnaire. Any discrepancies between the original English version and the backtranslation were examined to ensure that the French
translation retained the intended meaning of the original item.
Childrens Attributional Style Questionnaire (CASQ; Seligman et al., 1984)
The CASQ contains 48 items. Each item is a hypothetical event (24 negative
and 24 positive) that respondents are asked to imagine happened to them. Because
the hypotheses of the current study only involved participants attributional styles
for negative events, only the 24 negative event items were used. Respondents are
presented with two possible causes of each event and are asked to choose which cause
best describes the way they would think if the event happened to them. The two causes
hold constant two attributional dimensions (internalexternal, globalspecific, and
stableunstable) while varying the third. The CASQ is scored by assigning a value
of 1 to each internal, global, or stable response and a 0 to each external, unstable,

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or specific response. There are eight items assessing each dimension, thus scores for
each dimension range from 0 to 8. In line with the hopelessness theory, we used the
generality composite score to measure attributional style. This score is equivalent to
the sum of all global and stable responses and can range from 0 to 16 with higher
scores indicating a more depressogenic attributional style.
In a study examining the reliability and validity of the CASQ in children (aged
813), Seligman et al. (1984) found that CASQ scores were fairly consistent over a 6month interval showing attributional style to be a stable individual difference among
children (r = .66, p < .001). Cronbachs alpha for the negative events composite
score ranged from .50 to .54 across administrations indicating moderate internal
consistency. Regarding validity, children exhibiting depressive symptoms were more
likely than nondepressed children to endorse internal, global, and stable explanations
for negative events. Furthermore, a pessimistic attributional style predicted depressive symptoms at the 6-month follow-up above and beyond initial levels of depression in children. Since this study, several other studies using the CASQ have obtained
similar findings (e.g., Abela, 2001; Hilsman & Garber, 1995; Nolen-Hoeksema et al.,
1986, 1992). In the current study, for the generality subscale, we obtained an alpha
of .54.
Childrens Cognitive Style Questionnaire (CCSQ; Abela, 2001)
The CCSQ is a two-part questionnaire. Part one assesses the tendency to catastrophize the consequences of negative events. Part two assesses the tendency to view
oneself as flawed or deficient following negative events. Each part contains 12 items,
each of which is a hypothetical negative event involving the child. As with the CASQ,
respondents are instructed to imagine that the event happened to them and then to
choose the response that would best describe the way they would think. In part one,
the child is given the following four choices: (a) This wont cause other bad things to
happen to me; (b) This might cause other bad things to happen to me; (c) This will
cause other bad things to happen to me; and (d) This will cause many terrible things
to happen to me. Each response is assigned a value from 0 to 3 with higher scores
indicating a greater tendency to catastrophize the consequences of negative events.
Scores for the 12 items are added yielding a composite score ranging from 0 to 36.
In part two, the child is given the following three choices: (a) This does not make me
feel bad about myself; (b) This makes me feel a little bad about myself; and (c) This
makes me feel very bad about myself. Each response is assigned a value of 02 with
higher scores indicating a greater tendency to view oneself as flawed or deficient
following negative events. Scores for the 12 items are added yielding a composite
score ranging from 0 to 24.
In a study examining the reliability and validity of the CCSQ in seventh grade
children, Abela (2001) administered the CCSQ twice with a 7-week interval between
administrations. For the inferential style about consequences subscale, Time 1 and
Time 2 scores significantly correlated with each other (r = .46, p < .001). Similarly,
for the inferential style about the self subscale, Time 1 and Time 2 scores significantly
correlated with each other (r =.63, p <.001). These correlations indicate that the
inferential styles about consequences and the self are relatively stable individual

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differences in this age group. Cronbachs alphas for the CCSQ subscales ranged
from .64 to .81 across administrations indicating moderate internal consistency. In the
current study, we obtained an alpha of .71 for the inferential style about consequences
subscale and .75 for the inferential style about the self subscale.
Childrens Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs, 1981)
The CDI is a 27-item self-report questionnaire that measures the cognitive,
affective, and behavioral symptoms of depression. It is the most widely used selfreport measure of depression in children (Hammen & Gotlib, 1992). Each item
consists of three statements that increase in order of symptom severity. For each
item, children were asked whether it described how they were thinking and feeling
in the past week. Items are scored from 0 to 2 with a higher score indicating greater
symptom severity. At the request of school principals, we removed one item that
inquires about suicidality. Total scores on the questionnaire range from 0 to 52. A
cutoff score of 13 has been suggested to indicate mild depression and 19 to indicate
severe depression (Kovacs, 1983). At Time 1, 16.9% of participants were classified
as exhibiting mild depression and 10.8% as exhibiting severe depression. At Time
2, 22.7% of participants were classified as exhibiting mild depression and 11.4% as
exhibiting severe depression.
In line with Abela and DAlessandro (2001), we created individual symptom
measures by calculating the mean of relevant items from the CDI. This resulted in
six symptoms hypothesized to be symptoms of hopelessness depression (motivational
deficit, sadness, lack of energy, sleep disturbance, low self-esteem, and dependency)
and four symptoms not hypothesized to be symptoms of hopelessness depression
(anhedonia, irritability, appetite disturbance, and somatic disturbance). We then created hopelessness and nonhopelessness depression symptom composite scores by
obtaining the mean of relevant symptoms. In the current study, we obtained an alpha
of .77 at Time 1 and .81 at Time 2 on the hopelessness depression symptom subscale
suggesting that the symptom composite had acceptable internal consistency. On the
nonhopelessness depression symptom subscale, we obtained an alpha of .57 at Time
1 and .56 at Time 2. The lower alphas for the nonhopelessness symptom subscale
are not surprising given that these symptoms are not hypothesized to constitute a
syndrome.
The Childrens Life Events Scale (CLES; Codington, 1972; Kanner et al., 1987)
The CLES is a list of 59 hassles and negative events that children may experience.
Given that measures of life events and daily hassles that require respondents solely to
indicate whether or not an event occurred are less likely to be influenced by informant
bias than those that ask participants to rate the frequency or subjective impact of
each event, for each item, respondents are simply asked whether or not they have
experienced that event in the past 10 weeks. If they have, they receive a score of 1.
If they have not, they receive a score of 0. Scores on the CLES range from 0 to 59
with higher scores indicating the occurrence of a greater number of stressful events.
Thirty-seven items are from the Childrens Hassles Scale (Kanner et al., 1987). The
remaining 22 items are from the Coddington Life Stress Scale (Coddington, 1972).

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Table I. Means and Standard Deviations of and Intercorrelations Between All Measures
1

10

11

1. CASQ-GEN 4.1(2.3)
2. CCSQ-CONS .30 12.3(4.5)
3. CCSQ-SELF .13
.42 11.5(4.1)
4. WEAKEST .80 .56 .44 0.7(0.9)
.15
.29 .36 11.2(6.4)
5. T1CDI
.30
.12
.30 .30 .96 6.4(3.9)
6. T1CDI-HD .27
7. T1CDI.19
.12
.14
.32 .78 .66 2.7(1.7)
NON-HD
8. T2CDI
.36
.10
.10
.42 .62 .53 .61 11.2(6.1)
.11
.16
.39 .60 .56 .56 .94 6.2(3.9)
9. T2CDI-HD .29
.52 .72 .52 2.8(1.9)
10. T2CDI.21
.11
.13
.18
.33 .22
NON-HD
11. CLES
.24
.16
.03
.32 .37 .32 .53 .42 .43 .24 32.8(10.2)
Note. Means and standard deviations (in parentheses) are on the diagonal. CASQ-GEN = Childrens
Attributional Style Questionnaire, generality subscale; CCSQ-CONS = Childrens Cognitive Style Questionnaire, inferential style about consequences subscale; CCSQ-SELF = Childrens Cognitive Style
Questionnaire, inferential style about the self subscale; WEAKEST = weakest link diathesis; T1CDI
= Childrens Depression Inventory, Time 1; T1CDI-HD = Childrens Depression Inventory, hopelessness depression symptoms subscale, Time 1; T1CDI-NON-HD = Childrens Depression Inventory, nonhopelessness depression symptoms subscale, Time 1; T2CDI = Childrens Depression Inventory, Time
2; T2CDI-HD = Childrens Depression Inventory, hopelessness depression symptoms subscale, Time 2;
T2CDI-NON-HD = Childrens Depression Inventory, nonhopelessness depression symptoms subscale,
Time 2; CLES = Childrens Life Events Scale.
p < .05. p < .01. p < .001.

RESULTS
Descriptive Data
Means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations for all measures are reported
in Table I. t tests were conducted to examine whether there were sex differences on
any measure. Results indicated that no significant differences between boys and girls
existed on any of the variables.
In order to compute childrens weakest link, additive, and multiplicative composite scores, we first standardized scores on the generality subscale of the CASQ
and on the consequences and self subscales of the CCSQ. Next, for each subscale,
we determined what the lowest standardized score was in the sample. Last, for each
subscale, we added the lowest standardized score obtained in the sample to each
childs standardized score. Consequently, the lowest value on each subscale was 0.
Such a transformation was essential given (1) that we would be examining the interaction of these diathesis scores with stress scores in analyses and (2) we would
be computing multiplicative composite scores. Each childs weakest link composite score was equal to the highest of these three standardized scores. Each childs
additive composite score was equal to the sum of these three scores. Each childs
multiplicative composite score was equal to the multiplication of their three scores.
The range and variance of childrens weakest link scores (range = 4.94; variance
= .83) was similar to the range and variance of childrens scores on the generality
subscale of the CASQ (range = 5.05; variance = 1.14), the consequences subscale of

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the CCSQ (range = 4.41; variance = .73), and the self subscale of the CCSQ (range
= 4.49; variance = .95). Attributional style was the weakest link for 46.7% of the
children. The inferential style about consequences was the weakest link for 19.6%
of the children. The inferential style about the self was the weakest link for 33.7%
of the children. The difference between the standardized scores for childrens most
depressogenic and least depressogenic inferential styles ranged from 0.06 to 4.71
( = 1.36, SD = 0.93) with 18.5% of children exhibiting a difference greater than
2.00. Of the children who scored in the top quartile on at least one of the three measures assessing depressogenic inferential styles, 20.7% scored in the bottom quartile
on at least one of the other measures.

Overview of Statistical Analysis: DiathesisStress Component

In order to test the diathesisstress component of the hopelessness theory, we
performed hierarchical multiple regression analyses (Cohen & Cohen, 1983). In all
analyses, the dependent variable was either Time 2 hopelessness depression symptom
scores (CDI-HD) or Time 2 nonhopelessness depression symptom scores (CDINON-HD). First, the score for the dependent variable of interest at Time 1 (the
covariate) was entered into the equation. Second, main effect variables (i.e., stress
and diathesis variables) were entered into the equation. Last, the diathesisstress
interaction was entered into the equation. Consistent with Cohen and Cohen (1983),
all variables within a given set were entered simultaneously. Individual variables
within a set were not interpreted unless the set as a whole was significant. Neither
dummy coded variables for sex nor their interactions with each of the independent
variables were significant in any of the following analyses. Therefore, data were
combined across sex. In addition, in all cases, the assumption of homogeneity of
covariance was met (Joiner, 1994).

Test of the DiathesisStress Component: Attributional Style

Regarding the interaction between attributional style (CASQ-GEN) and negative events (CLES) in predicting residual change in hopelessness depression scores
(CDI-HD), the main-effect set significantly predicted residual change in CDI-HD
scores from Time 1 to Time 2, F (2, 71) = 5.458, p < .01. Analysis within the maineffect set indicated that CLES had a significant effect independent of CASQ-GEN
(pr = .362), t(71) = 3.135, p < .01. CASQ-GEN, however, did not have a significant effect independent of CLES (pr = .115), t (71) = 0.400, ns. In addition, in
contrast to hopelessness theory, the CASQ-GEN CLES interaction did not significantly predict residual change in CDI-HD scores from Time 1 to Time 2 (pr = .232),
F (1, 70) = 3.969, ns . Regarding the interaction between CASQ-GEN and CLES in
predicting residual changes in nonhopelessness depression scores (CDI-NON-HD),
the main-effect set was not a significant predictor of residual change in CDI-NON-HD
scores from Time 1 to Time 2, F(2, 71) = 2.653, ns . Similarly, the CASQGEN CLES interaction did not significantly predict residual change in CDI-NONHD scores from Time 1 to Time 2 (pr = .153), F(1, 70) = 1.685, ns .

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Test of the DiathesisStress Component: Inferential Style About Consequences

Regarding the interaction between the inferential style about consequences
(CCSQ-CONS) and negative events (CLES) in predicting residual changes in hopelessness depression scores (CDI-HD), the main-effect set significantly predicted
residual change in CDI-HD scores from Time 1 to Time 2, F(2, 69) = 5.746, p < .01.
Analysis within the main-effect set indicated that CLES had a significant effect independent of CCSQ-CONS (pr = .318), t(69) = 3.076, p < .01. CCSQ-CONS, however, did not have a significant effect independent of CLES (pr = .159), t(69) =
1.828, ns . In addition, in contrast to hopelessness theory, the CCSQ-CONS
CLES interaction did not significantly predict residual change in CDI-HD scores
from Time 1 to Time 2 (pr = .088), F(1, 68) = 0.529, ns . Regarding the interaction between CCSQ-CONS and CLES in predicting residual changes in nonhopelessness depression scores (CDI-NON-HD), the main-effect set was not a significant predictor of residual change in CDI-NON-HD scores from Time 1 to Time 2,
F(2, 69) = 2.299, ns. Similarly, the CCSQ-CONS CLES interaction did not significantly predict residual change in CDI-NON-HD scores from Time 1 to Time 2
(pr = .172), F(1, 68) = 2.065, ns .
Test of the DiathesisStress Component: Inferential Style About Self
Regarding the interaction between the inferential style about the self (CCSQSELF) and negative events (CLES) in predicting residual changes in hopelessness
depression scores (CDI-HD), the main-effect set significantly predicted residual
change in CDI-HD scores from Time 1 to Time 2, F(2, 70) 4.189, p < .05. Analysis within the main-effect set indicated that CLES had a significant effect independent of CCSQ-SELF (pr = .321), t(70) = 2.797, p < .01. CCSQ-SELF, however,
did not have a significant effect independent of CLES (pr = .084), t(70) = 0.559,
ns. In addition, in contrast to hopelessness theory, the CCSQ-SELF CLES interaction did not significantly predict residual change in CDI-HD scores from Time
1 to Time 2 (pr = .120), F(1, 69) = 1.014, ns. Regarding the interaction between
CCSQ-SELF and CLES in predicting residual changes in nonhopelessness depression scores (CDI-NON-HD), the main-effect set was not a significant predictor of
residual change in CDI-NON-HD scores from Time 1 to Time 2, F (2, 70) = 1.758, ns.
Similarly, the CCSQ-SELF CLES interaction did not significantly predict residual change in CDI-NON-HD scores from Time 1 to Time 2 (pr = .138), F(1,69) =
1.349, ns.
Test of the DiathesisStress Component: Weakest Link Diathesis
Results pertaining to the interaction between the weakest link
diathesis (WEAKEST) and negative events (CLES) in predicting residual changes
in hopelessness depression scores (CDI-HD) are presented in the top panel of
Table II. The main-effect set significantly predicted residual change in CDI-HD
scores from Time 1 to Time 2. Analysis within the main-effect set indicated that
CLES had a significant effect independent of WEAKEST. WEAKEST, however,

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Table II. diathesisstress Analyses: Prediction of Residual Change in CDI Scores From Time 1 to
Time 2; Weakest Link Diathesis
Order of
entry

Predictors

Hopelessness depression symptoms

1
CDI-HD (T = 1)
2
Main-effect variables
WEAKEST
CLES
3
WEAKEST CLES
Nonhopelessness depression symptoms
1
CDI-NON-HD (T = 1)
2
Main-effect variables
WEAKEST
CLES
3
WEAKEST CLES

Cumulative R2

F for
increment
in R2

.305
.410

31.986
6.354

.498

12.256

.338
.344

37.192
0.325

.350

.701

df
1, 73
2, 71
71
71
1, 70
1, 73
2, 71
71
71
1, 70

t for
within-set
predictors

Partial
correlation
(pr)
.552

1.310
2.765

.246
.362
.386
.581

0.633
0.662

.054
.059
.100

Note. CDI-HD (T = 1) = Childrens Depression Inventory, hopelessness depression symptoms subscale, Time 1; CDI-NON-HD (T = 1) = Childrens Depression Inventory, nonhopelessness depression
symptoms subscale, Time 1; WEAKEST = weakest link diathesis; CLES = Childrens Life Events Scale.
p < .01. p < .001.

did not have a significant effect independent of CLES. In addition, in support of the
weakest link hypothesis, the WEAKEST CLES interaction significantly predicted
residual change in CDI-HD scores from Time 1 to Time 2. In order to examine the
form of the WEAKEST CLES interaction, as recommended by Cohen and Cohen
(1983), residual CDI-HD change scores were calculated by inserting specific values
for WEAKEST and CLES scores (i.e., 1 standard deviation above and below the
mean) into the regression equation summarized in the top panel of Table II. The
results of this analysis are presented in Fig. 1. As can be seen in Fig. 1, among children who experienced negative events, those with a depressogenic weakest link
showed increases in CDI-HD scores whereas those without a depressogenic weakest link did not. Children who did not experience negative events did not show

Fig. 1. Regression equations plotting residual change in hopelessness depression symptoms from Time 1
to Time 2 as a function of negative events and the weakest link diathesis.

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increases in CDI-HD scores regardless of whether or not they possessed a depressogenic weakest link. Results pertaining to the WEAKEST CLES interaction in
predicting residual changes in nonhopelessness depression scores (CDI-NON-HD)
are presented in the bottom panel of Table II. The main-effect set was not a significant predictor of residual change in CDI-NON-HD scores from Time 1 to Time 2.
Similarly, in support of the symptom specificity hypothesis, the WEAKEST CLES
interaction did not significantly predict residual change in CDI-NON-HD scores
from Time 1 to Time 2.

Test of the DiathesisStress Component: Additive Approach Diathesis

Regarding the interaction between the additive approach diathesis (ADDITIVE) and negative events (CLES) in predicting residual changes in hopelessness
depression scores (CDI-HD), the main-effect set significantly predicted residual
change in CDI-HD scores from Time 1 to Time 2, F(2, 69) = 4.166, p < .05. Analysis
within the main-effect set indicated that CLES had a significant effect independent
of ADDITIVE (pr = .318), t(69) = 2.874, p < .01. ADDITIVE, however, did not
have a significant effect independent of CLES (pr = .031), t(69) = 0.708, ns. In
addition, the ADDITIVE CLES interaction did not significantly predict residual
change in CDI-HD scores from Time 1 to Time 2 (pr = .133), F(1, 68) = 1.221, ns.
Regarding the interaction between ADDITIVE and CLES in predicting residual
changes in nonhopelessness depression scores (CDI-NON-HD), the main-effect set
was not a significant predictor of residual change in CDI-NON-HD scores from Time
1 to Time 2, F(2, 69) = 0.387, ns. Similarly, the ADDITIVE CLES interaction did
not significantly predict residual change in CDI-NON-HD scores from Time 1 to
Time 2 (pr = .109), F(1, 68) = 0.824, ns.

Test of the DiathesisStress Component: Multiplicative Approach Diathesis

Regarding the interaction between the multiplicative approach diathesis
(MULTI) and negative events (CLES) in predicting residual changes in hopelessness depression scores (CDI-HD), the main-effect set significantly predicted residual
change in CDI-HD scores from Time 1 to Time 2, F (2, 69) = 4.196, p < .05. Analysis
within the main-effect set indicated that CLES had a significant effect independent
of MULTI (pr = .318), t(69) = 2.838, p < .01. MULTI, however, did not have a significant effect independent of CLES (pr = .066), t(69) = 0.744, ns. In addition,
the MULTI CLES interaction did not significantly predict residual change in CDIHD scores from Time 1 to Time 2 (pr = .084), F(1, 68) = 0.483, ns. Regarding the
interaction between MULTI and CLES in predicting residual changes in nonhopelessness depression scores (CDI-NON-HD), the main-effect set was not a significant predictor of residual change in CDI-NON-HD scores from Time 1 to Time 2,
F(2, 69) = 0.642, ns. Similarly, the MULTI CLES interaction did not significantly
predict residual change in CDI-NON-HD scores from Time 1 to Time 2 (pr = .135),
F(1, 68) = 1.268, ns.

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Additional Analyses
Since the WEAKEST CLES interaction predicted increases in CDI-HD
scores from Time 1 to Time 2, we also examined the effect of the WEAKEST CLES
interaction while controlling for each of the other diathesisstress interactions (i.e.,
we examined the WEAKEST CLES interaction while controlling for one of
the other possible diathesisstress interactions). For this analysis, Time 1 CDI-HD
scores were entered first. WEAKEST, DIATHESIS (i.e., CASQ-GEN, CCSQ-SELF,
CCSQ-CONS, ADDITIVE, or MULTI), and stress were entered second. Last, we entered the WEAKEST CLES and DIATHESIS CLES interactions. The WEAKEST CLES interaction had a unique effect independent of the CASQ-GEN
interaction (pr = .379, p < .05), the CCSQ-CONS interaction (pr = .314, p < .01),
the CCSQ-SELF interaction (pr = .328, p < .05), the ADDITIVE interaction (pr =
.297, p < .07), and the MULTI interaction (pr = .348, p < .01).
DISCUSSION
Results from analyses using the traditional approach of analyzing inferential
styles separately failed to provide support for the diathesisstress component of the
hopelessness theory. At the same time, however, results from analyses using the
weakest link approach provided full support for the diathesisstress component of
the theory. Childrens weakest link interacted with negative events to predict increases in hopelessness but not nonhopelessness depression symptoms. In contrast,
both the additive and multiplicative models were unable to adequately capture the
relationship among the inferential styles about the self, consequences, and causes.
Thus, the results of the current study suggest that the relationship between the three
inferential styles is best characterized by a weakest link approach.
The weakest link hypothesis is likely to be one of the factors that accounts
for discrepancies in past research examining the diathesisstress component of the
hopelessness theory in children. According to the weakest link hypothesis, the degree
of support a given study obtains for each inferential style will vary according to
the proportion of children in the sample for whom that style is their weakest link.
Interestingly, in the current study, the style that exhibited the largest effect size
was attributional style. This is not surprising given that attributional style was the
weakest link for almost 50% of the children in the current study. Similarly, in Abelas
Philadelphia school study, all three inferential styles served as vulnerability factors
to depression in seventh graders (Abela, 2001). A reexamination of the data from
that study reveals that in seventh graders all three inferential styles were equally
represented as the weakest link. Last, in Abelas study, the inferential style about the
self served as a vulnerability factor to depression in girls but not boys (Abela, 2001).
A reexamination of the data reveals that the inferential style about the self was the
weakest link for 60% of the girls in the study as opposed to only 20% of the boys.
Because these two studies are the only two to examine all three inferential styles
featured in the hopelessness theory in child populations, future research examining
this hypothesis is needed. At the same time, it is likely that past research that has failed
to provide support for the attributional vulnerability hypothesis of the hopelessness

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theory in child populations (e.g., Cole & Turner, 1993; Hammen et al., 1988) failed to
do so because attributional style was not a common weakest link among the children
in the sample.
These findings have particularly important implications for research on the hopelessness theory in children. Although research examining depressogenic inferential
styles about causes, consequences, and the self in adult populations has not found
them to be empirically distinguishable (Abela, 2002; Abela & Seligman, 2000; Metalsky & Joiner, 1992), research in child populations has (Abela, 2001). For example,
studies using adult populations consistently report high degrees of interrelatedness
among these three styles whereas studies using child populations have found them to
be virtually independent from one another. In addition, although research using adult
populations has failed to find age or gender differences with respect to the different
inferential styles, child research has suggested that the three styles may emerge as
vulnerability factors at different stages of development in different children (Abela,
2001). A closer examination of the children in the current study revealed that many
childrens propensities towards depressogenic thinking varied tremendously depending on which inferential style was examined. For example, 20.7% of children classified
as extremely pessimistic on one inferential style were classified as extremely optimistic on at least one other. A reanalysis of the data from Abelas Philadelphia
school study reveals a similarly striking trend (Abela, 2001). In that study, 23.5%
of children classified as extremely pessimistic on one inferential style were classified
as extremely optimistic on at least one other. Given that a significant proportion of
children exhibit such a range in their styles of thinking, a weakest link approach is
particularly warranted in order to provide an adequate test of the diathesisstress
component of the hopelessness theory in children.
Last, results from the current study provided full support for the symptom component of the hopelessness theory. Results revealed that childrens weakest links interacted with the occurrence of negative events to predict increases in hopelessness
but not nonhopelessness depression symptoms. These findings suggest that hopelessness depression is indeed characterized by a unique symptom profile. This has
important implications for the identification and treatment of depression in children. Discovering that hopelessness depression in children can be identified by its
unique symptom profile provides clinicians with a tool for distinguishing children
suffering from hopelessness depression from those suffering from other subtypes of
depression. Determining the subtype of depression a child is experiencing may have
important implications for predicting the childs prognosis and deciding which form
of treatment is most likely to be effective. The current findings also have important
implications for research examining the diathesisstress component of the hopelessness theory in children. Researchers should continue to examine hopelessness and
nonhopelessness depression symptoms separately rather than relying on overall composite scores of measures such as the CDI. The failure of past research using child
populations to do so may partially account for discrepant findings between studies.
The current study advances research on the hopelessness theory for several reasons. First, the current study is one of the first to examine all three depressogenic
inferential styles proposed by the hopelessness theory in a child sample. Second,
the current study is the first to provide support for the weakest link approach to

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analyzing inferential styles. Third, the current study is the first to examine the symptom component of the hopelessness theory in a longitudinal study employing a child
sample.
At the same time, several limitations should be noted. First, self-report measures were used to assess depressive symptoms. Although the CDI possesses high
degrees of reliability and validity, it is difficult to make conclusions about clinically
diagnosed depression based on self-report questionnaires. Future studies should utilize clinical interviews to see if the current findings extend to the development of
clinical depression. Similarly, self-report measures were used to assess stress. Such
measures have been critiqued as both cognitive vulnerability factors to depression
and current depressive symptoms have been shown to be related to the definition
and rating of negative events (Monroe & Simons, 1991; Simons, Angell, Monroe,
& Thase, 1993). In line with such critiques, in the current study, both pessimistic
inferential styles and current depressive symptoms were associated with reporting
a greater number of negative events. At the same time, the size of the association
between pessimism and stress was small (r = .03-.32). In addition, such associations
cannot automatically be attributed to informant bias as both depressed individuals
and individuals possessing vulnerability to depression have been shown to actually
generate more negative events in their lives than nondepressed individuals or individuals not vulnerable to depression (Hammen, 1991). Replication of the current
results utilizing interview-based assessments of stress is needed in order to rule out
the possibility that the current findings are the result of pessimistic inferential styles
or depressive symptoms influencing the definition of negative events. At the same
time, it is important to note that past research examining the hopelessness theory
of depression in child, adolescent, and adult samples has obtained similar results
regardless of whether stressors were assessed using self-report questionnaires (e.g.,
Abela, 2001; Alloy et al., 1997; Alloy & Clements, 1998; Dixon & Ahrens, 1992;
Hankin et al., 2001; Metalsky & Joiner, 1992, 1997; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1992;
Robinson et al., 1995; Turner & Cole, 1994) or more objective measures (e.g., Abela,
2002; Abela & Seligman, 2000; Hillsman & Garber, 1995; Metalsky et al., 1987, 1993;
Panak & Garber, 1992).
Second, some hypothesized symptoms of hopelessness depression were not assessed in the current study. Future studies examining the symptom component of the
theory should employ a more thorough examination of the symptoms of hopelessness
depression. Future research should also include measures of nondepressive symptoms in order to examine whether depressogenic inferential styles are vulnerability
factors specifically to depressive symptoms or whether they serve as vulnerability
factors to other symptoms as well. Third, although the CASQ exhibits adequate
levels of internal consistency for use in empirical research, a measure of attributional style with a higher level of internal consistency is needed in order to rule
out the possibility that inconsistent findings across studies are the result of the poor
psychometric properties of this measure. In addition, given that the hopelessness
theory hypothesizes that children with a depressogenic attributional style exhibit
consistency across negative events in the attributions they make, such a measure
would more adequately capture attributional style as defined by the theory. Last,
future studies should utilize larger sample sizes. Such samples would allow for more

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powerful tests of the diathesisstress and symptom components of the hopelessness

theory.
In conclusion, when analyzed with a weakest link approach, results from the
current study provide strong support for the applicability of the diathesisstress and
symptom components of the hopelessness theory to child samples. Discovering that
different inferential styles are vulnerability factors to depression for different children provides clinical psychologists with a strategic tool for identifying children at
risk for depression. The identification of such children is essential so that their cognitive tendencies can be modified and subsequent bouts with depression avoided. In
addition, demonstrating that hopelessness depression in children can be recognized
by its unique symptom profile may ultimately allow clinicians to distinguish children
suffering from hopelessness depression from children suffering from other subtypes
of depression. Future research using more sophisticated and thorough measures of
stress, depressive symptoms, and inferential styles as well as larger sample sizes is
likely to help us gain a more profound understanding of the cognitive processes and
mechanisms that underlie the etiology of hopelessness depression in child populations. Given that the prevalence of depressive disorders has increased in recent years
among children in Western societies, such research is desperately needed.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The research reported in this paper was supported by a Research Development
Grant awarded to John R. Z. Abela by the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research
at McGill University. We thank the students, principals, and teachers at College
`
Notre-Dame-de-Lourdes and Villa Sainte-Marcelline for their participation in this
project. We thank Caroline Brunelle, Raquel Dorsaim-Pierre, Jacinthe Fortier, Toni
Fried, Alyson Gentes-Hawn, Marie-Amelie
Guilbault, Daniel Lavoie, Anne Lussier,
Alexandra McIntyre-Smith, Tania Mazzarello, Adele
` Rochon, Caroline Sullivan,
Marie-Hel
ene
` Veronneau-McArdle,

and Claudia Zambrana for conducting assessments and running depression prevention workshops. We thank Valerie Azoulay,
Laurie Clark, Dean Elterman, Emily Haigh, Alison Leary, Dessa Miller, Zohreen
Murad, Sharmeen Shah, Jane Simpson, Elizabeth Taxel, and Ella Vanderbilt for scoring questionnaires and entering data. We also thank Chantale Bousquet for overseeing translation of the questionnaires. Last, we thank Rick Ingram, Thomas Joiner,
and an anonymous reviewer for comments on earlier versions of this manuscript.
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