EXERCISE 4: EUKARYOTIC ALGAE: GREEN PIGMENTED TYPES

I. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

In this exercise, there are two divisions of green pigmented eukaryotic algae that are
introduced Euglenophyta and Chlorophyta.
The Euglenophyta is a large group of flagellate protozoa. They include a variety of
common free-living species, as well as a few important parasites, some of which infect humans
and are unicellular ("Euglenozoa", 2013). Most euglenoids have two flagella, which are inserted
parallel to one another in an apical or subapical pocket. In some these are associated with
a cytostome or mouth, used to ingest bacteria or other small organisms. Some feed through
absorption, and many possess chloroplasts and so obtain energy through photosynthesis.
These chloroplasts are surrounded by three membranes and contain chlorophylls A and B,
along with other pigments, so are probably derived from a captured green alga. Reproduction
occurs exclusively through cell division. During mitosis, the nuclear membrane remains intact,
and the spindle microtubules form inside of it. (Patterson, 1999).
Under Euglenophyta is the genus Euglena. Species of Euglena are found in fresh and
salt

waters

(Woloski,

et.al,

n.d.).

Most

species

of Euglena have

photosynthesizing chloroplasts within the body of the cell, which enable them to feed
by autotrophy, like plants. However, they can also take nourishment heterotrophically, like
animals (Margulis, et.al, 2007). When feeding as a heterotroph, Euglena surrounds a particle of
food and consumes it by phagocytosis. When there is sufficient sunlight for it to feed
by phototrophy, it uses chloroplasts containing the pigments Chlorophyll a and Chlorophyll b to
produce sugars by photosynthesis (Nisbet, et.al, 1984). Euglena's chloroplasts are surrounded
by three membranes, while those of plants and the green algae have only two membranes. This
fact has been taken as morphological evidence that Euglena's chloroplasts evolved from
a eukaryotic green alga (Gibbs, et.al, 1978). Euglena chloroplasts contain pyrenoids, used in
the synthesis of paramylon, a form of starch energy storage enabling Euglena to survive periods
of light deprivation. All Euglenoids have two flagella rooted in basal bodies located in a small
reservoir at the front of the cell. In Euglena, one flagellum is very short, and does not protrude
from the cell, while the other is relatively long, and often easily visible with light microscopy. In
some species, the longer, emergent flagellum is used to help the organism swim. Like other
Euglenoids, Euglena possess a red eyespot, an organelle composed of carotenoid pigment

granules. The red spot itself is not thought to be photosensitive. Rather, it filters the sunlight that
falls on a light-detecting structure at the base of the flagellum allowing only certain wavelengths
of light to reach it. As the cell rotates with respect to the light source, the eyespot partially blocks
the source, permitting the Euglena to find the light and move toward it (Schaechter, et.al., 2011).
Chlorophyta is a division of green algae that contains chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b and
store food as starch in their plastids (Hoek, et.al., 1995). The division contains both unicellular
and multicellular species. While most species live in freshwater habitats and a large number in
marine habitats, other species are adapted to a wide range of environments. Members of the
Chlorophyta also form symbiotic relationships with protozoa, sponges, and cnidarians. All are
flagellated and these have an advantage of motility. Some conduct sexual reproduction, which is
oogamous or isogamous (Kapraul, April 2007).
Under Chlorophyta, is class Ulvophyceae. Ulvophyceae contains marine organisms that
take a variety of shapes that may consist of a few cells, long filaments, thin sheets of cells, or
coenocytic cells. Most approach being radially symmetrical. They have an alternation of
generations and unlike in the other classes, meiosis occurs in the spores rather than the
zygotes. When present, there can be two or more apical flagella. During mitosis, the nuclear
envelope and the mitotic spindle persist, as they do in the Charophyceae (The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia , 2012).
Under the class Ulvophyceae, is the genus Ulva or sea lettuce. Ulva is a thin flat green
alga growing from a discoid holdfast. (Ulva lactuca, 2007). The membrane is two cells thick,
soft and translucent, and grows attached, without a stipe, to rocks or other algae by a small
disc-shaped holdfast. Green to dark green in colour, this species in the Chlorophyta is formed of
two layers of cells irregularly arranged, as seen in cross-section. The chloroplast is cup-shaped
in some references but as a parietal plate in others with one to three pyrenoids (Burrows, 1991).
Another genus is Ventricaria (Valonia). It is also known as "bubble algae" and "sailors'
eyeballs"

and

is

species

of algae found

in

oceans

throughout

the

world

in

tropical and subtropical regions. They typically grow individually, but in rare cases they can grow
in groups. The thallus consists of a thin-walled, tough, multinucleic cell. The "bubble" alga is
attached by rhizoids to the substrate fibers. Reproduction occurs by segregative cell division,
where the multinucleic mother cell makes daughter cells, and individual rhizoids form new
bubbles, which become separate from the mother cell The single-cell organism has forms
ranging from spherical to ovoid, and the color varies from grass green to dark green, although in

water they may appear to be silver, teal, or even blackish (Bauer, et.al., 2008). This is
determined by the quantity of chloroplasts of the specimen (Lee, 2008).
Another genus is Acetabularia, also known as mermaids wine glass. Acetabularia has
three basic parts: its rhizoid, a short set of root-like appendages that contain the nucleus and
anchor the cell to fissures in a substrate; its median stalk, which accounts for most of its length;
and its apex, where its cap forms. There are usually several whorls of hair-like appendages
close to the apex. Acetabularia are among the largest single-celled organisms, having also a
remarkably large nucleus. During sexual reproduction, the nucleus undergoes multiple rounds
of mitosis, forming many daughter nuclei all within one nuclear membrane. These nuclei
undergo meiosis and are transported to the tips of the branches, the sporangia, where they are
released as gametes (Shihira-Ishikawa, 1984).
Next observed are the siphonous macroalgae Codium, Caulerpa, Halimeda. The genus
Codium has thalli of two forms, either erect or prostrate. The erect plants are dichotomously
branched to 40 cm long with branches forming a compact spongy structure, not calcareous. The
final branches form a surface layer of close palisade cortex of utricles. The non-erect species
form either a prostrate or globular thallus with a velvet-like surface, the final branches forming a
close cortex of

utricles (Burrows,

1991).

Caulerpa is a genus of seaweeds in the

family Caulerpaceae (among the green algae). They are unusual because they consist of only
one cell with many nuclei, making them among the biggest single cells in the world (Bold, et.al,
1985). Halimeda is a genus of green macroalgae. The algal body (thallus) is composed of
calcified green segments. Calcium carbonate is deposited in its tissues, making it inedible to
most herbivores. As in other members of the order Bryopsidales, individual organisms are made
up of single multi-nucleate cells. Whole meadows may consist of a single individual alga
connected by fine threads running through the substrate (Guiry, 2007).
Another genus is the Cladophora. The genus Cladophora contains many species that
are very hard to tell apart and classify, mainly because of the great variation in their
appearances, which is affected by habitat, age and environmental conditions. The filaments
of Cladophora branch and it doesn't undergo conjugation. There are two multicellular stages in
its life cycle - a haploid gametophyte and a diploid sporophyte - which look highly similar. The
only way to tell the two stages apart is to either count their chromosomes, or examine their
offspring. The haploid gametophyte produces haploid gametes by mitosis and the diploid
sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis. The only visible difference between the

gametes and spores of Cladophora is that the gametes have two flagella and the spores have
four (Gestinari, et.al., 2010).
The next class is the Class Chlorophyceae. They are usually green due to the
dominance of pigments chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b. The chloroplast may be discoid, platelike, reticulate, cup-shaped, spiral or ribbon shaped in different species. Most of the members
have one or more storage bodies called Pyrenoids located in the chloroplast. Pyrenoids contain
protein besides starch. Some algae may store food in the form of oil droplets. Green algae
usually have a rigid cell wall made up of an inner layer of cellulose and outer layer of pectose
(Guiry, 2007)
Under Chlorophyceae is the genus Chlamydomonas. It is a motile unicellular algae.
Generally oval in shape. Cell wall is made up of glycoprotein and non-cellulosic polysaccharides
instead of cellulose. Two anteriorly inserted whiplash flagella. Flagella originates from a basal
granule located in the anterior papillate or non-papillate region of the cytoplasm. Flagellum
shows typical 9+2 arrangement of the component fibrils. Contractile vacuoles found at near the
bases of flagella. Prominent cup or bowl shaped chloroplast is present. The chloroplast contains
bands composed of a variable number of the photosynthetic thylakoids which are not organized
into grana-like structures. The nucleus is enclosed in a cup-shaped chloroplast, which has a
single large pyrenoid where starch is formed from photosynthetic products. Pyrenoid with starch
sheath is present in the posterior end of the chloroplast. Eye spot present in the anterior portion
of the chloroplast. It consists of two or three, more or less parallel rows of linearly arranged fat
droplets (Aoyama, et.al., 2009).
Another genus is the Genus Volvox. Volvox is the most developed in a series of genera
that

form

spherical

colonies. Each

mature Volvox colony is

composed

of

numerous

flagellate cells similar to Chlamydomonas, up to 50,000 in total and embedded in the surface of
a

hollow

sphere

or coenobium containing

an extracellular

matrix made

of

gelatinous glycoprotein (Hallmann, 2003). Except during the formation of daughter colonies,
vegetative cells comprise a single layer with the flagella facing outward. The cells swim in a
coordinated fashion, with distinct anterior and posterior poles. The cells have eyespots, more
developed near the anterior, which enable the colony to swim towards light. The individual algae
in some species are interconnected by thin strands of cytoplasm, called protoplasmates. They
are known to demonstrate some individuality and working for the good of their colony, acting like
one multicellular organism (Ikushima, et.al., 1968). An asexual colony includes both somatic

(vegetative) cells, which do not reproduce, and gonidia near the posterior, which produce new
colonies through repeated division. The daughter colonies are initially held within the parent
coenobium and have their flagella directed inwards. Later, the parent disintegrates and the
daughters invert. In sexual reproduction two types of gametes are produced. Volvox species can
be monoecious or dioecious. Male colonies release numerous microgametes, or sperm, while in
female colonies single cells enlarge to become oogametes, or eggs. (Kirk, 1998).
Next is the genus Oedogonium. Oedogonium is a genus of filamentous green algae, with
unbranched filaments that are one cell thick. Oedogonium can be free-floating, though it is
usually attached to aquatic plants by a holdfast. It appears greenish and inhabits calm, fresh
water. Oedogonium can reproduce asexually by fragmentation of the filaments, through some
other types of non-motile spores, and also through zoospores, which have many flagella. These
develop in a zoosporangium cell, one zoospore per zoosporangium. After settling and losing its
flagella, a zoospore grows into a filament. The life cycle of Oedogonium is haplontic, i.e.,
meiosis is zygotic. Antheridia which produce sperm, and oogonia which produce an egg,
release the sperm and egg. The egg and sperm then fuse and form a zygote which is diploid2n. The zygote then produces the filamentous green alga which is haploid- 1n (Guiry, 2008).
Next is the Ulothrix. Ulothrix is a genus of filamentous green algae, generally found
in fresh and marine water. Its cells are normally as broad as they are long, and they thrive in the
low temperatures of spring and winter. They become attached to surfaces by a modified holdfast
cell. Reproduction is normally vegetative. They are Eukaryotic and unicellular. The plant body
consists of unbranched, uniseriate filaments. The cells of the filaments are arranged end to end.
They are barrel-shaped or cylindrical in shape. The apical cell is somewhat rounded at its
terminal end whereas the basal cell is elongated and does not have chlorophyll. It is also called
the basal holdfast, which attaches the filament to the substratum.The cell wall is composed of
propectin and cellulose and it lacks mucilage. Each cell has a single girdle-like and parietal
chloroplast and two to many pyrenoids are present in each chloroplast (Guiry, et.al., 2007).
The next class is the Class Charophyceae. Many of its complex traits is related to sexual
reproduction, photosynthesis, and other defining characteristics of plants evolved first in
charophytes; analysis of chloroplast DNA (Campbell, at.al., 2005)
Under the class Charophyceae is the genus Spirogyra. Spirogyra is unbranched with
cells connected end to end in long male reproductive system filaments. This genus of green

algae undergoes a haploid-dominant life cycle. The cell wall has two layers: the outer wall is
composed of pectin that dissolves in water to make the filament slimy to touch while the inner
wall is of cellulose. The cytoplasm forms a thin lining between the cell wall and the
large vacuole it surrounds. Chloroplasts are embedded in the peripheral cytoplasm; their
numbers are variable. The chloroplasts are ribbon shaped, serrated or scalloped, and spirally
arranged, resulting in the prominent and characteristic green spiral on each filament. Each
chloroplast contains several pyrenoids, centers for the production of starches, appearing as
small round bodies. Spirogyra can reproduce both sexually and asexually. In vegetative
reproduction, fragmentation takes place, and Spirogyra simply undergoes the intercalary mitosis
to form new filaments (Whitton, et.al., 2002).
Next genus is Cosmarium. Cosmarium is a non-motile, freshwater member of division
Chlorophyta. Cosmarium is a relatively large unicell characterized by a constriction in the middle
of the cell (termed the isthmus) which divides it into two symmetrical halves or semicells. A
single haploid nucleus occupies the isthmus. Each semicell is partly filled by a large green
chloroplast containing two pyrenoids composed of proteinaceous material. Surrounding the
pryenoid are numerous starch granules. A large portion of the protoplast of each semicell is
occupied by a clear vacuole. The cell wall is relatively rigid and composed of cellulose, a
polysaccharide found in the cell walls of most members of the division Chlorophyta and all
members of the more highly evolved plant groups (Guiry, at.al., 2007).
Next is the genus Closterium. Closterium cells are crescent-shaped or elongate and lack
spines. Some are quite straight and needle-like, while others are much broader with curved
ends. The ends of the cell are usually tapered and may be pointed or rounded. Each semicell
has a single axial, ridged chloroplast with at least one pyrenoid. Occasionally there are two
chloroplasts per semicell. The nucleus is located in the center of the cell between the
chloroplasts. Terminal vacuoles at the cell tips hold vibrating crystals of barium or calcium
sulfate, the function of which are unknown. Brownian motion causes these microscopic particles
to move erratically due to the impacts of collisions with the surrounding liquid molecules in
which they are suspended. Closterium is a placoderm desmid because the cell walls have pores
to secrete mucilage, even though the cells are only slightly contricted in the middle compared to
other placoderms. The cell wall may be smooth or lined by thin longitudinal striae or large pores
that are visible with high resolution microscopy, and is sometimes yellow or brown in color.
Some species have extra sections in the cell wall called girdle bands. Polymers in the cell wall
may help protect the cell from drying out and allow them to survive for months in environments

such as the dried mud at the edges of lakes. Like some desmids, Closterium moves in a
somersaulting motion by secreting mucilage from alternating ends of the cell (Carter, et.al.,
2008).
Lastly, is the genus Chara. The branching system of Chara species is complex with
branches derived from apical cells which cut off segments at the base to form nodal and
internodal cells alternately. They are typically anchored to the littoral substrate by means of
branching

underground rhizoids.Chara plants

are

rough

to

the

touch

because

of

deposited calcium salts on the cell wall. The metabolic processes associated with this
deposition often give Chara plants a distinctive and unpleasant smell of hydrogen sulfide. The
plant body is a gametophyte. It consists of a main axis (differentiated into nodes and
internodes), dimorphic branches (long branch of unlimited growth and short branches of limited
growth), rhizoids (multicellular with oblique septa) and stipulodes (needle shaped structures at
the base of secondary laterals (Round, 1966). Chara reproduces vegetatively and sexually.
Vegetative reproduction takes place by tubers, amylum stars and secondary protonema. The
fructifications for sexual reproduction are globule or antheridium (male) and nucule or
archegonium (female). The antheridia and archegonia may occur on separate plants (dioecy),
together on the same plant (conjoined monoecy) or separately on the same plant (sejoined
monoecy). After fertilization, the zygote develops into an oospore (McCracken, et.al., 1966).

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