Chapter 1: Matter

I: The Scientific Method

The cyclical, stepwise scientific process to
understanding nature.
Step 1: Make an Observation
(or discover a Law)

Step 2: Develop an Hypothesis

I: Qualitative (no units)

(colors, odors, etc.)
II: Quantitative (measurements)
(length, mass, etc.with units)
An educated guess trying
to explain the observation/Law
May be upgraded to a THEORY

Step 3: Design an Experiment

New observations (data)

support or disprove the
hypothesis.

II: Matter Classification

MATTER

Pure Substance

Mixture
(2 or more pure substances)

Homogeneous

Element

Compound
(2 or more elements combined)

Monatomic
(particles are atoms)
i.e.: Na (s), Ne (g)

Diatomic
(particles are molecules)

H2 (g), N2 (g), O2 (g), F2 (g),

Cl2 (g), Br2 (l) and I2 (s)

Covalent Compounds

Uniform throughout
One phase
i.e.: saltwater, wine

(particles are molecules)

i.e.: H2O, CCl2F2, etc.

Ionic Compounds
(particles are ions)
i.e.: NaCl, K3PO4, etc.

Heterogeneous
Not uniform throughout
Usually > 1 phase
i.e.: oatmeal, sewage

III: Physical vs. Chemical

(a) Properties:
Physical: Inherent characteristics of the substance
i.e.: density, melting/boiling points, hardness, etc.
Chemical: The tendency of the substance to undergo change
i.e.: flammability, reacts with water, etc.

(b) Changes:
Physical: No change in substance identity
i.e.: phase changes (like melting), dissolving, etc.
Chemical: Involves a change in identity (atomic rearrangement)
i.e.: oxidation, combustion (burning), decay, etc.

(c) Separation Techniques:

Physical: Separates pure substances from mixtures
i.e.: filtration, distillation, chromatography, centrifuging
Chemical: Mainly used to separate elements from a compound
i.e.: Thermal decomposition, lasers, voltage, etc.

IV: Significant Figures

How uncertainty is tracked through mathematical operations.
* See the GCN, pages 133 to 137.
(a) Multiplication and/or Division:
* The final answer is limited by the value with the fewest # of sig figs.

V = (l)(w)(h) = (32.0 ft)(13 ft)(8.04 ft) = 33 44 ft3 -----> 3300 ft3

3 sf

2 sf

3 sf

2 sf in answer

(b) Addition, Subtraction and/or Taking Averages:

* The final answer is limited by the value with the largest au.

12.05 m + 21 m + 120.8 m = 153. 85 m -----> 154 m

au = 0.01 m

1m
(largest au)

0.1 m

1 m for answer

V: Scientific Notation
* Used to simplify very large or small numbers.
Omits all non-significant digits (usually zeroes).
Convert to a number between 1 and 10 times 10n
Numbers larger than 1 have a positive exponent, n:

527,500 ft = 5.275 x 105 ft

(Move the decimal 5 places to the left to get a number between 1 and 10)

Numbers smaller than 1 have a negative exponent, n:

0.0000424 L = 4.24 x 105 ft

(Move the decimal 5 places to the right to get a number between 1 and 10)

VI: Rounding
* All final answers must be rounded properly and boxed.
* Whether the last significant digit is rounded up or not
depends on the first two nonsignificant digits:

Case 1: 456.3 43 g ----->

456.3 g

(< 5: no rounding)

Case 2:

456.3 58 g ----->

456.4 g

(> 5: round the last sf up)

Case 3:

456.3 50 g ----->

456.4 g

(= 5 exactly: round the last sf up to make it an even #)

Case 4:

456.4 50 g ----->

456.4 g

(= 5 exactly: keep the last sf an even #; dont round)

VII: Unit Line Equations (Dimensional Analysis)

* A problem solving method with a focus on units, NOT
number crunching!
* Use exact conversion factors (p. 160 in GCN), as a
numerical relation between two different units.
Example: Convert 958 feet to centimeters:
958 ft 12 in 2.54 cm = 2.91 99 x 104 cm
1 ft
1 in
3 SF

Conversion
Factors
(both exact)

Intermediate
(Non-rounded)
Value

carry 2 non-significant digits

use for further calculations

2.92 x 104 cm

Rounded
and Boxed
Final Answer

VIII: The Metric System

* Use as a Conversion Factor between metric units
* All metric conversions are exact
* Know the following metric prefixes:

Tera, T = 1 x 1012
Giga, G = 1 x 109
Mega, M = 1 x 106
kilo, k = 1 x 103

pico, p = 1 x 1012
nano, n = 1 x 109
micro, = 1 x 106
milli, m = 1 x 103
centi, c = 1 x 102

Example: How many meters would 0.52 inches be:

0.52 in 2.54 cm 1 m
= 0.013 20 m
1 in
100 cm
2 SF
Exact

Metric (exact)

0.013 m

IX: Density
* Use as a Conversion Factor between mass and volume
* Dependent on Temperature

Density =

mass
volume

or

D= M
V

What is the mass (lb) of 1.2 gal of Hg (l) (d = 13.53 g mL1):

Gameplan: gal

in3

m = 1.2 gal 231

1 gal
2 SF

exact

m = 13 5.4 lb

in3

cm3

2.54 cm
1 in
exact

mL

lb

1 mL 13.53 g
1 lb
.
1 cm3
mL 453.59237 g
exact

exact

Density (4 sf)

140 lb

* As temperature (T) increases, thermal expansion increases volume (V).

* So as T increases, V increases and Density decreases.

X: Percentages
* Use as a Conversion Factor between part and whole
* Set up as a ratio of: part
whole (assume 100 units of whole)
Example: If dental amalgam is 32 % silver by mass and silver is going
for $18 per ounce, what is the cost of silver in 2.52 lb amalgam?
Gameplan:

2.52 lb amalgam

lb amalgam

lb Ag

32 lb Ag
16 oz Ag
100 lb amalgam 1 lb Ag
% set up
(2 sf)

exact

oz Ag

dollars

18 dollars = 23 2.2 dollars

1 oz Ag
230 dollars
from problem
(2 sf)

XI: Temperature
* A measure of particle motion (atoms/ions/molecules)
* As motion increases (due to heat input), temperature increases

T (K) = T(oC) + 273.15

exact numbers
T (oF) = T (oC) x 9 oF + 32
5 oC

Celsius (oC)

Fahrenheit (oF)

Kelvin (K) (absolute scale)

XII: Uncertainty in Measurements

(pp: 8083 in GCN)

Precision: The repetitiveness of multiple measurements

Accuracy: The closeness to a true value
precise
not accurate

not precise
not accurate

GCN
pp.: 108109)
accurate
and precise

Systematic Error: Fixable human error; Always high or low

Random Error: Uncontrollable error; 50% chance high or low