To the best of scientific knowledge life can not exist without water and that is why water is Popularly Water covers more than 70 percent of earth's Surface, of which 97.3 percent is in curse to life, Important water resources The Oceans ‘The Seas Rivers Lakes Rain water Surface water Stored water Ground water eae What is water pollution? result of man’s activities, so that it becomes unsuitable for drinking, domestic, recreational and agricultural purpose. In India, most rivers are highly polluted but Damodar and Ganga are the heavily Polluted rivers. The following are indications that the water in question is polluted, 1. Water has a bad taste or odour. 2. Offensive odours are being emitted from lakes, ocean and river banks, 3. There is a reduction in the number of aquatic lives in rivers, sea ete. 4. There is an outbreak of an epidemic(waves) 5. You can see oil or grease floating on the Surface of water. 1. Natural sources are soil erosion, leaking of minerals from rocks, and decaying of organic matter, 2. Man-made sources include domestic, agricultural and industrial activities, Many water sources have become a dumping ground for wastes. Water pollution is one of the main causes ‘water quality that adversely affects living organisms or makes water Unsuitable for desired use is called water pollution, Sources of water pollution ‘There are two sources of water pollution on the basis of origin of pollutants: UTM JP Page 1Environmental Science @ (ii) The important sources of water pollution are 1. Domestic wastes — a common and wides domestic wastes directly (0) Non ~ Biodegradable ~ such pollutants are not decomposed by microbes eg plastic goods, Polythene bags, glass metal containers ete. these are perhaps the worst kind of pollutants and ‘heir numbers steadily increasing and posing a serious threat for the future, 2. Sewage ~ the cloudy fluid consisting of human faecal matter, urine, minerals and organic nutrients in a dissolved state or dispersed in a solid condition is called sewage, It is a direct Consequence of demophora ie an unabated growth of human Population. It disposal is a very serious problems in big cities and as such itis Proving as a major pollutant of inland waters, soi and aquatic ecosystem, 3. Industrial wastes = Almost all the industries discharge the waste by products from the manufacturing processes into rivers or other water bodies. So, most rivers and freshwater streams textiles, tanneries, distilleries, coal washers and stee! industries. Some of these effluents contain toxic chemicals which are detrimental not only to the aquatic life but also to the human beings and terrestrial animals, ‘4 Fertilizers and detergents — a fairly large amount of fertilizers added to increase soil fenility is ‘washed off through the irrigation, rainfall and drainage and ultimately reaches the rivers. These pollute the water and make it toxic, Detergents enter the water in the form of waste water ftom domestic and industrial washings, 5. Pesticides and Herbicides (Biocides) — the Use of pesticides has become common now — a= days. Popularly used pesticides are DDT, Dieldrin, Malathion, Dichlorophs etc. these are non ~ biodegradable in nature. Herbicides are use to kill or eradicate weeds but they are not specific their action as they destroy both the desirable species as well as the other plants, UTM JP Page 1Environmental Science 6. Radioactive wastes —it enter into the water bodies in various ‘Ways eg processing of uranium ore, wastes from radio isotopes using research laboratories, waste from hospitals using radio isotopes, Wastes water released from nuclear power station or wastes. generated during nuclear weapons testing. Disposal of radioactive wastes is a great problem because their radioactivity is indestructible. 9. Eutrophication ~ it is enrichment of the water bodies resulting from addition of organic and inorganic nutients. I leads tothe increased growth of algal blooms, which on their death become & medium for bacterial growth and for decomposition process. It inturn leads to oxygen depletion and associated form of water pollution, Cros aac SS. —— eo elustrial wastes Barn yard = wae roe 2S So -- We a Wise veamse Sewage (reatmnent plant Bis. 20.2 Water pollution ate’ to humen. settvtites Effects of water pollution * Water pollution adversely affects the fish and other aquatic life. * The presence of acids/alkalis in water destroys micro-organisms, thereby disturbing the self Purification process in rivers, * The toxic materials in water cause serious health hazards in human being and other animals, UTM JP Page 1Environmental Science Polluted water causes spread of epidemics, such as cholera, tuberculosis, jaundice, dysentery, typhoid and diarrhoea in human beings. The use of polluted water from lakes, ponds and rivers for irrigation 0 agricultural fields, damages crops severely and decreases agricultural production, ‘The use of water contaminated with salts increases alkalinity ofthe soi Heavily polluted water affects the sol, decreases is fertility and kills col ‘micro-organisms and even certain useful bacteria causes ecological disasters which results in the death of sea organisms including fishes. ‘The sources and effects of certain water pollutants have been given in the following table: Pottutant Sources Cause Effect Nitates, Agriculnral Plant nutrients Eutrophication phosphates, ferilizers, sewage, aunoniun salts | amannce Auionl manure Sewage, paper mills, | Oxygen Death of aquatic and plant resicnes. | toce processing deficiency animals wastes Heat Power plants and ‘Thermal Death of fish industial cooling discharge Ol stick Teakage trom ott Petrolenm Death of marine tite ships due to non aveilabilicy of oxygen dissolved in water Table 26.3 Sources of industrial pollution ‘Type of Industry Inorganic pollutants Organic pollutant Mining Chlorides. various metals, ferrous ‘sulphate. sulphuric acid, hydrogen sulphide, ferric hydroxide surtaee wash off, suspended solid, chlorides and heavy metals son and Stee! Suspended solids, iron eyanides, ii, phenol and thiocyanate. sulphides, oxides naphtha, of copper, chromium, cadminm and mercury, Chemical Plants | Various acids and altalies,chtordes. | Aromatic sulphates, nitrates of metals, compounds Phosphorus, fuorine, silica and suspended particles Pharmaceuticals Protein, carbonyetrates, ‘orzanie solvents intermediate products, drugs and antibiotics. uTMJP Page 1Environmental Science Soop an Detergents ]”Terary smmoniun compound alkalis, | Fats and ay acids. glycerol, Phosphates, polysulphonated Luytrocarbous, Highly putrescible (easily ots) organic iter and pathogens, Sulphides and bleaching liquors Cellulose fibre, bark. wood sugars organic acids, Food processing Paper and Pulp Table 26.4 Some water pollutants, their sources and effect on human health Pollutant Source Diseases tm man Lead industrial waste ‘Nervous disorders, Kidney failure. blood poisoning Tin Industrial dust Adicts central nervous system (CNS) Affects, vision Mercury Industrial discharge Affects central nervous system and peripheral nervous system, kidney fhiture, ‘Numbness of lips, amsscles and limbs, Blurred vision Arsenic Industrial discharge Respiratory and skin cancer. Nervous disorder Nickel Astosols, industial dust | Pulmonary disorders, dermatitis Cadeainm Industrial discharge Kidney disorders, Pulmonary and skeletal diseases ‘Uranium, thorium — | Radioactive waste Lencoderma, skin cancer cesium SS ee Prevention and control of water pollution: Water pollution can be controlled by: * Treating industrial effluents before discharging into rivers, separate channels for river and Sewage water, Common treatment process involves three steps: 1. Removal of suspended large particles, 2. Supply of aeration to promote bacterial decomposition followed by chlorination to eliminate bacteria. 3. Chemical treatments to remove nitrates and phosphates, * Avoid contamination of rivers, lakes and ponds by washing clothes, bathing. etc. * Not throwing waste, food materials, paper, biodegradable veyetables and plastic into open drains, UTM JP Page 1Environmental Science Use of septic tanks in houses to avoid direct outlet of faecal matter and other wastes * Effluents trom distilleries and solid waste containing organic matter diverted to biogas plants to generate energy * Maintenance or safety standards for the effluents discharged into the water system, * Use of pesticides, weedicides, insecticides ete shoul be minimized, * Hot liquid effluents should be cooled before discharge * Pollution control through education and law is an effective method to reduce water pollution, * One of the most exciting fields of energy research is the use of plasmas for effective control of Pollution. * Radio active discharges should be strictly under control and aecording to scientific norms. * Setting up sewage water treatment plants ‘The sewage can be treated by a moder technique involving three steps— primary treatment, secondary treatment and tertiary treatment. (Fig. 26.5) In primary treatment sewage is passed through a (Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket). In this reactor, the anaerobie bacteria degrades the biodegradable Material into neutralised effluents. In this process, the foul odour and ‘methane are released and the Sewage is converted into clean water. This water is sent to aeration tanks where air and bacteria are added to it. This process is called biological or secondary treatment, TM JP Page 1Primay Primary sisi Grit chamber Sedimentation ays Acration tank Sludge setting tank —_ i ” Ue Sludge return eshte (G=aen R Sludge is inginerated o- ‘composted, of used as f- 14 fF soitaminendment = Chiorinatioa “Triekling bed “Xd tank _) evaporation through the enti of about 1km in atmosphere and downwary to a depth evaporation, cond involves many processes Mich as the tration, and percolation yocesses. tiveness, FigureS.2 \the nydroiogic cycle TM JP Page 1ynger rapid of all rastic | y the cosys- ental mn of aking | listur- | | » the t this edto | ‘iron- | pting CHAPTER 4 ‘ WATER RESOURCES AND WATER QUALITY Water Resources 4.1 WATER RESOURCES Water can be regarded as the most important inorganic compound in the biosphere. It has designed and conditioned the global ecosystem leading to the evolution of terrestrial organisms. Water plays a unique role in the life of human beings. 4.1.1 Hydrologic Cycle and Water Balance of the Earth With oceans as reservoirs, nature has made available water to different parts of the Earth through an incredible system called ‘Hydrologic Cycle" As can be seen from the hydrologic cycle, water is always in circu- lation, with the Sun as a constant source of energy and driving force. ‘Table 4.1 presents details on the water balance of oceans and lands, The balance between precipitation, evaporation, run-off, and infiltration determines the availability of.water at a particular point at any given time. Out of thé total precipitation on land (73 cm/year), 42 eni/y viz. 57.5 per cent goes back into the atmospheric part of the hydrologic cycle through evaporation. An interesting feature of the above data is that the climatic condition of a particular land area has an appreciable influence on its run-off. For example, South America, besides being the wettest area in the world, enjoys the benefit of maximum run-off potential 7Figure 4-1 ‘Sketch of hydrologic cycle, Table 4:1 Water balance of the oceans and lands Precipitation “Evaporation Runoff™ Location (cmiyear) (erm/year) (cmiyear) World oceans (total) 114 126 NA Pacific 133, 132 NA Indian 17 132 NA Atlantic 89, 124 NA lands Land areas (total) 73 42 31 South America 163 70 93 Africa 69 43 26 North America 66 32 34 Europe 64 + 39 25 Asia. 60 Australia 47 42 5 * inludesinfttation Sourco: Strahiet, AN, and Strahler,A.H, Environmental Geo Science, Wiley International Edition, P-290, 1973 31 23 In contrast, 4) tion rate, resul Oceans rec of the total, wh cipitation that ay more than hy direct and indi: tion gets distri the world’s wate 4.1.2 Extract Water extraction Water is extract: © Surface sour —Freshavate; Rivers © Groune was —Infittrated 5 through we Table 4-2 Distribution of the) eee Location a - Oceans Glaciers and ice ces ‘Subsurface water ® Soil moisture ™ Ground water 800 m depth ™ Ground water, deep Iyir~ Surface. ater = Fresh-water lak, © Salt-water lakes = Flowing water ‘Atmosphere Total eS4.1 Water Resources 19 {n contrast, Australia, dominated by deserts, has a very high evapor tion rate, resulting in very little run-off. Oceans receive a major portion of the precipitation—61 per cent of the total, whereas lands account only for 39 per cent. All of the pre cipitation that occurs on land cannot be retrieved for useful purposes as more than half of this quantity escapes into the atmosphere through direct and indirect evaporation. The remaining part of the precipita- Gon gets distributed in different forms over the land. Distribution of the world’s water resources is presented in Table 42 4.1.2 Extraction and Usage of Water Water extraction = Water is extracted from the following sources: = Surface sources: —Fresh-water lakes Rivers = Ground water: —Infiltrated water that gets collected in the aquifers is extracted through wells, mainly tube wells, and infiltration galleries. It Table 4-2 Distribution of the World's —20 Water Resou has been estimated that 15 per cent of the ground water is extractable (Refi Central Ground Water Board, Bangalore, lecture ‘module Dec. 2004) @ Sea water: —Sea water is used for industrial cooling, salt production, ete. It is a unique souige of water supply in water-scarce countries. It is desalinated and put into use (e.g., for domestic consumption). Waterausage The major modes of global water consumption are agricultural, indus- trial and domestic activities. Several other activities such as power production, mining, and recreation also require @ considerable amount of water, Table 4.3 illustrates the distribution of water usage. 4.1.3 Water Resources of India Surface water The principal source of fresh water in India is rainfall, although snowmelt also contributes to the flow of the Himalayan river- ine system. Rainfall is confined to about three to four months in a year. About 3000 10 cubic meters ( 300 million HaM) of precipitation is received during the monsoon extending from June to September. The south-east monsoon during October-November contributes a small amount of precipitation to parts of Tamil Nadu. India has 20 river basins, of which 12 are major ones, with an average annual runoff of about 2000 X 108 cubic meters (200 million HaM) when a normal annual rainfall of 1120 mm occurs. Some quantity of water flows in from neighboring countries also. The river basin storage achieved through various large and small irrigation projects amounts to about 450 X 10! m# (45m rest of the run-off, . Water harvestin innumerable numb tracts of agricultur Considering all thes tion of 105 crores, su Ground water It 1 Board of India (Ref Dee. 2004) that abs ground water is util presently being ext India Works out 1 0.21 X 10% m4/pers: Total Annual Water Surface water Ground water Total 4.1.4 Utilization As can bes the world-goes tow en frou Table 4-4 World's Longest Rive Tabie 4-5 Distribution of water usage (expressed in percentage) River oor aie % World average Nile Ne Pui India___China USA consumption ‘Amazon Sc Agriculture 92 7 at 70 Chiang Jiang Ee Industry (including Mississippi Ne power generation) 5 18 49 20 Yenisei a Domestic use 3 5 10 10 = cr Ref: Lester Brown, Earth Policy Reader, Orient Longman ~ 2004 Zaire2 ground water is 5, Bangalore, lecture coduction, ete. It is ree countries. ic consumption) tis agricultural, indus- ies such as power onsiderable amount er usage. # (dia is rainfall, he-rfimalayan river- ar months ina year. ) of precipitation is to September. The contributes a small ones, with an average ‘million HaM) when uantity of water flows sin storage achieved S amounts to about AL Water Resources 21 450 X 10” m3 (45 million HaM), « mere 22.5 per cent of the run-off. The rest of the run-off, excluding the losses and infiltration, drains into the sea. Water harvesting has been practised in India since ancient times, and innumerable number of structures such as irrigation tanks feed large tracts of agricultural fields and serve as village water supply sources. Considering all these sources of supply to the country’s present popula- tioffof 105 .crores, surface water utilization comes to 475 m’/person /year. Ground water It has been assessed by the Central Ground Water Board of India (Ref : Central Ground Water Boart, Bangalore lecture module Dee. 2004) that about 400 X 10" cubic meters (40 million HaM) of ground water is utilizable in India. About one-fourth of this quantity is, presently being extracted. The annual availability of ground water in India works out to 375 m3/person as against a global value of 0.21 X 10° m*/ person of extractable ground water. Total Annual Water Utilization (based on present availability) in India Surface water 475 m*/person Ground water 100 m3/person: Total 375 m8/person 4.1.4 Utilization of Water and the Water Crisis As can be seen from Table 4.3 the bulk of the water consumed all over the world goes towards food production. This demand is rising at a Table 4-4 World's Longest Rivers E Length Drainage area River Country (kin) __ (million sq. km) Nile North-East Africa, 6700 a3 ‘Amazon South America 6439 7 hang Jiang East Asia 6381 18 M North-America 6000 32 Russia 9540 25 China 5464 0.75 ss 5410 2.90 3.5022 Water Resources and Water Quality Table 4-5 World's largest freshwater lakes ‘Area ‘Maximum Lake Country (sq.km) depth (meter) Lake Superior... USA/Canada 82414 405 Lake Victoria « Africa 69485 _ 84 (Mean = 40 m) Lake Huron USA/Canada 59600 229 Lake Michigan USA 58016 281 Lake Tanganyika EastCentral Arca 32000 Max 1470 = 570m) Great Bear Lake Canada 31790 996 Lake Baikal—the Russia contains 20% 31500 1620 world’s largest and of the world’s agar deepest fresh water surface (fresh) lake, classified by water UNESCO as world heritage site (The Hindu, May 04, 2006) Lake Malawi Easter Africa 29604 695 et very fast rate in some parts of the world where the most populous countries are situated. The three big food grain producers—India, ‘China, and the United States, which together account for about half of the world’s output, are draining the available water resources to the maximum extent. In these countries the water table is falling at a very apid rate. The demand for water in India, China, Pakistan and some African countries is rising alarmingly, and the depletion of water resources, particularly ground water in these countries is very sig cant. There are instances of the water table falling at rates.as high as 2-8 meters/year in China, and 1-8 meters/year in India (Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Maharastra). Parts of Iran are experiencing a fall in the water table of upto 8 meters/year and Yemen has recorded a fall of 6 meters/year. The most alarming fall is in China—the water table is falling everywhere in Northern China Plain, which accounts for one fourth of the country’s food grain production. If this trend is not arrested, a day may come when these food-surplus countries have to depend on imports for their sustenance (food requirement). Surface waters, though available in some parts of the world, are not Put into effective use because of economic and ecological reasons. Many water bodies discharges trom urb: The water crisis diately. Otherwise the tions of economics nations to socio-ece contention among n may be fought on the 4.1.5 Water Cons Over time, the availa duie to increased den by human activity, we Another dimension practices in the agr ‘The problem is furths place all over_€ we calls for urgent water be initiated in this reg economic usage « improvement in ir better water mans tices in the agriet tense and recyele recharging of gro diversion of ocear scientific linking « minimizing relea global warming a phere reducing domesti educating ts¢ pul = adopting scientifi 4.1.6 Water Quali Pure water with noe neither is it advisable4.1 Water Resources 23 Many water bodies are put out of use due to pollution caused by discharges from urban centers and industrial activities. ‘The water crisis is a serious reality and has to be addressed imme- a Maximum diately. Otherwise the impending water poverty may shake the founda- sm) _depth (meter) tions of economically vibrant societies, while pushing the weaker 14 405, | nations to socio-economic disasters. Alveady water is the bone of 85 oa cditention among nations in certain parts of the world, Future wars a ee m) may be fought on the issue of sharing of water resources, 16 281 7 00 Max 1470 4.£5 Water Conservation a = Over time, the availability of water is going down at an alarming pace a ten due to increased demand. This is coupled with water pollution, caused 4741 by human activity, which makes large quantities of water unfit for use. Another dimension to the problem is the unscientific water usage practices in the agriculture sector, particularly in developing countries. ‘The problem is further compounded by drastic climate changes taking place all over the world, creating frequent droughts everywhere. This calls for urgent ‘water conservation measures’. Some of the steps that can ‘ be initiated in this regard are 04 695 = economic usage of water in all walks of life improvement in industrial technologies to reduce water consumption * the most populous = better water management and adoption of modern irrigation prac- in producers—India, tices in the agricultural sector ount for about half of reuse and recycle of waste-water ater resources to the : bile is falingeat a very = recharging of ground water with used water a, Pakistan and some diversion of ocean-flowing river water for inland use » depletion of water ® scientific linking of rivers so that water can be equitably distributed ie Beery — = minimizing release of ‘greenhouse gases’, considered to cause SaB Tears as gee global warming and consequent climate change, into the atmos- car in India (Punjab, bee re experiencing a fall J . at ipsa vcore a EAL = reducing domestic water consumption, and avoiding wastage 1i__—the water table & cdlucating the public about water conservation ric accounts for one adopting scientific water harvesting practices at the micro level. If this trend is not lus countries have to 4.1.6 Water Quality quirement). \ sof the world, are not Pure water with no extraneous matter in it is not available in nature; a ecological reasons, neither is it advisable to use such water for human consumption, as ~ SES28 Water Resources and Water Quality forms methemoglobin, Methemoglobin does not have the ability to Ty oxygen, and the organs and tissues of the body are deprived of this life-sustaining element oxygen, resulting in the blue coloration of the body (cyanosis) Hence, the increasing nitrate content in drinking water is drawing the attention of health authorities and water quality managers. The Indian standard spetifies an upper limit of 45 mg/L of nitrates in drink- ing water. Nitrate is measured using spectrophotometers, and the u of measurement is mg/l. Fluorides Fluorides are naturally occuring minerals. In some hard rock areas, fluoride minerals like fluorospar (natural calcium fluoride, CaF) and Apatite (natural phosphate and fluoride of calcium, CaF2. 3Caj(PO,)4) occur abundiutly. Ground waters in such areas acquire fluoride ions. Fluoride is an important water quality parameter, as low concentrations (less than 1.0 mg/1) give rise to dental caries in chil- dren, whereas excessive amounts (more than 1.5 mg/l) may cause den- tal and skeletal fluorosis. Fluoride content in water is measured using spectrophotometers. The fluoride problem is dealt with in detail in Chapter 10.7. Toxic materials A variety of toxic (poisonous) materials may enter natural waters. These include heavy metals, met industrial chemicals, and byproducts of algal pollution. The effects on human beings can be acute if they are exposed to large dosages of those materials, Prolonged consumption of these toxins over a long Period can induce irreparable damages to health. These toxic materi- als can enter water supplies through natural drainage, discharge of industrial waste-waters, agricultural run-offand algal blooms. The toxic effects of some of these materials are listed in the Table 4.6 loids, pesticides Microbiological aspects Natural waters get easily contaminated with micro-organisms, especially bacteria and virus. These micro-organisms are largely harmless (non-pathogenic), but some species are found to be harmful (pathogenic) and cause waterborne diseases. Waterborne Diseases Diseases spread by the consumption of water contaminated with pathogenic micro-organisms are called ‘waterborne diseases’. They are transmitted primarily through human and animal excreta. The micro-organisms — pathogenic bacteria, virus, and protozoa—responsible for causing these diseases enter the human body through the so-called faecal-oral route’. They are well adapted Toxic effects of materials in water Table 4-6 Source Yeavy Metals Inetaaced hind nraesnire nari hank Industrial dierharne fem maint4.1 Water Resources 31 for growth in the human and animal intestinal system, where they multiply, ‘They are found in large numbers in domestic sewage and wwaste-waters from animal processing plants. Lack of sanitation facilities to collect and dispose of domestic sewage is a major cause for the con- tamination of water catchment areas with pathogenic micro-organisms, particularly where large populations are concentrated. Health prob- lems associated with waterborne infections are common in underdevel- ‘oped countries, where access to safe water and sanitation facilities is generally inadequate. (As per a recent UNICEF report (Sep. 2006 ~ reported in The Hindu dated Oct. 3, 2006) more than one billion (106 crore) people in different parts of the world do not have access to safe drinking water. Over 2.5 billion (259 crore) people are without basic sanitaion facilities. According to the report globally 10.5 million children under five die each year due fill effects of unsafe and insufficient water). Other sources of microbial pollution include birds, domestic and wild animals, and agricultural run-off. Waterborne diseases may also be acquired and spread by food, spe- cially uncooked or undercooked food. Unscientific recycling of domestic sewage for growing crops, particularly vegetables, can cause waterborne diseases. Table 4.7 lists some of the commonly encountered waterbome diseases. In order to ensure the safety of water with respect to pathogenic micro-organisins, water samples are to be subjected to ‘microbiological examination’. If water is found to contain microbial contamination it has to be subjected to disinfection. Pathogenic bacteria are present in very small numbers and hence are difficult to detect. Their presence and numbers are assessed through indirect evidence. The most common procedure adopted for this purpose is to make use of indicator organisms. When indicator organisms are present in substantial numbers, pathogenic bacteria can be associated with them and the water sample needs to be examined for the presence of harm- ful micro-organisms. Coliform organisms have been recognized as a suitable microbial indicator of water quality for human consumption. ‘The major indicator organisms recognized globally is “Escherichia col’ [E- coli} as it can be detected and enumerated easily. ‘Testing water for microbiological contamination is done by the fol- lowing methods: = Standard Plate Count Test = Multiple Tube Dilution Test—with Most Probable Number (MPN) evaluationausative organisms salmonella typhi salmonella paratyphi A,Borc ‘brio cholerae scherichia coli (enteropathogenic) higelia (spp.) epatitis A virus © viruses (entero viruses) scaris lumbricoides ntamoeta histolytica w bacteria ng whether coliform miples for identi emics occur and not microbiological lab- tation of water can. ctive substances may them. Consumption use serious health pme of the effects em, and loss of skin Ad Water Resources 33, pigments. Even cancer and genetic modifications can occur. Pregnant Women have to be protected from radioactive contamination as the Sensitive foetus may be damaged. But the effects of radiation widely vary depending on the dose and duration of exposure. Water is nor routinely examined for radioactivity. Radio activity is measured using. suitable detectors and is expressed in millicurie and microcurie. in excess of permis the consumer or make it unfit for a designated use. Permissible upper limits are determined significance, availability of water, technology available for treatment, poet OF treatment of water. economic condition of the country, and local climatic conditions. Thus water quality standards can be defined as Timiting concentrations of extraneous matter (impurities), such as dissolved chemicals, and other constituents that are permitted to be present in water supplied for a designated use. These standards are not, and need not be identical for different uses. For example, water supplied for human consumption may not be suitable for use in par. ticular industry. World Health Organization (WHO), a premier organization with its head quarters at Geneva, prescribes water quality standards for human consumption. Individual countries formulate their. standards drawing guidelines from WHO, Standards in India are fi: ed by the Bureau of Indian Standards, Drinking water standards are classified under IS: 10500 andl are pre- sented in Table 4.8, 4.1.7 Classifications of Water Bodies Based on Designated Uses Based on designated uses, water bodies are classified under various seatories. This helps in prescribing and maintaining water quality standards for particular water bodies Fresh Waters Class of Water Designated best uses Class A Drinking water source without conventional treatment, but afier disinfection Class B Outdoor bathing — organized bathing34 Water Resources and Water Quality Class © Class D Class E. Sea waters Drinking water source with conventional treat- ment followed by disinfection Water bodies for propagation of wildlife and fisheries Water bodies for irrigation, industrial cooting, scontrolled waste disposal (including estuaries and coastal waters) | swt Swit SW IIL swiv swv Salt pans, shell fishing, contact water sports | Commercial fishing, recreation (non-contact) | Industrial cooling s Harbour Navigation, controlled waste disposal. Table 4-8 Drinking water specification IS: 10500, 1992 (Reaffirmed 1993) Tolerance limits Undesirable effect outside the di “able limit IS: 10500 Requirement Paramet 9 2 a Essential Characteristics (Desirable limit)