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Victorian College
of the Arts
Secondary School
H2O(l) + H2O(l)
H3O+(aq) + OH(aq)
The small extent of this reaction means that only a few ions are formed and
that the resulting conductivity is virtually zero.
We often see warnings on appliances that water and electricity do not mix. These are
necessary because the water that we use every day is never pure, but contains
other substances dissolved within it. Often these substances are ionic or react
to form ions in the water. Once such ions are present, the water will conduct
freely as the charged particles are able to move.
REMEMBER
sodium
potassium
sulfates
halogens
ammonium
nitrates
NaKSHAN
EXCEPTIONS EXCEPTIONS
Ba2+
Ag+
Pb2+
Ca2+
Ag+
Concentration
=
(IN GRAMS/LITRE)
(g)
(L)
so therefore
mass
= mass / 4000
= 88 X 4000
= 352000 micrograms
= 0.352 grams
Concentration
(%w/w)
100
Concentration
( %w/v)
100
Concentration =
( %v/v)
100
(b)
CHLORINE
Chlorine is added to water to kill bacteria. We add chlorine to swimming pools. A
concentration of 0.5 mg L1 is sufficient to kill most bacteria. Chlorine gas is very poisonous. It
reacts with water to form the hypochlorite ion (OCl) and the chloride ion as seen in the
following equation:
Cl2(g) + H2O(l)
The hypochlorite ion breaks up in the presence of sunlight and so more calcium hypochlorite
must be added to maintain a sufficiently high concentration of the ion to kill bacteria.
HEAVY METALS
The dangers of some heavy metals were first exposed after a tragedy in
Minemata Bay in Japan during the 1950s. At least 60 people had been
seriously affected before a cause was determined. The victims had
been eating fish. These fish had accumulated a large quantity of
methyl mercury in their bodies. A chemical company had been using
mercury as a catalyst and was discharging large quantities of mercury
waste into the sea. Bacteria converted the waste into the toxic methyl
mercury.
Mercury, lead and cadmium are just some of the heavy metals that pose a major
disposal problem. Shellfish accumulate heavy metals and should not be eaten if
they are taken from near a sewage outlet or a polluted river.
Nicole Demasi
Victorian College
of the Arts
Secondary School
Acids are very versatile substances. They are found in our stomach, in many
foods that we eat and used in many different industries.
PROPERTIES OF ACIDS
- Usually taste sour
- Corrosive
- Dissolve in water
- Turn blue litmus paper red
- Neutralised by bases
EXAMPLES OF ACIDS
Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Nitric Acid (HNO3)
Acetic Acid (CH3COOH)
Carbonic Acid (H2CO3)
1)
There are seven different general equations for reactions involving acids.
They are:
Acid + reactive metal
salt + hydrogen gas
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
salt + water
7)
salt + water
PROPERTIES OF BASES
Usually taste bitter
Feel slippery
Turn red litmus paper blue
Can conduct electricity
May be corrosive
Oxides or hydroxides of metals
If soluble in water, are called ALKALIS.
EXAMPLES OF BASES / ALKALIS
Ammonia (NH3)
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)
Calcium hydroxide (Ca (OH)2)
When ionic substances dissolve in water to produce ions. These ions can act as acids or
bases when they react with water. As a result, acidic or basic solutions can form.
In such cases, anions will react with water to produce OH- or cations will react to
produce H3O+.
Sodium carbonate will form Na+ and CO32when it dissolves in water. The carbonate ions
will react in water as follows
CO3 2- (aq) +
H2O (l)
OH - (aq)
HCO3- (aq)
H2O (l)
H3O+ (aq) +
NH3 (aq)
Ionic bases do not react with water as acids do. They dissociate
or separate into their constituent ions. Sodium hydroxide will
form sodium and hydroxide ions.
NaOH (aq)
Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
Molecular bases such as NH3 cannot
dissociate as they do not contain ions.
Ammonia ionises according to the
equation below:
NH4+ (aq)
+ OH (aq)
Ionic equation
H+ + Cl- + K + + OH-
K+ +
Cl- +
H2O
OH - (aq)
H2O (l)
OH - (aq)
2 H2O (l)
KCl (aq)
When acids and bases react a CONJUGATE ACID and CONJUGATE BASE are
formed.
Conjugate acid base pairs differ by a proton (H+). To find the conjugate base of an
acid , subtract a H+. To find the conjugate acid of a base, add a H+.
EXAMPLE
HCl
H 2O
Cl-
H 3O +
POLYPROTIC ACIDS
Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid and its reaction in water is nearly complete,
producing many ions.
HCl (aq) +
H2O(l)
H3O+(aq)
+ Cl(aq)
Acetic acid is weak, so it will not react to completion, and its solution is a poor
conductor of electricity because not many ions are formed.
CH3COOH(l) + H2O(l)
weak acid
H3O+(aq)
partial reaction only
CH3COO(aq)
The strength of a base also affects its conductivity. A base is said to be strong if it
produces many hydroxide ions in solution because the hydroxide ion readily accepts
protons. Sodium hydroxide is a strong base because it dissociates completely, producing
many hydroxide ions. Sodium hydroxide is therefore a good electrolyte.
H2O
NaOH(s)
Na+ (aq) + OH(aq)
Ammonia is a weak base and will not readily ionise and accept
protons. It forms very few ions in solution. Ammonia is therefore
a poor conductor of electricity.
NH3(aq) + H2O(l)
NH4+(aq) + OH(aq)
Nicole
Demasi
Victorian College
of the Arts
Secondary School
Silver tarnishes in the home because of the presence of small amounts of hydrogen
sulfide (H2S rotten egg gas), according to the following reaction:
4 Ag (s) + 2 H2S (g) + O2 (g)
1)
2)
How many mole of hydrogen sulfide will react with 1 mole of silver ?
As 4 moles of silver reacts with 2 moles of hydrogen sulfide, then one mole of silver
will react with 0.5 mole of hydrogen sulfide.
3)
How many moles of silver sulfide form from 3.5 moles of hydrogen sulfide ?
As the number of mole of hydrogen sulfide and silver sulfide is the same, 3.5 moles
of hydrogen sulfide would make 3.5 moles of silver sulfide.
Phosphine (PH3) is a poisonous gas used as a fumigant for stored grain according to
the equation:
Ca3P2 (s) + 6H2O (l)
3Ca(OH)2 (s) + 2PH3 (g)
Calculate the mass of phosphine that can be prepared from 25 g of Ca3P2
1) KNOWN Ca3P2 UNKNOWN PH3
2) Calculate the number of moles of Ca3P2
n=m/M
= 25 / (40.08 x 3 + 2 x 30.97)
= 25 / 182.18
= 0.137 mol
3)
4)
= 9.31 grams
When the amounts of reactants provided for a reaction are not in the mole ratio, amounts of
one or more reactants will be left over once the reaction has taken place. The reactant that is
completely used up is called the limiting reactant. Any unreacted reactants are called excess
reactants. The amounts of the products will be limited by the amount of the reactant that is
completely used up in the reaction.
Calculations are completed using the limiting reactants.
Consider the example below:
N2 (g) + 3H2(g)
2NH3 (g)
MgCl2 (s)
m=n xM
= 0.282 x 95.2 = 26.8 grams
= n/V
= 4.29 M
Many ionic compounds are soluble in water as the cations and anions are
dissociated from each other. The concentration of the resulting ions can be
calculated
Ionic concentrations are written in square brackets eg [Na +]
EXAMPLE
Calculate the concentration of magnesium nitrate, Mg(NO3)2 solution
in which the concentration of nitrate ions is 0.03 M.
Dissociation equation
Mg(NO3)2 (s)
H2 O
Mg 2+ (aq)
+ 2 NO3- (aq)
Mole Ratio
n(Mg(NO3)2 ) = n(NO3- ).
As volume is constant, then M (Mg(NO3)2 ) = M(NO3- ).
= 0.5 x 0.03 = 0.015M
When a solution is diluted by the addition of more solvent, the number of moles
of the solute does not change. Therefore, the mass of the solute does not change
either.
n (before dilution) = n (after dilution) OR
n 1 = n 2 THEREFORE
c1V1=c2V2
EXAMPLE
A 2 M CuSO4 solution is diluted from 200 ml to 750 ml.
Find the concentration of the diluted solution.
c1V1=c2V2
2 X 0.2 = c2 x 0.750
c2 = 2 X 0.2/ 0.75 = 0.53 M
4)
EXAMPLE
Zinc metal is reacted with 400ml of a 0.25 M solution of sulfuric acid, H2SO4. Calculate the
mass of zinc sulfate produced.
1)
2)
3)
4)
Balanced Equation
Zn (s) + H2SO4 (aq)
ZnSO4 (aq)
H2 (g)
Balanced equation
2)
3)
4)
KOH
HCl
Volume of KOH
n = cV
V = n/c
= .006/.2
= 0.03 L = 30 ml
H2O
KCl
Acidbase titrations are based on neutralisation reactions. They are a type of volumetric
analysis where the unknown concentration of a solution is determined by reacting it with a
solution of known concentration ( a standard solution). This is prepared by dissolving an
accurate amount of a solute in water using a volumetric flask that is calibrated to contain the
specified volume. The standard solution (normally a base like sodium carbonate) is placed in
a burette, which is used to deliver definite but variable volumes of liquid.
In a titration, the volume of liquid measured by the burette is
called a titre. The solution of unknown concentration is added
to a conical flask using a pipette. A pipette is used to deliver a
known volume of liquid which is then called an aliquot.
A suitable indicator is added to the aliquot in the conical flask.
The solution in the burette is slowly added to the aliquot
until the indicator changes colour. This process is called
titration. The point at which chemically equivalent amounts
of acid and base (according to the equation) are present is
called the equivalence point. The point at which the indicator
changes colour is called the end point and is usually about one drop after the equivalence
point.
Titres within 0.05 mL of each other are called concordant titres. Three concordant titres are
needed to calculate the average titre.
pH = log10[H3O+]
When the [H3O+] in a solution is expressed as a power of
10 the pH is equal to the power multiplied by 1.
HCl
H2O
Cl-
H3O+
THEREFORE
[H3O+]
= 0.001 M
= 103 M
log 10 [H3O+] = log 10 [103 ]
=-3
pH = -1 X 3
= 3
The theoretical yield is the maximum amount of product that can be formed
from a given reaction. (Calculated mathematically)
The actual yield is the amount of product formed from the reaction when it is
carried out in the laboratory.
The Percentage yield measures the efficiency of the reaction and is calculated by
the equation below.
Actual Yield / Theoretical Yield x 100%
EXAMPLE
The expected mass of zinc sulfate in the reaction previously
discussed was 16.1 grams. The experiment was carried out at
VCASS and only 13.78 grams was produced.
Calculate the percentage yield
Nicole Demasi
Victorian College
of the Arts
Secondary School
2H2O (g)
4NH3 (g) +
5O2 (g)
4 NO (g)
6H2O
The REDUCTANT is
the species which
causes reduction but
is itself oxidised.
OILRIG
Oxidation is loss. Reduction is gain.
Oxidation must be accompanied by
reduction, they occur simultaneously
Mg
2Mg
REDUCTION
O2
Mg 2+ + 2e
2Mg 2+ + 4e -
4e-
2O 2-
Some redox reactions do not involve the transfer of electrons, but the
sharing of electrons. As a result, the definition of redox reactions was
altered to take these covalent reactions into consideration. The
OXIDATION NUMBER is used to help explain these reactions.
OXIDATION NUMBER the imaginary charge
an atom would have if it existed as an ion in
a compound.
OXIDATION is an increase in the oxidation
number of an atom.
H2SO4
(b)
SO2
OXIDATION NUMBER
OXIDATION NUMBER
0 = (2 x +1) + S + (4 x 2)
0=2+S8
0 =-6+S
0 = S + (-2 x 2)
0=S-4
S = +4
Oxidation number = +6
Oxidation number = + 4
REDOX REACTIONS
Single Replacement Reactions
Combination Reactions
Combustion Reactions
Decomposition Reactions
Oxidation number = 0
Oxidation number = 0
Oxidation number of Fe = +3
Oxidation number of Cl3 = - 3
Oxidation number of Cl = - 1
Overall Equation
Fe (s)
CuSO4 (aq)
FeSO4 (aq)
Cu (s)
+ SO4 2- (aq)
Fe 2+ (aq) +
Cu (s)
Fe 2+ (aq)
2e-
2e-
Cu (s)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Step 1
Cr2O72-
Cr 3+
Step 2
Cr2O72-
2 Cr 3+
Step 3
Cr2O72-
2 Cr 3+ + 7 H2O
Step 4
Cr2O72-
Step 5
Cr2O72-
+
+
14 H+
14 H+ + 6 e -
2 Cr 3+ + 7 H2O
2 Cr 3+ + 7 H2O
OXIDATION
Step 1
C2H5OH
CH3CHO
Oxygen and Carbon are balanced. Need to balance hydrogen
Step 4
C2H5OH
CH3CHO + 2H+
Step 6
C2H5OH
CH3CHO + 2H+ + 2eMust multiply Oxidation reaction by 3 so that there are 6 electrons
(the same number as in the reduction reaction.) This way, the electrons cancel each
other out.
3 C2H5OH
3 CH3CHO + 6 H+ + 6eOVERALL EQUATION
3C2H5OH + Cr2O72- + 14 H+ + 6 e 3 CH3CHO +
+
6H + 6e +
2 Cr 3+ + 7 H2O
3 C2H5OH
+ Cr2O72- + 8 H+
3 CH3CHO + 2 Cr 3+
+ 7 H2O
OXIDATION
Gain of oxygen
Loss of hydrogen
Loss of electrons
An increase in oxidation number
REDUCTION
Loss of oxygen
Gain of hydrogen
Gain of electrons
A decrease in oxidation number
AN OXIDANT
accepts electrons
undergoes reduction
has its oxidation
number decreased
A REDUCTANT
donates electrons
undergoes oxidation
has its oxidation
number increased
Cu (s)
Zn 2+ (aq)
If copper metal were placed in a zinc sulfate solution then nothing would
happen as copper could not give up its electrons and become a cation
NOT POSSIBLE
Cu (s) + Zn 2+ (aq)
Zn (s)
Cu 2+ (aq)
Zinc is more reactive than copper and so will give away its electrons.
Therefore OXIDATION is taking place in the zinc half cell. The zinc half cell is the
ANODE
OXIDATION occurs at the ANODE
Zn (s)
Zn 2+ (aq)
+ 2e -
Cu (s)
The relative ability of all half cells to attract electrons can be ranked in an
ELECTROCHEMICAL SERIES OF METALS.
+ Cu 2+ (aq)
Mg 2+ (aq)
Cu (s)
1)
2)
This is commonly know as RUSTING. Iron rusts when a water drop containing dissolved
impurities lands on it. A simple electrochemical cell is set up on different sites on the iron.
The anode is usually located at the stress site of the iron (like a scratch on the surface). This
is where iron is oxidised and releases electrons.
Fe (s)
Fe 2+ (aq) + 2 e
These electrons travel through the metal to the cathode and are
accepted by oxygen (usually at the edge of the water droplet
where it meets the air). The oxygen accepts the electrons and is reduced.
O2 (g)
2H2O (l) + 4 e
4 OH (aq)
The hydroxide ions and the Fe 2+ ions migrate towards each other and react to produce iron
(II) hydroxide which is green and insoluble. The overall equation for the reaction is:
2 Fe (s) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
2 Fe (OH)2 (s)
+ 2H20 (l)
4Fe(OH)3 (s)
The brown precipitate will then partially dehydrate to produce iron (III)
oxide, Fe 2O3.xH20 where x is less than three.
will be
Nicole Demasi
Victorian College
of the Arts
Secondary School
The gases in the air are separated by FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION. This relies on the fact that the different gases have different boiling points.
If we cool a gas down enough, it eventually
and expanding air many times it is possible
different gases making it up. Because each
gases can be separated. This is a physical
distillation.
As the temperature is reduced, a
removed.
N2 (g) + 2H2O(g)
PROPERTIES OF OZONE
a powerful oxidant
O3(g)
O 2 (g) + O(g)
It is often the chlorine that is released from these compounds that reacts with the ozone.
A single atom of chlorine can destroy 100 000 ozone molecules.
UV light
CCl3F(g)
The chlorine atom then attacks the ozone
Cl(g) + O3(g)
ClO(g) + O(g)
Net reaction:
O(g) + O 3 (g)
CCl2F(g) +Cl(g)
ClO(g) + O 2 (g)
Cl(g) + O2 (g)
2O2 (g)
solar energy
6CO2(g) + 6H2O(1)
6O2 (g) + C6H12O6(aq)
chlorophyll
6CO2(g) + 6H2O(1)
Erosion of limestone.
Volcanic eruptions.
GREENHOUSE EFFECT
ACID RAIN
gases in the air like sulfur dioxide react with water and when it
rains ACID RAIN is produced which is dangerous to plant and
animals life.
SMOG
These gases are unreactive as they have a full outer shell of electrons. They are
all gases at room temperature. All noble gases other then helium have eight
electrons in their outer shell, helium has 2.
Nicole Demasi
Victorian College
of the Arts
Secondary School
Measured by a BAROMETER.
At sea level is roughly equal to 101.3
kPa.
Also measured in atmospheres. 101.3
kPa is equal to 1 atmosphere.
Also measured in mmHg
(millimetres of mercury). 1 mmHg is
the pressure needed to raise a
column of mercury 1 millimetre. 1
atmosphere is equal to 760 mmHg.
101.3 kPa = 1 atm = 760 mmHg.
or
C = K - 273
1 m3 = 10 3 L = 10 6 mL
BOYLES LAW
The volume of a fixed mass of gas is inversely
proportional to the pressure exerted on it.
EXAMPLE
What volume of air at 78 kPa pressure is needed to fill a 35 L
car tyre to a pressure of 275 kPa if the temperature
remains constant ?
P1V1 = P2V2
78 V1 = 275 x 35
V1 = 275 x 35 / 78
= 9625 / 78
= 123.4 L
EXAMPLE
A balloon has a volume of 325 ml at 17 oC. What is the temperature if the
volume increased to 392 ml (at constant pressure) ?
V1/T1 = V2/T2
325 / (273 + 17) = 392 / T2
325 / 290 = 392 / T2
1.12 = 392 / T2
T2 = 392 / 1.12
= 350 K = ( 77 oC)
Gay Lussacs Law states that, for a given quantity of gas (if the
volume is constant), the pressure of the gas is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature.
P is proportional to T, then P/T = constant
SO P1 / T1 = P2 / T2
P1V1 / T 1 = P 2 V2 / T2
P1V1 / T 1 = P 2 V2 / T2
145 X 4500 / 293 = P 2 X 60 / 285
P2 = 145 X 4500 X 285 / 293 X 60
= 185962500 / 17580
= 10578.07 kPa OR
= 1.1 x 104 kPa
The pressure that each gas exerts in a mixture of gases is known as its PARTIAL
PRESSURE and is equal to the pressure it would exert if it were alone in the
container.
DALTONS LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE states that, at constant
temperature and volume, the total pressure exerted is equal to the sum of all the
partial pressures.
P total = P1 + P2 + P3 + .
EXAMPLE
A cylinder contains a mixture of two gases with a combined pressure of
1.36 atm. If the partial pressure of one gas is 750 mmHg, determine the
pressure of the other gas (in mmHg)
P total = P1 + P2
STANDARD LABORATORY
CONDITIONS (SLC)
SLC temperature is 298 K (25 OC)
SLC pressure is 1 atmosphere (or 760 mmHg or 101.3 kPa)
Avogadro hypothesised that equal volumes of all gases measured at the same
temperature and pressure contained the same number of particles. They must
therefore contain the same number of moles.
At STP, one mole of any gas occupies 22.4 L
(called the MOLAR GAS VOLUME)
At SLC, the molar gas volume is 24.5 L.
(The temperature is higher so gases expand)
V is measured in litres
(a) At STP
n = V / 22.4
V = 1.3 X 22.4
V = 29.12 L
At SLC
n = V / 24.5
V = 1.3 X 24.5
V = 31.85 L
At STP
n = V / 22.4
V = 0.225 X 22.4
V = 5.04 L
At SLC
n = V / 24.5
V = 0.225 X 24.5
V = 5.5125 L
P is in kPa, V is in L and T is in K.
6 CO2 (g)
+ 6H20 (g)
C6H12O6 (g) +
6O2 (g)
What volume of carbon dioxide, measured at 28 oC and 1.3 atm pressure is needed to
produce 1.5 g of glucose ?
n (glucose) = 1.5 / 180 = 0.0083 mol
therefore n (CO2) = 6 X 0.0083 = 0.05 mol
P = 1.3 atm = 1.3 x 101.3 = 131.69 kPa
T = 28 oC = 301 K
PV = nRT
131.69V = 0.05 X 8.31 X 301
131.69V = 125.0655
V = 125.0655 / 131.69
V = 0.95 L
2 C8H18 + 25 O2
18H2O +
16 CO2
IDEAL GASES obey all the gas laws perfectly at any temperature or
pressure.
REAL GASES show large departures from ideality, particularly at high
pressure and low temperatures. This is because of intermolecular forces
between particles, giving the gas molecules a definite volume (it is
assumed to be negligible).
At high pressure, the gas particles
move closer together and so the
intermolecular forces grow stronger.
At low temperatures, the gas molecules
move more slowly and the intermolecular
forces become large.
The gas laws are only applicable at high
temperatures (above room temperature)
and at low pressure.