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IndependentagenciesoftheUnitedStatesgovernmentWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

IndependentagenciesoftheUnitedStates
government
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

IndependentagenciesoftheUnitedStatesfederalgovernmentarethoseagenciesthatexistoutsideofthe
federalexecutivedepartments(thoseheadedbyaCabinetsecretary).Inamorenarrowsense,thetermmayalso
beusedtodescribeagenciesthat,whileconstitutionallypartoftheexecutivebranch,areindependentof
presidentialcontrol,usuallybecausethepresident'spowertodismisstheagencyheadoramemberislimited.
EstablishedthroughseparatestatutespassedbytheCongress,eachrespectivestatutorygrantofauthority
definesthegoalstheagencymustworktowards,aswellaswhatsubstantiveareas,ifany,overwhichitmay
havethepowerofrulemaking.Theseagencyrules(orregulations),wheninforce,havethepoweroffederal
law.

Contents
1 Functionalcharacteristics
1.1 Regulatoryagencies
2 Examplesofagencies
2.1 Formeragencies
3 Footnotes
4 Seealso
5 Externallinks

Functionalcharacteristics
Independentagenciescanbedistinguishedfromthefederalexecutivedepartmentsandotherexecutiveagencies
bytheirstructuralandfunctionalcharacteristics.[1]Congresscanalsodesignatecertainagenciesexplicitlyas
"independent"inthegoverningstatute,butthefunctionaldifferenceshavemorelegalsignificance.[2]
Whilemostexecutiveagencieshaveasingledirector,administrator,orsecretaryappointedbythePresidentof
theUnitedStates,independentagencies(inthenarrowersenseofbeingoutsidepresidentialcontrol)almost
alwayshaveacommission,board,orsimilarcollegialbodyconsistingoffivetosevenmemberswhoshare
powerovertheagency.[1](Thisiswhymanyindependentagenciesincludetheword"Commission"or"Board"
intheirname.)Thepresidentappointsthecommissionersorboardmembers,subjecttoSenateconfirmation,
buttheyoftenservewithstaggeredterms,andoftenforlongertermsthanausualfouryearpresidentialterm,[3]
meaningmostpresidentswillnothavetheopportunitytoappointallthecommissionersofagivenindependent
agency.NormallythepresidentcandesignatewhichCommissionerwillserveastheChairperson.[3]Normally
therearestatutoryprovisionslimitingthepresident'sauthoritytoremovecommissioners,typicallyfor
incapacity,neglectofduty,malfeasance,orothergoodcause.[4]Inaddition,mostindependentagencieshavea
statutoryrequirementofbipartisanmembershiponthecommission,sothepresidentcannotsimplyfill
vacancieswithmembersofhisownpoliticalparty.[3]
Inreality,thehighturnoverrateamongthesecommissionersorboardmembersmeansthatmostpresidents
havetheopportunitytofillenoughvacanciestoconstituteavotingmajorityoneachindependentagency
commissionwithinthefirsttwoyearsofthefirsttermaspresident.[5]Insomefamousinstances,presidents
havefoundtheindependentagenciesmoreloyalandinlockstepwiththepresident'swishesandpolicy
objectivesthansomedissentersamongtheexecutiveagencypoliticalappointments.[6]Presidentialattemptsto
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removeindependentagencyofficialshavegeneratedmostoftheimportantSupremeCourtlegalopinionsinthis
area.[3]Presidentsnormallydohavetheauthoritytoremoveheadsofindependentagencies,buttheymustmeet
thestatutoryrequirementsforremoval,suchasdemonstratingthattheindividualhascommittedmalfeasance.
Incontrast,thepresidentcanremoveregularexecutiveagencyheadsatwill.
Iftheindependentagencyexercisesanyexecutivepowerslikeenforcement,andmostofthemdo,Congress
cannotparticipateintheregularremovalprocessofcommissioners.[7]Constitutionally,Congresscanonly
participatedirectlyinimpeachmentproceedings.Congresscan,however,passstatuteslimitingthe
circumstancesunderwhichthepresidentcanremovecommissionersofindependentagencies.[8]Membersof
Congresscannotserveascommissionersonindependentagenciesthathaveexecutivepowers,[9]norcan
CongressitselfappointthecommissionerstheAppointmentsClauseoftheConstitutionveststhatpowerin
thepresident.[10]TheSenatedoesparticipate,however,inappointmentsthrough"adviceandconsent",which
occursthroughconfirmationhearingsandvotesonthepresident'snominees.

Regulatoryagencies
Thereisafurtherdistinctionbetweenanindependentagencyandanindependentregulatoryagency.The
PaperworkReductionActlists19enumerated"independentregulatoryagencies".Generally,theheadsof
independentregulatoryagenciescanonlyberemovedforcause,whereasindependentagenciessuchasthe
EnvironmentalProtectionAgencyandCabinetdepartmentheadsserve"atthepleasureofthepresident".[11]
ExecutiveOrder12866,whichrequirescostbenefitanalysisforcertainregulatoryactions,doesnotapplyto
independentregulatoryagencies.[11]

Examplesofagencies
TheCentralIntelligenceAgency(CIA)gathersintelligenceandprovidesnationalsecurityassessments
topolicymakersintheUnitedStates.Itactsastheprimaryhumanintelligenceproviderforthefederal
government.
TheCommodityFuturesTradingCommission(CFTC)regulatescommodityfuturesandoption
marketsintheUnitedStates.Theagencyprotectsmarketparticipantsagainstmanipulation,abusivetrade
practicesandfraud.Througheffectiveoversightandregulation,theCFTCenablesthemarketstoserve
bettertheirimportantfunctionsinthenation'seconomyprovidingamechanismforpricediscoveryanda
meansofoffsettingpricerisk.
TheConsumerFinancialProtectionBureau(CFPB)isresponsibleforconsumerprotectioninthe
financialsector.Itsjurisdictionincludesbanks,creditunions,securitiesfirms,paydaylenders,mortgage
servicingoperations,foreclosurereliefservices,debtcollectors,otherfinancialcompaniesoperatingin
theUnitedStates.
TheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)workswithstateandlocalgovernmentsthroughoutthe
UnitedStatestocontrolandabatepollutionintheairandwaterandtodealwithproblemsrelatedtosolid
waste,pesticides,radiation,andtoxicsubstances.TheEPAsetsandenforcesstandardsforairandwater
quality,evaluatestheimpactofpesticidesandchemicalsubstances,andmanagesthe"Superfund"
programforcleaningtoxicwastesites.
TheFederalCommunicationsCommission(FCC)ischargedwithregulatinginterstateand
internationalcommunicationsbyradio,television,wire,satellite,andcable.Itlicensesradioand
televisionbroadcaststations,assignsradiofrequencies,andenforcesregulationsdesignedtoensurethat
cableratesarereasonable.TheFCCregulatescommoncarriers,suchastelephoneandtelegraph
companies,aswellaswirelesstelecommunicationsserviceproviders.
TheFederalElectionCommission(FEC)overseescampaignfinancingforallfederalelections.The
Commissionoverseeselectionrulesaswellasreportingofcampaigncontributionsbythecandidates.
TheFederalEnergyRegulatoryCommission(FERC)istheUnitedStatesfederalagencywith
jurisdictionoverinterstateelectricitysales,wholesaleelectricrates,hydroelectriclicensing,naturalgas
pricing,andoilpipelinerates.FERCalsoreviewsandauthorizesliquefiednaturalgas(LNG)terminals,
interstatenaturalgaspipelinesandnonfederalhydropowerprojects.
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TheFederalMaritimeCommission(FMC)regulatestheinternationaloceantransportationofthe
UnitedStates.Itischargedwithensuringacompetitive,efficient,andeconomicoceantransportation
system.[12]
TheFederalReserveBoardofGovernorsisthegoverningbodyoftheFederalReserveSystem
(frequentlyreferredtoas"theFed"[13]),thecentralbankoftheUnitedStates.Itconductsthenation's
monetarypolicybyinfluencingthevolumeofcreditandmoneyincirculation.TheFederalReserve
regulatesprivatebankinginstitutions,workstocontainsystemicriskinfinancialmarkets,andprovides
certainfinancialservicestotheU.S.government,thepublic,andfinancialinstitutions.
TheFederalRetirementThriftInvestmentBoard(FRTIB)isoneofthesmallerExecutiveBranch
agencies,withjustover100employees.ItwasestablishedtoadministertheThriftSavingsPlan(TSP),
whichprovidesFederalemployeestheopportunitytosaveforadditionalretirementsecurity.TheThrift
SavingsPlanisataxdeferreddefinedcontributionplansimilartoaprivatesector401(k)plan.
TheFederalTradeCommission(FTC)enforcesfederalantitrustandconsumerprotectionlawsby
investigatingcomplaintsagainstindividualcompaniesinitiatedbyconsumers,businesses,congressional
inquiries,orreportsinthemedia.Thecommissionseekstoensurethatthenation'smarketsfunction
competitivelybyeliminatingunfairordeceptivepractices.
TheGeneralServicesAdministration(GSA)isresponsibleforthepurchase,supply,operation,and
maintenanceoffederalproperty,buildings,andequipment,andforthesaleofsurplusitems.GSAalso
managesthefederalmotorvehiclefleetandoverseestelecommutingcentersandcivilianchildcare
centers.
TheInternationalTradeCommission(ITC)providestradeexpertisetoboththelegislativeand
executivebranchesofgovernment,determinestheimpactofimportsonU.S.industries,anddirects
actionsagainstcertainunfairtradepractices,suchaspatent,trademark,andcopyrightinfringement.
TheNationalArchivesandRecordsAdministration(NARA)preservesthenation'shistoryby
overseeingthemanagementofallfederalrecords.TheholdingsoftheNationalArchivesincludeoriginal
textualmaterials,motionpicturefilms,soundandvideorecordings,maps,stillpictures,andcomputer
data.TheDeclarationofIndependence,theU.S.Constitution,andtheBillofRightsarepreservedand
displayedattheNationalArchivesbuildinginWashington,D.C.
TheNationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration(NASA)isaU.SGovernmentSpaceAgencythat
isresponsibleforthecivilianspaceprogramaswellasaeronauticsandaerospaceresearch.
TheNationalLaborRelationsBoard(NLRB)administerstheprincipalUnitedStateslaborlaw,the
NationalLaborRelationsAct.Theboardisvestedwiththepowertopreventorremedyunfairlabor
practicesandtosafeguardemployees'rightstoorganizeanddeterminethroughelectionswhethertohave
aunionastheirbargainingrepresentative.
TheNationalTransportationSafetyBoard(NTSB)investigatesallaviationaccidentsintheUnited
States,andcertainmajorrailroadandotheraccidents.[14]
TheNuclearRegulatoryCommission(NRC)wasestablishedbytheEnergyReorganizationActof
1974fromtheUnitedStatesAtomicEnergyCommission,andwasfirstopenedJanuary19,1975.The
NRCoverseesreactorsafetyandsecurity,reactorlicensingandrenewal,radioactivematerialsafety,and
spentfuelmanagement(storage,security,recycling,anddisposal).
TheNationalScienceFoundation(NSF)isaUnitedStatesgovernmentagencythatsupports
fundamentalresearchandeducationinallthenonmedicalfieldsofscienceandengineering.
ThePostalRegulatoryCommission(PRC)wascreatedin1971asthePostalRateCommissionand
strengthenedunderthePostalAccountabilityandEnhancementActenactedinDecember2006.Provides
regulatoryoversightovertheactivitiesoftheUnitedStatesPostalService.
TheSecuritiesandExchangeCommission(SEC)wasestablishedtoprotectinvestorswhobuystocks
andbonds.Federallawsrequirecompaniesthatplantoraisemoneybysellingtheirownsecuritiestofile
reportsabouttheiroperationswiththeSEC,sothatinvestorshaveaccesstoallmaterialinformation.The
commissionhaspowerstopreventorpunishfraudinthesaleofsecuritiesandisauthorizedtoregulate
stockexchanges.
TheSelectiveServiceSystem(SSS)isanindependentfederalagencyoperatingwithpermanent
authorizationundertheMilitarySelectiveServiceAct(50U.S.C.App.451etseq.).Itisnotpartofthe
DepartmentofDefensehowever,itexiststoservetheemergencymanpowerneedsoftheMilitaryby
conscriptinguntrainedmen,orpersonnelwithprofessionalhealthcareskills,ifdirectedbyCongressand
thePresidentinanationalcrisis.Itsstatutorymissionsalsoincludebeingreadytoadministeran
alternativeserviceprogram,inlieuofmilitaryserviceformenclassifiedasconscientiousobjectors.
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TheSmallBusinessAdministration(SBA)wascreatedin1953toadvise,assist,andprotectthe
interestsofsmallbusinessconcerns.TheSBAguaranteesloanstosmallbusinesses,aidsvictimsof
floodsandothernaturaldisasters,promotesthegrowthofminorityownedfirms,andhelpssecure
contractsforsmallbusinessestosupplygoodsandservicestothefederalgovernment.
TheSmithsonianInstitution(SI)isanindependentestablishmentoftheUnitedStatescreatedbyanact
ofCongressAugust10,1846.TheSIconductsscientificandscholarlyresearchpublishestheresultsof
studies,explorations,andinvestigationsorganizesexhibitsrepresentativeofthearts,thesciences,
Americanhistory,andworldcultureaswellasengagesineducationalprogrammingandnationaland
internationalcooperativeresearch.MostoftheNationalMuseumsinWashington,DCarepartofthe
Smithsonian.
TheSocialSecurityAdministration(SSA)istheUnitedStatesfederalagencythatadministersSocial
Security,asocialinsuranceprogramconsistingofretirement,disability,andsurvivors'benefits.To
qualifyforthesebenefits,mostAmericanworkerspaySocialSecuritytaxesontheirearningsfuture
benefitsarebasedontheemployees'contributions.
TheSurfaceTransportationBoard(STB)wascreatedintheICCTerminationActof1995andisthe
successoragencytotheInterstateCommerceCommission.TheSTBisaneconomicregulatoryagency
thatCongresschargedwithresolvingrailroadrateandservicedisputesandreviewingproposedrailroad
mergers.TheSTBisdecisionallyindependent,althoughitisadministrativelyaffiliatedwiththe
DepartmentofTransportation.
TheUnitedStatesPostalService(USPS)isdefinedbystatuteasan"independentestablishment"ofthe
federalgovernment,whichreplacedtheCabinetlevelPostOfficeDepartmentin1971.ThePostal
Serviceisresponsibleforthecollection,transportation,anddeliveryofthemails,andfortheoperationof
thousandsoflocalpostofficesacrossthecountry.Italsoprovidesinternationalmailservicethroughthe
UniversalPostalUnionandotheragreementswithforeigncountries.
Otherindependentagencies:theNationalCreditUnionAdministration(NCUA)andtheConsumer
ProductSafetyCommission(CPSC).

Formeragencies
TheCommitteeonPublicInformationwasanagencycreatedtoinfluencetheU.S.publicopinion
regardingAmericanparticipationinWorldWarI.LastingfromApril14,1917,toJune30,1919itwas
directedbyGeorgeCreel.Theagencyusedpropagandaavailabletoachieveitsgoals.
TheInterstateCommerceCommissionregulatedcommoncarriersandwasthusabletorenderfar
reachingorders,suchasthedesegregationofpublictransportation.Aftertruckingandrailroadswere
largelyderegulated,theICCwasreplacedwiththeSurfaceTransportationBoard,withintheDepartment
ofTransportation.
TheUnitedStatesMaritimeCommissionwasintendedtoformulateamerchantshipbuildingprogram
todesignandbuildfivehundredmodernmerchantcargoshipsfortheU.S.MerchantMarine.Italso
formedtheUnitedStatesMaritimeService.In1950,itsfunctionsweretransferredtotheUnitedStates
MaritimeAdministration,whichlaterbecamepartoftheDepartmentofTransportation.
TheReconstructionFinanceCorporationwasdesignedtohelpfinanceprojectsduringtheGreat
Depression.Itlaterhelpedfinancethenation'smilitarybuildupasWorldWarIIapproached.Scandalsled
toitseventualdissolutionin1956.
TheOfficeoftheUnitedStatesNuclearWasteNegotiatorwasresponsiblefortheplacementandlong
termstorageofradioactivewaste.Itwasdissolvedin1995.[15]
TheUnitedStatesInformationAgency,whichwaspartiallymergedintotheDepartmentofStatein
1999.

Footnotes
1.Pierce,RichardShapiro,SidneyA.Verkuil,Paul(5thed.2009),AdministrativeLawandProcess,Section4.4.1b,
p.101,FoundationPressISBN1599414252
2.Shane,Peter,Merrill,RichardMashaw,Jerry(2003),AdministrativeLaw:TheAmericanPublicLawProcess
pp.22829,ThomsonWest:ISBN9780314144256[1](http://west.thomson.com/productdetail/124758/22091642/p
roductdetail.aspx)
3.Pierce,Shapiro,&Verkuil(2009)p.102.
4.See,e.g.,Humphrey'sExecutorv.UnitedStates,295U.S.602(1935).
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5.Shane,Merrill,Mashaw(2003)p.230Pierce,Shapiro,&Verkuil(2009)p.102.
6.Shane,Merrill,Mashaw(2003)p.231.
7.SeeBowsherv.Synar,478U.S.714(1986),Buckleyv.Valeo,424U.S.1(1976)
8.Humphrey'sExecutorv.UnitedStates295U.S.602(1935)
9.Buckleyv.Valeo,424U.S.1(1976)
10.SeeMyersv.UnitedStates,272U.S.52(1926)Buckleyv.Valeo,424U.S.1(1976)
11.CopelandCW.(2013).EconomicAnalysisandIndependentRegulatoryAgencies(http://www.acus.gov/sites/default/fi
les/documents/Copeland%20Final%20BCA%20Report%2043013.pdf).AdministrativeConferenceoftheUnited
States.SeemoreatBenefitCostAnalysisatIndependentRegulatoryAgencies(http://www.acus.gov/researchproject
s/benefitcostanalysisindependentregulatoryagencies).
12.FederalMaritimeCommission(http://www.fmc.gov)
13.See,e.g.,"Fed,centralbanksmovetoboostglobalconfidence".AP.
14.See"AbouttheNTSB".
15.[RichardH.StallingsBiography,IdahoStateUniversityLibrary]

Seealso
Regulatoryagency
Federalexecutivedepartments
ListofU.S.federalagencies
Governmentownedcorporations

Externallinks
Listofindependentagenciesfromwhitehouse.gov(http://www.whitehouse.gov/government/independent
agencies.html)
regulations.gov(http://www.regulations.gov)
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