Seal Systems, Bearing Arrangements and Couplings in Saudi Aramco Pumps PDF

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
SEAL SYSTEMS, BEARING ARRANGEMENTS,

AND COUPLINGS IN SAUDI ARAMCO PUMPS
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Mechanical
File Reference: MEX-211.04
For additional information on this subject, contact

PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556
Pumps
Seal Systems, Bearing Arrangements,
and Couplings in Saudi Aramco Pumps
Section
Page
INFORMATION ............................................................................................................... 5
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 5
PUMP SEAL SYSTEMS.................................................................................................. 6
Packing................................................................................................................. 7
Compression Packing ................................................................................ 7
Molded Packing ....................................................................................... 15
Floating Packing ...................................................................................... 20
Inspection and Maintenance .................................................................... 25
Mechanical Seals ............................................................................................... 27
Basic Mechanical Seal Design................................................................. 29
Face Contact Seals.................................................................................. 33
Lift-Off Face Seals ................................................................................... 68
Auxiliary Seals ......................................................................................... 71
PUMP BEARING ARRANGEMENTS AND LUBRICATION REQUIREMENTS ............ 73
Bearing Loading ................................................................................................. 73
Radial Loads............................................................................................ 73
Axial Loads .............................................................................................. 76
Thrust Direction ....................................................................................... 80
Thrust Balancing Designs ........................................................................ 82
Bearing Types .................................................................................................... 92
Antifriction ................................................................................................ 93
Hydrodynamic.......................................................................................... 98
Pump Industry Standard Bearing Applications....................................... 108
Lubrication Requirements................................................................................. 114
Grease Lubricated ................................................................................. 114
Oil Lubricated......................................................................................... 115
PUMP COUPLINGS.................................................................................................... 118
Rigid Adjustable Spacer Type .......................................................................... 118
Flexible Disk Pack ............................................................................................ 120
Pumps
Diaphragm ........................................................................................................ 121

Elastomeric....................................................................................................... 124
GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................ 127
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Typical Compression Packing Arrangement ................................................... 9
Figure 2. Styles of Braided or Twisted Packing............................................................ 12
Figure 3. Braided Packing Under Pressure .................................................................. 13
Figure 4. Metal Packing................................................................................................ 15
Figure 5. V-Ring Packing ............................................................................................. 16
Figure 6. U-Ring Packing Used to Seal a Piston .......................................................... 17
Figure 7. Cup Packing.................................................................................................. 18
Figure 8. Flange Packing ............................................................................................. 19
Figure 9. Expanding Split Piston Ring Seal .................................................................. 21
Figure 10. Contracting Split Ring Seal ......................................................................... 23
Figure 11. Different Types of Split Rings...................................................................... 24
Figure 12. Basic Mechanical Seal ................................................................................ 29
Figure 13. Basic Mechanical Seal-Improved ................................................................ 30
Figure 14. Basic Mechanical Seal with Static Seals ..................................................... 31
Figure 15. Basic Mechanical Seal with Spring ............................................................. 32
Figure 16. Mechanical Seal Construction (Type A, Pusher)......................................... 34
Figure 17. Mechanical Seal Sealing Points .................................................................. 35
Figure 18. Mating Ring Mounting Configurations ......................................................... 36
Figure 19. Single-Seal Arrangements .......................................................................... 38
Figure 20. Back-to-Back Double Seal Arrangement..................................................... 39
Figure 21. Opposed Dual Seal Arrangement ............................................................... 40
Figure 22. Tandem Seal Arrangement ......................................................................... 41
Figure 23. Single Spring Mechanical Seal.................................................................... 43
Figure 24. Multiple Spring Mechanical Seal ................................................................. 44
Figure 25. Bellows Mechanical Seal............................................................................. 45
ii
Pumps
Figure 26. Wedge-Type Pusher Secondary Seal ......................................................... 46

Figure 27. O-Ring-Type Pusher Secondary Seal ......................................................... 46
Figure 28. Metal Bellows Nonpusher-Type Secondary Seal ........................................ 48
Figure 29. Elastomer Bellows Nonpusher-Type Secondary Seal ................................. 48
Figure 30. Unbalanced Seal......................................................................................... 49
Figure 31. Balanced Seal ............................................................................................. 50
Figure 32. Balancing Force on a Mechanical Seal ....................................................... 52
Figure 33. Balance Ratio Measurement Points ............................................................ 53
Figure 34. Flush Systems Using API 682 Plans ........................................................... 62
Figure 35. Vendor Representations of Arrangement 1 Mechanical Seals .................... 64
Figure 36. Vendor Representation of a Type A, Arrangement 2 Mechanical
Seal ............................................................................................................ 65
Figure 37. Vendor Representation of a Type A, Arrangement 3 Mechanical
Seal ............................................................................................................ 66
Figure 38. Single, Dry-Gas, Lift-Off Seal ...................................................................... 68
Figure 39. Lift-Off Seal Rotating Face V-Groove.......................................................... 70
Figure 40. Wet Running Auxiliary Seal......................................................................... 71
Figure 41. Dry Running Auxiliary Seal.......................................................................... 72
Figure 42. Radial Force................................................................................................ 74
Figure 43. Radial Force Factor Coefficient Plot............................................................ 75
Figure 44. Hydraulic Axial Thrust Produced by a Horizontal, Single-Stage,
Single-Suction, Closed-Impeller Pump ....................................................... 76
Figure 45. Additional Axial Thrust on an Overhung Pump............................................ 77
Double-Suction, Closed-Impeller Pump...................................................... 78
Figure 47. Axial Thrust in Horizontal, Single-Suction, Semi-Open, Radial
Flow Impellers ............................................................................................ 80
Figure 48. Examples of Directions of Axial Thrust........................................................ 81
Figure 49. Actual Pressure Distribution across an Impeller.......................................... 83
Figure 50. Front and Back Wear Rings and Balance Holes ......................................... 84
Figure 51. Pressure Differential across an Impeller with Pump-Out Vanes.................. 85
Figure 52. Stacked Impeller Design with Hydraulic Balancing Device.......................... 86
Figure 53. Opposed Impeller Design............................................................................ 87
Figure 54. Balancing Drum........................................................................................... 88
iii
Pumps
Figure 55. Balancing Disk ............................................................................................ 90

Figure 56. Typical Pump Bearing Applications ............................................................. 92
Figure 57. Single-Row Ball Bearing.............................................................................. 94
Figure 58. Double-Row, Angular-Contact Ball Bearing ................................................ 95
Figure 59. Angular-Contact Bearing ............................................................................. 96
Figure 60. Spherical Barrel-Shaped Roller Bearing...................................................... 97
Figure 61. Shaft/Bearing Dynamics.............................................................................. 99
Figure 62. Typical Journal Bearing............................................................................. 101
Figure 63. Multi-Lobe Journal Bearing ....................................................................... 102
Figure 64. Typical Tilting-Pad Bearing ....................................................................... 104
Figure 65. Tapered Land Thrust Bearing ................................................................... 105
Figure 66. Tilting-Pad Thrust Bearing......................................................................... 106
Figure 67. Self-Equalizing Thrust Bearing.................................................................. 108
Figure 68. Typical API Bearing Configuration ............................................................ 109
Figure 69. Constant-Level Oiler ................................................................................. 115
Figure 70. Typical Forced Feed Lubrication System .................................................. 117
Figure 71. Rigid Adjustable Coupling ......................................................................... 119
Figure 72. Double Disc-Pack Coupling....................................................................... 121
Figure 73. Diaphragm Coupling.................................................................................. 123
Figure 74. Elastomeric Couplings............................................................................... 126
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. dN Rating/Bearing Type/Lubrication Type Table.......................................... 113
iv
Pumps
INFORMATION
INTRODUCTION
There are a few major components of a centrifugal pump,
including the pump casing, the shaft, and the impeller. Other
components that have a direct effect on the successful
installation and operation of a centrifugal pump include shaft
seals, bearings, and couplings. Pump sealing systems,
bearings, and couplings are commonly responsible for the
majority of centrifugal pump downtime and repair. The specific
design and material consideration for pump shaft seals,
bearings, and couplings used in Saudi Aramco installations will
vary based on the specific application, the type of fluid being
pumped, and the type of pump used for the given application.
The Mechanical Engineer must understand the mechanical
aspects of pump shaft sealing systems, bearings, and couplings
to make the proper selection of these components for a pump
installation. In this section, the following mechanical aspects of
pumps will be described:
Pump Seal Systems
Pump Bearing Arrangements
Pump Couplings
Pumps
PUMP SEAL SYSTEMS

The use of proper seals at mechanical joints and along shafts
that rotate is a primary concern for the Mechanical Engineer. A
seal is a device or material that controls the leakage of fluids
from a pump by creating and/or maintaining a fluid-pressure
differential across the gap that exists between two relatively
movable and/or separable components of a fluid system.
Prevention of leakage is necessary for the following reasons:
To prevent loss of the pumpage to the drain system

(economical).
To prevent leakage of the pumpage to the atmosphere

(safety and environmental).
To prevent damage to rotating equipment by the prevention

of leakage from one section of a piece of rotating equipment
(high pressure area) to another section of the piece of
rotating equipment (low pressure area).
To prevent contamination of clean sections of a piece of

rotating equipment by the prevention of leakage of
contaminated pumpage to the clean sections of the rotating
equipment.
Seals involve an almost unlimited variety of sizes,

configurations, materials, and material combinations. This
section will examine the following forms of sealing devices for
use on pumps:
Packing
Mechanical Seals
The need to control leakage should determine which type of

shaft seal is selected. Where leakage is acceptable, such as in
raw water, seawater, and potable water services, seals with a
higher leakage rate are acceptable. In general, leakage from
hydrocarbon and chemical services must be minimized, so facetype mechanical seals or sealless pumps are commonly used.
Pumps
Packing
Packing is a method used to seal the rotating or reciprocating
shaft of a pump through the use of rings of flexible material that
are placed around the shaft. Packing is a type of seal that is
used to prevent or restrict leakage of a contained liquid around
or along a shaft, a plunger, a piston, a ram, or through a
mechanical joint. Packing also is used to stop contaminants
from entering a system.
Packing that is installed in a rotary or reciprocating joint is
classified as a dynamic seal. Packing that is installed on a
stationary joint is classified as a static seal. In accordance with
SAES-G-005, packing is required for main firewater service
pumps, for pumps in oily water or storm water sump service,
and for slurry service. Packing may also be used to seal the
piston or plunger of a reciprocating power pump. Because the
mechanical joints on pumps can be subjected to various system
conditions (e.g., temperature, pressure, shaft speed, and
process fluid), each type of packing is available in a wide variety
of materials and configurations. The following three types of
packing will be discussed in this section:
Compression packing
Molded packing
Floating packing
Compression Packing
For many years, compression packing has been used to seal
rotating equipment. For compression packing to provide a seal,
the compression packing must be radially distorted so that it is
in contact with the sealed surfaces (seal chamber and shaft).
Such radial distortion is achieved through use of a packing
gland follower that mechanically applies an axial pressure to the
packing.
Pumps
Figure 1 shows a typical compression packing arrangement for

a centrifugal pump and an expanded view of the seal chamber
region. Figure 1 shows the seals that are formed though
compression of the packing material that is between the packing
gland follower and the seal chamber throat. The packing gland
follower creates compression forces when the packing gland
stud is tightened. These compression forces axially push the
compression packing material against the throat of the seal
chamber and radially against the shaft and seal chamber. A
static seal is formed at the inside diameter of the seal chamber,
and a dynamic seal is formed between the compression packing
material and the rotating shaft or shaft sleeve.
As shown in Figure 1, some packing arrangements use a
lantern ring to allow the use of an external seal fluid in the seal
chamber. A lantern ring, also called a seal cage, is installed
between the packing at the sealing fluid connection. Water or
other sealing fluid is introduced under pressure into the seal
chamber through the lantern ring. To prevent blocking of the
lantern ring from the seal fluid connection, care must be taken
when tightening packing on pumps that use lantern rings.
Some leakage along the dynamic seal of the shaft is necessary
to cool and lubricate the packing. The amount of leakage
necessary for such cooling and lubrication depends on the
quality of the material, the operating conditions of the
application, and the condition of the equipment. When excessive
leakage occurs along the shaft, the packing gland is further
tightened.
Excessive leakage is any amount of leakage flow that exceeds
the amount of flow necessary to cool and lubricate the packing.
Excessive leakage should be avoided to prevent the loss of the
sealed liquid to either a drain system or to atmosphere.
Excessive leakage also should be avoided because it can
compound itself in that excessive leakage will wash the lubricant
out of the packing material and cause increased leakage. As the
lubricant is washed out of the packing material, an amount of
torque will be required to tighten the packing. The increased
torque can cause the packing to overheat and burn.
Pumps
Figure 1. Typical Compression Packing Arrangement
Pumps
Because the packing will wear as rotating equipment is

operated, the packing gland loading (compression forces) on
the compression packing must be adjusted to control leakage.
As the packing gland loading is increased, the packing
dimension is squeezed smaller and smaller. Care should be
taken not to overtighten the packing. Overtightening of
compression packing material shortens the life of the packing
material. Excessive overtightening will destroy the sealing
capability of the packing, and it can cause the portion of the
equipment that rotates to seize. The lubricant that is
incorporated in compression packing prevents burning and
scoring of the shaft. Some of the lubricant will be driven from the
packing after repeated packing gland loading adjustments. This
loss of lubricant will reduce the operational life of the packing.
Compression packing commonly used in pumps come in several
construction configurations. The following types of
configurations are discussed below:
Braided or Twisted Packing
Plastic Packing
Metal Packing
Saudi Aramco Standard 31-SAMSS-004 prohibits the use of

asbestos in pump packing materials.
Braided or Twisted Packing - Braided or twisted packing strands
are individually impregnated with mineral oil, grease, or graphite

to retain the packing flexibility, to lubricate parts that move, and
to help create a fluid seal under pressure. Figure 2 shows the
following four basic styles of braided or twisted packing:
Twisted braid packing - In this style of packing, yarns are

twisted around each other to obtain the desired size.
Because the strands can be untwisted and removed, one
packing size can be used in seal chambers of various sizes.
Such flexibility allows the desired size to be custom-made
through use of only the number of strands that are needed.
Twisted packing is used in general utility or emergency-type
packing for pumps in which packing space is small.
10
Pumps
Square braid packing - In this style of packing, each strand

passes over and under strands that are running in the
opposite direction. The cross-section of this packing is
square. Square braid packing is preferred for high-speed
rotary and reciprocating service.
Braid-over-braid packing - In this style of packing, packing is

built up to the required size by braiding one or more covers
around a central core of braided or twisted homogeneous
materials.
Interlocking braid packing - In this style of packing,

diagonally braided packing is braided inside as well as
outside. Each strand diagonally passes through the body of
the packing at an angle of approximately 45. This pattern
produces a completely unified structure. Each braided strand
contributes to the strength of the entire packing. Because
diagonal braiding makes each strand much more flexible
than ordinary braiding, there is less stress when the packing
is formed into rings. Because of the increased flexibility of
this packing, this style of packing is ideal for pumps with
small diameter, high speed shafts.
11
Pumps
Figure 2. Styles of Braided or Twisted Packing
12
Pumps
Figure 3 shows an exploded view of one ring of braided packing

that is installed in a seal chamber. The packing gland load
causes the braided packing to create a sealing force against the
seal chamber and the shaft. This force effectively seals against
system pressure.
Figure 3. Braided Packing Under Pressure
13
Pumps
Plastic Packing - Plastic packing are used in several forms.
These forms physically appear the same as those packing that

were previously shown in Figure 2. One form of plastic packing
consists of compounded material that is combined with binding
materials and lubricants. The combination of materials then is
extruded into a rectangular cross-section in spiral form. The
packing that is produced is soft and readily formable, and it is
particularly suitable for pumps.
Two other common forms of plastic packing are the various
Teflon (TFE) packing and TFE-impregnated packing. TFE
packing are produced from a continuous TFE filament in the
same style as the conventional braided and twisted packing.
After braiding, some styles are impregnated with a TFE
suspension to produce a 100 percent TFE packing. TFEimpregnated packing are formed braided packing that are
impregnated with TFE. For extremely critical services, each
strand is impregnated before the strand is braided. After the
strand is braided, each braid is impregnated again with TFE
suspension. Caution should be exercised in the application of
certain types of TFE packing. Teflon has a temperature limit of
500F. Teflon can break down and creep.
14
Pumps
Metal Packing - Metal packing must be flexible, compressible,
and have little friction. Metals are crimped, spiral wrapped,

folded, and braided to form packing of a desired shape. Figure 4
shows a spiral-wrapped metal-foil packing and a folded and
twisted metal-foil packing.
Figure 4. Metal Packing
Molded Packing
Molded packing sometimes are referred to as automatic,
hydraulic, or mechanical packing. Molded packing rely on fluid
pressure to force the packing material against the wear
surfaces. These packing are made from leather, rubber, fabricreinforced rubber, or synthetic rubber. The following are the
three general types of molded packing:
V-ring packing
U-ring packing
Lip-type packing
15
Pumps
V-ring and U-ring packing can be used in pumps that move

fluids at both high pressures (up to 50,000 psi) and low
pressures. Lip-type packing primarily are used in pumps with
reciprocating shafts
V-Ring Packing - Multiple V-rings are often installed in sets, and
they are packed on the outside of a reciprocating shaft, as

shown in Figure 5. A support ring or adapter is used in the
bottom of the seal chamber to support the V-ring packing. The
shape of the support ring and packing gland follower maintains
the V-ring packing shape. The seal is created by the close fit of
the packing.
Figure 5. V-Ring Packing
16
Pumps
U-Ring Packing - U-ring packing usually is used to seal a piston,
as shown in Figure 6. U-ring packing uses the system pressure

to assist in the seal. When the piston is on its compression
stroke, the system pressure will be felt in the U-ring groove of
the piston, and thereby cause the U-ring to seal against the
cylinder wall.
Figure 6. U-Ring Packing Used to Seal a Piston
17
Pumps
Lip-Type Packing - The extended lip section is what
differentiates lip-type packing from V-ring and U-ring packing.

Lip-type packing are further classified as either cup or flanged.
Cup packing have a single lip, and they are used to seal
pistons, as shown in Figure 7. Cup packing is held in place and
directly attached to the base of a reciprocating piston through
use of a packing retainer plate. The cup packing uses system
pressure to assist in the seal in the same manner as the U-ring
packing.
Figure 7. Cup Packing
18
Pumps
Flange packing - Flange packing, as shown in Figure 8, is

another version of lip-type packing. Flange packing is used to
seal shafts in low-pressure applications in which sufficient room
does not exist for V- or U-ring style packing. Flange packing is
preformed to match a specific piece of equipment or a specific
set of dimensions. Flange packing is usually molded from tough
materials, such as carboxylated nitriles and polyurethanes that
resist abrasion.
The sealing action of the lip is actuated by the process pressure

that forces the lip against the shaft. Clearance must exist
between the lip and the bottom of the seal chamber. If the lip
strikes the bottom of the seal chamber, the lip will turn outward
and destroy the flange packing ability to seal. The flange section
of the packing is sealed by a compression force that is supplied
by the gland. The compression force must be strong enough to
seal against the maximum process pressure that will be applied.
Figure 8. Flange Packing
19
Pumps
Floating Packing
Floating packing often is called split ring seals. Floating packing
is designed to move as the component that it is sealing moves.
There are two basic types of floating packing: expanding and
contracting. Expanding split piston ring seals expand outward
toward the cylinder wall to provide the seal for the fluid in pumps
that move liquids at high pressures or high temperatures.
Contracting split ring or rod seals contract inward toward the
reciprocating rod, and they are used whenever space, high
temperature, or excessive pressure prohibit the use of other
packing.
An example of an expanding split piston ring seal is shown in
Figure 9. In all applications, the process pressure is felt on the
split ring and forces the ring against the surfaces that require
sealing. Expanding split ring seals must mate on the inner
diameter of the fixed cylinder wall (the primary contact point)
and the top or the bottom (the secondary contact point) of the
packing space.
As the reciprocating piston moves upward, the expanding split
ring seal sits on the bottom of the packing space and seals the
piston's edge. Process pressure pushes the expanding split
piston ring seal out toward the fixed cylinder wall, and it
increases the seal pressure at the primary contact point. The
process pressure also pushes the expanding split ring seal
down toward the bottom packing space surface, and it increases
the seal pressure at the secondary contact point.
20
Pumps
As the reciprocating piston moves downward, the expanding

split ring seal sits on the top of the packing space and still seals
the piston. The packing, however, has "floated" within the
packing space region to a new position. The primary contact
point remains the same, which is the inner diameter of the fixed
cylinder wall; however, the secondary contact point has moved
from the bottom of the packing space region to the top of the
packing space region.
Figure 9. Expanding Split Piston Ring Seal
21
Pumps
An example of a contracting split ring seal is shown in Figure 10.

The contracting split ring seal performs its function in the same
manner as the expanding split ring seal. Process pressure is felt
on the split ring and forces the ring against the surfaces that
require sealing. Contracting split ring seals must mate on the
outer diameter of the reciprocating rod (the primary contact
point) and the top or the bottom (the secondary contact point) of
the packing space in the seal chamber.
As the reciprocating rod moves upward, the contracting split ring
seal seals at the bottom of the packing space and seals the
reciprocating rod's edge. Process pressure pushes the
contracting split ring seal in toward the reciprocating rod, and it
increases the seal pressure at the primary contact point. The
process pressure also pushes the split ring down toward the
bottom packing space surface, and it increases the seal
pressure at the secondary contact point.
As the rod moves downward, the contracting split ring seal sits
on the top of the packing space and still seals the rod; however,
the packing has "floated" within the packing space region to a
new position. The primary contact point remains the same,
which is the inner diameter of the fixed cylinder wall; however,
the secondary contact point has moved from the bottom of the
packing space to the top of the packing space.
22
Pumps
Figure 10. Contracting Split Ring Seal
Figure 11 shows the following types of split rings:
The simple straight-cut split ring that is used as a lowpressure piston seal for applications in which joint leakage is
not critical.
The step-cut split ring that is used to reduce joint leakage.
The balanced ring that is used when hydraulic fluid pressure

is high.
23
Pumps
Figure 11. Different Types of Split Rings
24
Pumps
Inspection and
Maintenance
The packing should be able to perform its function without rapid
deterioration of the packing or wear on rotating components;
however, there is still some amount of friction that is created
between the shaft and the packing. This friction is the major
cause of packing and shaft sleeve wear. The packing eventually
will need to be replaced when leakage from the gland exceeds
the acceptable levels. The major causes of rapid packing wear
due to excessive friction include the following:
Shaft sleeve runout
Misalignment of the shaft with the seal chamber
Lack of packing lubricant and cooling
Abrasives that are trapped between the shaft and the

packing
Overtightening the packing
Shaft sleeve runout will cause localized heating due to

increased friction on the runout portions of the shaft. The higher
friction areas will wear the packing significantly faster than other
portions of the packing. These areas will lead to excessive
packing leakage.
Misalignment of a shaft with the seal chamber will cause uneven
wear on a localized portion of the packing. Because the packing
is stationary, the same area of packing will bear an increased
load that is caused by the misalignment. The increased load
generates more friction and results in a more rapid breakdown
of the packing.
Abrasives that are trapped between the shaft and the packing
result in a scratched or worn packing and shaft sleeve. Packing
and sleeve damage is common. The scratches will initially be
filled by lubricating mediums or the packing itself due to
expansion; however, too many abrasives will rapidly wear away
too much packing to the point that the packing can no longer
seal the shaft.
25
Pumps
The use of packing is maintenance intensive and regular

inspections must be performed. The life of packing can be
extended through use of inspection and packing adjustments;
however, if there is no regular inspection of the packing to
detect excessive leakage, the leakage will continue to increase
and cause a faster deterioration of the packing.
Packing adjustments must be performed in accordance with
appropriate procedures. Each style of packing has its own set of
requirements that require specific methods of adjustment.
Failure to follow the appropriate procedure can lead to more
damage to the packing and to increased leakage rather than
reduced leakage.
The inspections should include leakage rates, fraying, crushed
or pinched packing, and glazing. Some leakage is required to
lubricate and to cool the rotating shaft. Minor fraying indicates
that the packing compression is high and that the packing will
need to be replaced soon. Crushed or pinched packing indicates
misalignment of the rotating shaft or excessive gland nut
pressure. Both of these conditions lead to packing replacement.
Glazed packing indicates that the packing is too tight and that
the friction between the rotating portion and the packing is
overheating and is, as a result, destroying the packing.
Proper documentation of the amount of packing leakage in the
maintenance records will allow the Mechanical Engineer to
determine trends in packing performance. These trends can be
used to predict how often the packing should be inspected and
replaced. The records can also indicate a need to alter the
packing style or the methods for which packing is used for the
application.
26
Pumps
Mechanical Seals
Similar to packing, pump mechanical seals minimize leakage of
liquids or gases in rotating shaft applications. A mechanical seal
is an end-face seal that is designed to provide rotary seal faces
that can operate with no visible leakage. All mechanical seals
leak. Mechanical seals operate on the principle that the seal
design vaporizes the liquid in the seal chamber across the
primary seal faces (approximately 50 to 75 percent down the
seal face width). The vaporization of liquid across the seal faces
results in a small, undetectable leakage of the fluid (in its vapor
state) from the seal chamber. Almost all mechanical seal
designs use two mating rings, one ring rotates and the other
ring is stationary, to provide sealing surfaces at the point of
relative movement. The mechanical seal design includes a
closing force to hold the seal faces in contact. This force is
supplied by a combination of system pressure and spring force,
each of which is discussed in detail later in this section.
Mechanical seals are installed in the majority of the process
pumps at Saudi Aramco. Mechanical seals may be used on
pumps when the nature of the liquid handled by the pump is
hazardous.
Sealless pumps are required for low horsepower chemical, sour
water, and acid service.
Mechanical seals will give better service than conventional
packing. Mechanical seals may be used in a conventional pump
seal chamber to seal any number of liquids at various speeds,
pressures, and temperatures. Saudi Aramco requires
mechanical seals for all hydrocarbon and special-purpose water
services, such as boiler feed pumps and water injection. The
following comparison between mechanical seals and packing
illustrates why mechanical seals are used in Saudi Aramco
process systems:
Pollution - Environmental agencies will no longer tolerate

process pump leakage polluting water sources and soil.
Packing leakage is greater than mechanical seal leakage:
therefore, more leakage waste occurs with packing.
Treatment of this waste is very expensive.
27
Pumps
Cost of product - A steady drip from packing will equal 20 to

25 gallons per day. The cost of many products will more than
pay for the seals needed to stop the leakage.
Power consumption - A mechanical seal consumes

approximately one-sixth the electric power of packing.
Packing rubbing on a shaft or sleeve is similar to driving an
automobile with the parking brake engaged.
Cost of bearings - Most pump bearing failure is caused by

contamination rather than overloading. The easiest way to
contaminate a bearing is from the leakage coming through
the packing. Reduction of leakage by using a mechanical
seal can reduce bearing failures.
Cost of sleeves or shafts - Packing will damage shafts or

shaft sleeves because of the direct contact between the
rotating shaft and the stationary packing. There is no contact
between the rotating shaft and the nonrotating mechanical
seal parts.
Packing advantages - Packing can be more advantageous in

conditions where product leakage or product cost is not an
issue, such as fire water pumps or sewage pumps. Packing
is also less expensive than mechanical seals, and it is less
prone to catastrophic failure.
In accordance with 31-SAMSS-004, mechanical seals on pumps

with shaft sizes from 1.5 to 4.5 inches (30 to 120 mm) must be
installed in accordance with the following standards:
API Standard 682 - Shaft Sealing Systems for Centrifugal

and Rotary Pumps
Saudi Aramco Standard 31-SAMSS-012 - Shaft Sealing

Systems for Centrifugal and Rotary Pumps
Saudi Aramco Standard SAES-G-005 provides a mechanical

seal selection guide (Table 1 of SAES-G-005) that aids in
identifying what type of seal is required for the various
applications at Saudi Aramco facilities.
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Pumps
Basic Mechanical
Seal Design
The simplest form of a mechanical seal, shown in Figure 12,
has a shoulder on the pump shaft that presses against the
machine housing. This configuration will only work if the housing
and the shoulder are both finished properly and the shaft is
loaded against the housing equally at all times. This
configuration is not practical on most machines because there is
always some shaft end play and seal face run-out. This
configuration also does not allow for the adjustment of the
impeller endplay on open-faced impeller pumps. Wear can
reduce the clearance between the shaft and the housing, which
will result in increased leakage.
Figure 12. Basic Mechanical Seal
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Pumps
If a sealing ring is installed on the shaft and mating ring on the

housing, as shown in Figure 13, the wear will take place on the
sealing rings and not on the shaft and housing. The sealing ring
surfaces are easier to machine (lap) to maintain uniform flatness
of the mating surfaces. Also, the rings can be renewed when
worn and without machining the shaft or housing. However,
keeping the shaft against the sealing area is still a problem.
Shaft run-out and endplay are still a problem because the rings
are rigid and seal face run-out would cause excessive leakage.
Figure 13. Basic Mechanical Seal-Improved
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Pumps
Mounting a static seal in back of the sealing and mating rings,

as shown in Figure 14, will allow some movement of sealing
rings, which also seals fluid leakage around the back of the
sealing rings. Shaft end motion is still limited with this design
because there is only so much motion the gasket material can
absorb. This design still will not maintain correct contact force to
keep the seal faces together.
Figure 14. Basic Mechanical Seal with Static Seals
31
Pumps
If a spring is added to the seal behind either the shaft sealing

ring or the mating ring, as shown in Figure 15, contact between
the sealing rings can be maintained. The spring will absorb any
movement of the shaft from endplay, thermal expansion, and
run-out, and it will automatically adjust the seal for wear. The
mating ring is installed in a gland that facilitates seal removal
from the pump during maintenance
Figure 15. Basic Mechanical Seal with Spring
The design of a mechanical seal can be a face contact seal type

or lift-off face seal type. The following sections describe the
types of mechanical seals, construction, classifications, and
flushing/cooling systems.
32
Pumps
Face Contact Seals

An example of a face contact seal is shown in Figure 16.
Mechanical seal sealing surfaces are perpendicular to the shaft,
with contact between the seal ring and the mating rings to
achieve a dynamic seal. The seal ring can be flexibly mounted
in the seal head assembly, which usually rotates with the shaft.
The mating ring is usually fixed to the pump gland plate and
does not rotate with the shaft. Each of the sealing planes is
lapped flat within two to three light bands. Wear occurs at the
dynamic sealing faces from sliding contact between the seal
and mating rings. The amount of wear is small, as a film of the
liquid sealed is maintained between the sealing faces during
pump operation. The mating surfaces of the sealing faces are
held in contact by a spring and the fluid forces present in the
seal chamber. The preload of the spring is required to produce
the initial seal during shutdown or when there is a lack of fluid
pressure behind seal. During operation, the spring and fluid
pressure behind the seal maintains the contact between the
sealing faces.
All mechanical seals have two assemblies. The seal head
assembly is made up of the seal ring, a spring or metal bellows
(not shown), and a secondary seal between the seal ring and
the shaft (type A seals only). The mating ring assembly is made
up of the mating ring and a static seal between the mating ring
and the pump gland plate.
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Pumps
Figure 16. Mechanical Seal Construction (Type A, Pusher)
As shown in Figure 17, the following three points of sealing are

common to all mechanical seal installations:
Seal Point 1: At the mating surfaces of the primary and

mating rings.
Seal Point 2: Between the seal head assembly and the shaft
or the shaft sleeve.
Seal Point 3: Between the mating ring assembly and the

pump gland plate.
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Pumps
Figure 17. Mechanical Seal Sealing Points
The seal between the seal head assembly and the shaft or shaft
sleeve is called the secondary seal. The secondary seal must
be dynamic to maintain the seal as the sealing ring faces wear,
as the shaft moves from runout, as the shaft and pump casing
expands from thermal expansion, and as the machinery
vibrates. Secondary seals are commonly an O-ring or graphite.
The selection of secondary seals will depend on the type of
service (described later in this module).
The mating ring/gland plate seal is a static seal. The mating
ring/gland plate seal is typically an O-ring or a graphite gasket.
The mating ring must remain stationary in the gland plate. The
following are three common methods to hold the mating ring
stationary:
The pressure loading of the mating ring seal (O-ring or cup)

against the gland plate.
Pinning the gland plate to a recess in the mating ring.
Utilizing a clamped-in design, which is prohibited by 31SAMSS-012.
Figure 18 shows the different methods used to hold the mating

ring stationary.
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Pumps
Figure 18. Mating Ring Mounting Configurations
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Pumps
Face seals can be classified by the following:
Arrangement
Secondary seal design
Primary ring balance
Single-Seal Arrangement - As shown in Figure 19, the single
seal is the most common mechanical seal and is used in nonhydrocarbon and many low vapor pressure hydrocarbon
applications. A single seal is the simplest seal arrangement. The
single seal may be internally mounted inside the seal chamber,
or it may be externally mounted outside the seal chamber.
Internally mounted seals use liquid under pressure in the seal
chamber acting with the spring load to keep the seal faces in
contact. Externally mounted seals are not used in Saudi Aramco
applications.
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Pumps
Figure 19. Single-Seal Arrangements
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Pumps
Dual Seal Arrangement - Dual seals are used in applications that
require a neutral liquid for lubrication, improved corrosion

resistance, or an increase in plant safety. Dual mechanical seals
may be installed in a back-to-back arrangement, a face-to-face
arrangement, or a tandem arrangement. Figure 20 shows a
back-to-back arrangement. The back-to-back arrangement
consists of two single seals back-to-back with the primary rings
facing in opposite directions in the seal chamber. Each primary
ring has its own mating ring. The seal may have a single spring
or multiple springs located between the primary rings. Barrier
fluid is applied to the gland seal area between the primary rings
at a higher pressure than that of the liquid being pumped. This
barrier lubricates the sealing faces and applies hydraulic
pressure to the primary rings. The inboard seal keeps the liquid
being pumped from entering the seal chamber. This type of
arrangement is used when there is the possibility of the pumped
fluid entering the atmosphere.
Figure 20. Back-to-Back Double Seal Arrangement

(Only used in Brine Water Injection Pumps)
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Pumps
Figure 21 shows an example of a face-to-face arrangement.

The opposed arrangement consists of two single seals mounted
face-to-face. The two seal rings are seated against a single
mating ring. Each primary ring has its own spring or metal
bellows (not shown). Buffer fluid is applied between the seals.
The inboard seal carries the full differential pressure of the
pump seal chamber to the buffer fluid. The outboard seal carries
only the differential pressure of the buffer fluid pressure to the
atmosphere. This arrangement allows for seal installation with a
shorter axial length than is possible with the back-to-back
arrangement while still increasing the reliability for plant safety.
Figure 21. Opposed Dual Seal Arrangement

(Dual Pressurized Arrangement 3)
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Pumps
Figure 22 shows an example of a tandem (dual pressurized

arrangement 3) mechanical seal arrangement. Tandem
mechanical seals consist of two single mechanical seals facing
in the same direction. There are two separate seal rings, mating
rings (in each gland plate), and springs or metal bellows (not
shown) located in the seal head. Buffer fluid is applied to the
outboard seal and creates a buffer zone between the liquid
being pumped and the atmosphere. Normally, the pressure
differential between the liquid being pumped and the
atmosphere is taken across the inboard seal, with the buffer
fluid at or near atmospheric pressure. The liquid in the outboard
seal chamber may be circulated to remove seal heat. The
inboard seal may be lubricated and cooled from the pump
discharge or an external flush source if the pumped fluid is not
clean.
Figure 22. Tandem Seal Arrangement
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Pumps
Rotating or Stationary Seal Head - The rotating seal head design
(API Arrangement 1) is the most common seal type. The seal

head assembly rotates with the pump shaft. The rotating seal
head design is limited by pump shaft speed and is usually not
used for shaft speeds greater than 5000 revolutions per minute.
The stationary seal head (API 682 Type C Seal) has the mating
ring assembly rotating with the pump shaft. The advantage to
this design is that the stationary flexible element does not
experience any distortion due to rotational forces. The mating
ring assembly is more capable of resisting rotational forces
because of its compact, rigid design. The mating ring assembly
is easier to dynamically balance and therefore is used on pumps
that operate at high speeds (greater than 5000 revolutions per
minute).
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Pumps
Single or Multiple Spring Construction - The single spring
construction seal is not the preferred design for petrochemical

services. Figure 23 shows an example of a single spring
mechanical seal design. This design consists of a single largediameter spring. This design has the advantages of
withstanding a large amount of corrosion, and the openness of
the design prevents clogging. The disadvantage of this design is
that the seal requires a deep seal chamber for the installation,
and the single spring may not give even pressure on the primary
ring at high speeds, and seal face tracking is poor.
Figure 23. Single Spring Mechanical Seal
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Pumps
Figure 24 shows the multiple spring construction seal. Small

individual springs are placed around the circumference of the
primary seal. The advantages of this design are that the seal
can be installed in pumps with short seal chamber depth and
the spring pressure on primary ring is evenly distributed. The
disadvantages of this design are that the small spring wire is
more susceptible to failure from corrosion and the small springs
clog, which defeats the function of the spring. However, almost
all petrochemical sealing services are better served with a
multiple spring seal design. The multiple spring design is a
requirement of API 682 and 31-SAMSS-012.
Figure 24. Multiple Spring Mechanical Seal
Some seal designs utilize a metal bellows instead of a spring.

Figure 25 shows an example of a bellows mechanical seal. The
metal bellows is equivalent to a single large spring and has
several advantages over the spring design. The metal bellows is
able to drive the primary ring without the use of a dynamic
secondary seal. The disadvantage of this design is that the
bellows has pressure limitations, usually limited to pressures
below 250 psig. This design is also expensive and is sensitive to
twisting and rupture if the seal faces stick.
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Pumps
Figure 25. Bellows Mechanical Seal

Saudi Aramco Standard 31-SAMSS-012 requires that
mechanical seal springs, single or multiple, be constructed from
Hastelloy C-276, Inconel 625, or Inconel 718.
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Pumps
Pusher and Nonpusher Seals - A pusher secondary seal design

is defined as seal assemblies in which the secondary seal is
moved along the shaft by mechanical load and hydraulic
pressure in the seal chamber. Two examples of pusher seal
secondary seals are shown in Figures 26 and 27. Pusher seal
secondary seals are typically an O-ring, a wedge type, or a Vring design. Figure 26 is a wedge-type pusher secondary seal.
Figure 27 shows a conventional O-ring-type pusher secondary
seal. The mating ring is stationary while the primary ring rotates
with the shaft. The seal chamber pressure and spring or
springs load the primary ring.
Figure 26. Wedge-Type Pusher Secondary Seal
Figure 27. O-Ring-Type Pusher Secondary Seal
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Pumps
Nonpusher secondary seal design is defined as seal assemblies

in which the secondary seal is stationary, not dynamic (forced
along the shaft by mechanical load). Seal movement is taken up
by convolution of a bellows. Figure 28 shows a metal bellows
nonpusher-type secondary seal. Figure 29 shows an elastomer
bellows nonpusher-type secondary seal.
It is important to note that since the bellows provides the
flexibility of the spring but does not leak, the secondary seal is
static and not dynamic. Dynamic secondary seals can hang up if
dirt accumulates adjacent to the O-ring.
Saudi Aramco Standard SAES-G-005 states that a bellows seal
can be an acceptable alternative to a standard pusher seal in
applications where the maximum seal chamber pressure does
not exceed 1830 kPa (265 psia).
Justification for the selection of a bellows seal instead of a
pusher seal for low temperature services may include:
standardization with existing seal installations
good operating experience with similar seals
elimination of the dynamic O-ring secondary seal
elimination of the stepped shaft sleeve
elimination of the requirement for an overlaid shaft sleeve

under the dynamic O-ring.
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Pumps
Figure 28. Metal Bellows Nonpusher-Type Secondary Seal
Figure 29. Elastomer Bellows Nonpusher-Type Secondary Seal
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Pumps
Balanced and Nonbalanced Seals - The effectiveness of a

mechanical seal is determined by the performance of the
contact between the mating seal surfaces. If the seal load is too
high, the liquid film between the seal rings could be squeezed
out or vaporized, which results in a high rate of seal face wear.
Balance is a way of controlling the contact pressure between
the seal faces and the power losses by the seal. A seal may be
either an unbalanced or a balanced type.
An unbalanced seal is shown in Figure 30. With an unbalanced

seal, pump seal chamber pressure acts on the total area of the
primary ring. The force is in one direction against the mating
ring, which results in a high closing force. Unbalanced seals are
only suitable for low-pressure applications generally less than
100 psig, and they are not acceptable under API 682.
Figure 30. Unbalanced Seal
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Pumps
A balanced mechanical seal is shown in Figure 31. With a

balanced, pusher-type, mechanical seal, the shaft or shaft
sleeve is shouldered and the primary ring sealing face is
stepped. This arrangement provides an area for the seal
chamber pressure to act on the front and back of the primary
seal. The amount of closing force from the seal chamber
pressure on the primary seal ring varies by varying the amount
of the step on the primary ring. The force can be adjusted as
required to control the friction on the seal faces for various
liquids and shaft speeds. A balanced seal generates less heat,
requires less power to operate, and will last longer than an
unbalanced seal. A balanced seal is typically used for highpressure applications.
Figure 31. Balanced Seal
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Pumps
The amount of seal balance is part of the basic seal design

called the balance ratio. The seal balance ratio is the
comparison between the seal area exposed to the force
pressing the seal faces together and the seal area exposed to
the force pushing the seal faces apart. Figure 32 illustrates
balance ratio. The pressure, p, in the seal chamber acts equally
in all directions and forces the primary ring against the mating
ring. Pressure acts only on the annular area, ac, so that the
closing force Fc on the seal face is as follows:
Fc = pac + Fs
Where:
Fc
= Closing force in pounds force or Newtons
= Seal chamber pressure in (psi, N/m2)
ac
= Hydraulic closing area (in2, m2)
Fs
= Spring or bellows force
The pressure between the primary and mating rings is

determined by the ratio of the closing force, Fc, and the hydraulic
opening area, ao, as follows:
P = Fc
ao
pac
ao
Where:
= The pressure between the primary ring and

mating ring
Fc
= Closing force in pounds force or Newtons
= Seal chamber pressure (psi, N/m2)
ac
= Hydraulic closing area (in2, m2)
ao
= Hydraulic opening area (in2, m2)
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Pumps
SEAL
GLAND
LIQUID
ATMOS.
Fc
ac
ao
UNBALANCED SEAL
EQUAL AND
OPPOSITE
FORCES
SEAL
GLAND
LIQUID
ATMOS.
Fc
ac
ao
BALANCED SEAL
Figure 32. Balancing Force on a Mechanical Seal

The amount of force present at the seal face can be varied by
changing the magnitude of the opening and closing forces. If the
closing area (ac) is decreased by adding a shoulder on a shaft
sleeve or seal hardware, the seal face pressure can be lowered.
A balanced pusher seal is designed to operate with the
shoulder. Bellow seals are balanced by design.
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Pumps
Figure 33 shows the seal balance ratio parameters for a seal

pressurized at the outside diameter and for a seal pressurized
at the inside diameter. The seal balance ratio can be calculated
as follows:
For seals pressurized at the outside diameter:
Seal Balance Ratio =
OD BD
2
2
OD ID
2
For seals pressurized at the inside diameter:

2
2
Seal Balance Ratio = BD 2 ID 2
OD ID
Where:
OD
= Seal face outside diameter
ID
= Seal face inside diameter
BD
= Balance diameter of the seal
DO
= Dynamic ORing
OUTER DIAMETER
PRESSURE
DO
BD
OD
ID
INNER DIAMETER
PRESSURE
BD
DO
OD
ID
Figure 33. Balance Ratio Measurement Points
Balance diameter can vary with seal design. For spring pusher
seals that are under outer diameter pressure, the balance
diameter is the diameter of the sliding contact surface of the
inner diameter of the dynamic O-ring. For spring pusher seals
that are under inner diameter pressure, the balance diameter is
the diameter of the sliding contact surface of the dynamic O-ring
outer diameter.
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Pumps
Flushing/Cooling Requirements - The dynamic operation of a

mechanical seal results in heat generation. The amount of heat
generated by a mechanical seal for a given application is critical
to the proper selection of the seal design, the materials, and the
auxiliary system. The wear of mechanical seal faces is a direct
function of the seal face temperature. The heat generated at the
seal face can also cause thermal distortion of the seal face
materials, which will result in seal leakage or failure. The
amount of heat generated by a mechanical seal has a direct
impact on the type of cooling system and seal face materials
selected for a mechanical seal application. API Standard 682,
Appendix H, provides guidance for calculating the heat
generated at the seal faces.
The following sequence of equations is used to determine the

heat generated by a seal:
1.
The seal face area is determined as follows:

A = (OD2 ID2 )
4
Where:
2.
= Seal face area
OD
= Seal face outer diameter in inches
ID
= Seal face inner diameter in inches
The seal balance ratio is determined as follows:

For seals pressurized at the outside diameter:
OD BD
B=
2
2
OD ID
2
For seals pressurized at the inside diameter:

2
2
B = BD 2 ID 2
OD ID
Where:
= Seal balance ratio
OD
= Seal face outside diameter
ID
= Seal face inside diameter
BD
= Balance diameter of the seal
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Pumps
3.
The seal spring force is determined as follows:

Psp =
Fsp
A
Where:
4.
Psp
= Seal spring pressure in pound per square

inch
Fsp
= Spring force at working length (for multiple

spring design, the value for one spring is
used)
= Seal face area
The total face pressure in pounds per square inch is

determined as follows:
Ptot = Dp (B K ) + Psp
Where:
5.
Ptot
= Total face pressure in psi
Dp
= Pressure across the seal face in psi

(differential fluid pressure from the seal
chamber to the opposite side of the mating
ring)
= Seal balance ratio
= Pressure drop coefficient, assumed to be

0.5
Psp
= Spring pressure
The mean face diameter in inches is calculated as follows:

MD =
(OD + ID)
2
Where:
MD
= Mean face diameter in inches
OD
= Seal face outer diameter in inches
ID
= Seal face inner diameter in inches
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Pumps
6.
The seal running torque is calculated as follows:
RT = Ptot A f
MD
2
Where:
RT
= Seal running torque in inch-pounds
Ptot
= Total face pressure in psi
= Face area in square inches
= Coefficient of friction
MD
= Mean face diameter in inches
The value of the coefficient of friction (f) for various seal face
materials is as follows:
Sliding Materials
Rotating
Stationary
Carbon-graphite (resin
filled)
Coefficient of friction
(f)
Cast iron
0.07
Ceramic
0.07
Tungsten carbide
0.07
Silicon carbide
0.02
Silicon carbide converted carbon
0.015
Tungsten carbide
0.02
Silicon carbide converted carbon
0.05
Silicon carbide
0.02
Tungsten carbide
0.08
Silicon carbide
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Pumps
7. The seal power (hp) is calculated as follows:

hp =
(RT N)
63,000
Where:
hp
= Seal power in horsepower
RT
= Seal running torque in inch-pounds
= Seal rotational speed in rpm
8. The heat generated by the seal is calculated as follows:

Qheat = hp 2545
Where:
Qheat = Heat generated by the seal in BTUs per
hour
hp
= Seal power in horsepower
The following example illustrates the seal heat calculations.

A pump is equipped with a single mechanical seal, which is
operating at 3550 rpm and pumping water at 400 psig. The seal
dimensions are as follows:
OD
= 2.625 inches
ID
= 2.125 inches
BD
= 2.225 inches
Fsp
= 42 inch pounds
Dp
= 400 psi
= 3550 rpm
= 0.07
= 0.5
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Pumps
The seal is pressurized at the outer diameter

1.
The seal face area is determined as follows::

2

A = (2.6252 2.1252 ) = 1.86 in
4
2.
The seal balance ratio is determined as follows:

B=
3.
2
2
2.625 2.225
= 0.817
2
2
2.625 2.125
The seal spring force is determined as follows:

Psp =
4.
42
= 22.6 psi
1.86
The total face pressure in pounds per square inch is

determined as follows:
Ptot = 400 (0.817 0.5 ) + 22.6 = 149.4 psi
5.
The mean face diameter in inches is calculated as follows:

MD =
6.
(2.625 + 2.125 ) = 2.375 inches

2
The seal running torque is calculated as follows:

RT = 149.4 1.86 0.07
7.
The seal power (hp) is calculated as follows:

hp =
8.
2.375
= 23.089 inch - pounds
2
(23.089 3550 ) = 1.30 hp

63,000
The heat generated by the seal is calculated as follows:

Qheat = 1.30 2545 = 3311 BTU/hr
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Pumps
If the temperature from the heat generated at the seal faces is

high enough or if the liquid vapor pressure is high, the fluid film
between the seal faces can vaporize. If the fluid film vaporizes,
the seal faces will open and momentarily tilt as gas builds up
and then escapes. Cool fluid will enter the seal and allow the
faces to close once again. Frictional heat will cause local
temperatures to rise once again, and the cycle is repeated. The
cycle results in an unstable seal. The edges of the mating ring
face will chip, and, in extreme cases, the mating ring face will pit
and gross leakage will occur.
To prevent overheating the mechanical seal faces, a cooling
fluid is often supplied to the seal chamber area. Cooling fluid is
often called flush. Flush is a small amount of fluid that is
introduced into the seal chamber on the process fluid side of the
mechanical seal, in close proximity to the sealing faces. The
flush provides cooling and lubrication for the seal faces. Flush is
also used if the pumped fluid contains abrasives. Often, flush
fluid is taken from the process stream and supplied to the
mechanical seal after being cooled and cleaned (through the
use of a filter or cyclone separator). If the abrasive levels of the
process fluid are too high, or if the particulate in the process
fluid is difficult to remove because of size, an external flush
source can be used.
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Pumps
The flow rate of flush fluid can be determined from calculations

shown in Appendix E.2 in API Standard 682. To determine the
flush system flow rate, the maximum allowable temperature rise
would be calculated by subtracting the maximum allowable
temperature in the seal chamber from the flush fluid injection
temperature. API Standard 682 recommends a maximum
temperature of 5F to 10F. The following equation can then be
used to determine the minimum flush fluid flow rate:
Qinj =
Qheat
500(SG)(Max dT )(C)
Where:
Qinj
= Flush fluid flow rate
Max dT
= Maximum differential temperature in

degrees Fahrenheit
Qheat
= Heat generation at the seal faces
SG
= Specific gravity of the flush fluid
= Specific heat of flush fluid at pump

temperature (BTU/lbs.F)
For this example, a maximum differential temperature rise of

10F, a flush fluid specific gravity of 0.90, and a specific heat of
0.62 BTU/lbs.F are assumed. Using the heat generated at the
seal faces in the previous example (3311 BTU/hr), the following
example illustrates the determination of the minimum flush flow
rate:
Qinj =
3311
= 1.187 gpm
500(0.90 )(10 )(0.62 )
The minimum flush flow rate would be 1.187 gpm. API

recommends a design factor of two, so the minimum flush flow
rate should be 2.374 gpm.
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Pumps
In accordance with API Standard 682, only forced flush systems

can be used. A forced flush system uses pressure source to
circulate fluid through the seal chamber. A forced flush system
ensures that flush fluid is circulating through the seal chamber.
Thermosyphon (also called natural circulation or thermal head
circulation) systems are not acceptable because there is no
positive force to ensure that flush fluid is circulating through the
seal during pump operation. The pressure source for the flush
system can be the pump discharge pressure (orificed), an
externally mounted pump, or a device internal to the mechanical
seal, such as a pumping ring. In accordance with API Standard
682, if the mechanical seal is supplied with an internal pumping
ring, a thermosyphon system should also be used to maintain
flush fluid flow when the pump is idle.
Seal flush systems that are supplied from an external source
must be equipped with indicators for seal chamber pressure and
flush pressure. The pressure indicators provide a means of
verifying that the flush system is operating properly.
API Standard 682, Appendix C, provides standard flush system
configurations. Figure 34 shows examples of the flush system
installations using API 682 plans.
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Pumps
Figure 34. Flush Systems Using API 682 Plans
In accordance with 31-SAMSS-012, seal flush connections for

all seal types and porting arrangements must direct the flush
fluid at the seal faces, maximize the uniformity of cooling fluid
on the seal faces, and minimize flush fluid impingement on the
faces or metal parts. Impingement on the seal faces should be
minimized to prevent the velocity of the flush from eroding the
sealing faces. Impingement is also minimized to prevent
damage to metal components and seal faces from debris or
particulate that may enter the flush system. All radial flush
arrangements must be a multiport design to ensure adequate
distribution of the flush fluid in the seal chamber. Single port
flush connections must be tangential in the direction of shaft
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Pumps
rotation and must allow for complete venting of the seal

chamber.
In addition to flush systems, mechanical seals can also be
equipped with a quench system, a buffer system, or a barrier
system. A quench system uses a neutral fluid directed at the
atmosphere side of the seal to prevent or limit the formation of
solids that may interfere with seal movement. Quenching is
commonly used on mechanical seals when the pumped fluid is
hydrocarbon and above 300 F or other fluids that will crystallize
when dried, such as caustic.
A buffer system uses fluid as a coolant and lubricant, or buffer,
between dual mechanical seals. Buffer fluid is almost always at
atmospheric pressure.
A barrier system uses fluid introduced between dual mechanical
seals to completely isolate the pump process fluid from the
environment. Barrier fluid pressure is always higher than the
process pressure.
Saudi Aramco Standard 31-SAMSS-012 places the
responsibility of selecting a compatible barrier or buffer fluid on
the pump and seal system manufacturers. Some common fluids
used as barrier or buffer fluids are low viscosity grade oil (such
as grade 32), automatic transmission fluid (ATF), ethylene
glycol (not automotive antifreeze), and water.
Seal Types - Regardless of the seal manufacturer, API 682
specifies three arrangements (arrangement 1, 2, and 3) of

mechanical seals with several mechanical seal types in the
arrangements. All mechanical seals designed to API Standard
682 are cartridge seals. A cartridge seal is a completely selfcontained unit that includes all seal parts and that is
preassembled and preset before installation. The arrangement 1
seal is a single, inside-mounted, balanced-type cartridge seal.
The standard arrangement 1 seal is a Type A pusher seal.
Other optional arrangement 1 seals are the Type B, which is a
single, low-temperature, nonpusher (rotating bellows) seal, and
Type C, which is a single, high-temperature, nonpusher
(stationary bellows) seal. Figure 35 shows vendor
representations of the variations of the arrangement 1 seals.
Data sheet selections show where the seals can be reversed
with respect to the flexible element being rotating or stationary.
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Pumps
Figure 35. Vendor Representations of Arrangement 1 Mechanical Seals
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Pumps
Arrangement 2 seals are dual, unpressurized, balanced,

cartridge mechanical seals. The seal type can be either Type A,
Type B, or Type C seals. Figure 36 shows a vendor
representation of a Type A, arrangement 2 seal.
Figure 36. Vendor Representation of a Type A, Arrangement 2 Mechanical Seal
The inner seal of arrangement 2 mechanical seals must be

designed with a positive means of retaining the sealing
components and sufficient closing force to prevent the faces
opening to a pressurization of the buffer fluid to 40 psig (2.75
bar). The outer seal must be designed to the same operating
pressure as the inner seal. Cooling for the inboard seal is
through the use of a flush system. The outer seal is cooled
through the use of the circulating buffer fluid.
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Pumps
Arrangement 3 seals are dual-pressurized, inside, balanced,

cartridge mechanical seals. The inner seal is designed with an
internal (reverse) balance feature designed and constructed to
withstand reverse pressure differentials without opening: this
design feature is called reverse pressure capability. The
internal or reverse balance feature requires that the mating ring
and the secondary seal be designed to stay in place in the event
that barrier pressure is lost. The seal will stay closed with
internal pressure on the seal. If barrier pressure is lost, the
arrangement 3 seal will operate as an unpressurized
arrangement 2 seal. Barrier pressure should be maintained 20
psi to 60 psi (1.4 to 4.1 bar) over the pressure in the seal
chamber. If the barrier pressure is too low, the seal will operate
as an unpressurized arrangement 2 seal. If the barrier pressure
is too high, the seal will overheat and fail. The arrangement 3
seal can use either Type A, Type B, or Type C seals. Figure 37
shows a vendor representation of a Type A, arrangement 3
seal.
Figure 37. Vendor Representation of a Type A, Arrangement 3 Mechanical Seal
66
Pumps
Service Categories - API 682 defines three service categories

that relate to mechanical seal operating conditions: flashing
hydrocarbon service, nonflashing hydrocarbon service, and
nonhydrocarbon service. Hydrocarbon service is defined as
material that contains predominantly all hydrogen and carbon
atoms; however, nonhydrocarbon constituents may be entrained
in the process stream. Flashing hydrocarbon service is defined
as any hydrocarbon service that requires vapor suppression by
cooling or pressurizing to prevent flashing. Flashing
hydrocarbon service includes all hydrocarbon services in which
the fluid has a vapor pressure greater than 14.5 psia (1 bar) at
pumping temperatures. Nonflashing hydrocarbon service is
defined as all hydrocarbon services that will not require vapor
suppression to prevent transformation from a liquid phase to a
vapor phase. Nonflashing hydrocarbons, as defined by API 682,
have a vapor pressure less than 14.5 psia (1 bar) at pumping
temperature. Nonhydrocarbon service includes all services that
cannot be defined as containing all hydrogen and carbon atoms;
however, some hydrocarbons may be entrained in the process
stream. Nonhydrocarbon service includes boiler feedwater and
other water services, sour water, caustics, acids, amines, and
other chemicals commonly used in refinery service. Service
categories are used to identify the arrangement and type of seal
used for an application, as well as the specific materials of
construction for the parts of the mechanical seal. API Standard
682 provides seal selection and material guidance.
67
Pumps
Lift-Off Face Seals
An alternate type of mechanical seal is the lift-off seal, which is

also called a noncontact seal. The operation of the lift-off
mechanical seal is similar to the operation of a contact
mechanical seal, with the exception of the hydrodynamic forces
between the seal faces. During operation, a lift-off seal
generates a liquid or gas pressure between the seal faces,
separating the seal faces slightly. When the pump is idle, spring
pressure holds the seal faces together, forming a seal when the
pump is not operating. Lift-off seals can be used for sealing of
high vapor pressure (volatile) fluids in chemical and
petrochemical processes. Lift-off seals can be designed as
single or double seals. Figure 38 shows an example of a single,
dry-gas, lift-off seal.
Figure 38. Single, Dry-Gas, Lift-Off Seal
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Pumps
Lift-off face seals are classified as pressurized, noncontact face

seals. Lift-off face seals can be a dry or wet type. The lift-off
seal has a rotating primary ring that is similar to the primary ring
of a contact mechanical seal. The major difference between
these two seal types is that the primary ring of the lift-off seal
has a broader face with grooves that are cut into one face of the
primary ring. The depth of the grooves is typically 0.0001 to
0.0002 inches. The groove design pattern varies with the seal
manufacturer. Common patterns include uni-directional Vgrooves cut in a spiral pattern, or bidirectional T-grooves.
The lift-off seal is supplied with a gas (vaporized process liquid,
nitrogen, air, or steam) or a liquid supply. In this case, a
geometry change is made to the seal face. Spiral grooves are
incorporated into one of the seal faces to generate
hydrodynamic lift to separate the seal faces. In the case of liquid
buffer lift-off seals, this concept is used to move a small quality
of buffer liquid from the low pressure to the high-pressure
process liquid side of the seal. During pump operation, the
groove patterns on the primary ring pumps gas or liquid
between the primary and mating ring. As shown in Figure 38,
pumping gas or liquid between the sliding faces raises the
pressure of the gas or liquid that is in the pressure field between
the faces, which forms a pressure dam that serves as a barrier
to pump fluid flow. The rise in the pressure also causes the
sliding faces to separate slightly, which prevents any form of
face contact. The face separation is typically .0001 to .0002
inches. Separation of the seal faces occurs at low rpm. Since
the primary to mating ring seal face gap is controlled to
extremely small values, seal leakage is maintained at a small
value, typically below 1 standard cubic foot per minute.
Depending on the seal manufacturer and design (liquid or gas),
some lift-off seals must be supplied with filtered gas or liquid
with the pressure regulated at 20 to 30 psig over the pumped
fluid pressure.
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Pumps
The seal design that is shown in Figure 39 is considered unidirectional because the function of the spiral seal face will only
work when rotated in one direction. If one-directional seals are
used on both ends of a horizontal pump, one seal is designed to
rotate in the opposite direction of the other seal. One-directional
gas seals may be damaged if the pump rotation is reversed by
process fluid backflow through the pump. Bidirectional seal
faces eliminate seal damage from pump rotation reversal and
minimize the amount of spare seal faces to be maintained.
Figure 39. Lift-Off Seal Rotating Face V-Groove
Lift-off seals provide the following advantages:
Minimal product leakage to the environment
Low power consumption
Low heat generation
Long operational life (low wear)
The disadvantages of lift-off seals include:
Require a clean (filtered) gas or liquid supply
Require a gas or liquid filter and regulating system
70
Pumps
Auxiliary Seals
An auxiliary seal is a mechanical seal, either contact or lift-off

face design, installed in tandem with a primary mechanical seal.
The purpose of an auxiliary seal is to control pump leakage in
the event that the primary seal fails. Auxiliary seals can be dry
running or wet running, and they can be either contact or lift-off
type. The auxiliary seal must be suitable for operation at full seal
chamber conditions, but it normally operates dry or wetted
below the seal leakage pressure switch setting. Figure 40 shows
the configuration of a wet running auxiliary seal.
Figure 40. Wet Running Auxiliary Seal
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Pumps
Figure 41 shows the configuration of a dry running auxiliary

seal.
Figure 41. Dry Running Auxiliary Seal
In the event of primary seal failure, the auxiliary seal will

minimize the leakage until the pump can be isolated and shut
down. The primary seal operation is monitored by sensing the
pressure at the seal outlet for the barrier or buffer system. If the
primary seal fails, the increase in pressure from leakage past
the primary seal will activate an alarm. In high pressure
applications, such as large natural-gas liquids (NGL) injection
pumps, the high barrier or buffer system return pressure will
activate an emergency shutdown of the pump.
In accordance with 31-SAMSS-012, auxiliary dry-running seals
must be face-type seals, that are capable of 25,000 hours of
operation in a gas or liquid environment at a pressure up to the
setpoint of the seal leakage detection pressure switch and 1,000
hours of operation in a liquid environment up to the maximum
seal chamber conditions.
72
Pumps
PUMP BEARING ARRANGEMENTS AND LUBRICATION

REQUIREMENTS
The function of bearings in centrifugal pumps is to keep the
shaft or rotor in correct alignment with the stationary parts under
the action of radial and transverse loads. Bearings that maintain
radial shaft positioning are commonly referred to as line or
journal bearings. Bearings that maintain the axial shaft position
are called thrust bearings. The types of bearings used in
centrifugal pumps are described in MEX 211.01. This section of
the module describes the bearing arrangements commonly
used in centrifugal pumps with regard to bearing loads.
Bearing Loading
Bearing load is defined as the force in pounds or newtons that is
felt on the bearing during operation. Radial load is the force on a
bearing radially from the shaft. Axial load or thrust is the force
on a bearing axially along the shaft.
Radial Loads
Some single-volute pump casings are designed for uniform or

near uniform pressures (specific speed range between 500 and
3500 English units) around the volute casing at the BEP. The
uniform pressures act equally on all sides of the impeller when
the pump is operated at design capacity.
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Pumps
Figure 42A illustrates the equal pressure that surrounds a pump

impeller during operation at design capacity. At capacities other
than design capacity, the pressures around the impeller are not
uniform and there is a resultant radial load (thrust). Figure 42B
illustrates the unequal pressure that surrounds the pump
impeller and the resultant force (F) when the pump is operating
at capacities other than the design capacity.
Figure 42. Radial Force
The magnitude of the resultant radial force on the impeller

during operation at capacities other than the design capacity
can be calculated through use of the following equation:
Fr = k(K r )(SG)(H)(D2 )(b 2 )
Where:
Fr
= Radial force
= 0.433 (9790 metric)
Kr
= Radial force factor coefficient
SG
= The specific gravity of the fluid pumped
= Pump head in feet or meters
D2
= Outside diameter of the impeller
b2
= Width of the impeller at the discharge,

including shrouds
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Pumps
The radial force factor coefficient has been determined

experimentally as a function of specific speed and capacity.
Figure 43 shows a graph of specific speed (English units)
versus radial force coefficient. The three plots are for when the
pump is operating at or near the capacity at BEP, when the
capacity is one half the capacity at BEP, and when the pump is
operating at shutoff head.
Figure 43. Radial Force Factor Coefficient Plot
The following example illustrates the use of the resultant radial

load calculations to determine the magnitude of the resultant
radial force. A single-volute pump is operating with a specific
speed of 2000 while pumping cold water (SG = 1.0) at a shutoff
head of 252 feet. The pump impeller diameter is 15.125, and
the width of the impeller is 2.5. Kr is determined from the graph
in Figure 43 for shutoff head with a value of approximately 0.31.
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Pumps
The resultant radial thrust can be calculated through use of the

following equation:
Fr = k(K r )(SG)(H)(D2 )(b2 )
Fr = .433(0.31) (1.00)(252)(15.125)(2.5) = 1279 pounds

Radial load can be lowered throughout the entire capacity range
through the use of a double-volute or a diffuser-type casing. The
use of a double-volute or diffuser-type casing should be
considered when a pump is normally operated at variable
capacities, especially at shutoff head.
As described in the casing designs section in MEX 211.01,
radial load is minimized in multistage centrifugal pumps by
staggering the volutes and by canceling out opposing radial
thrusts.
Axial Loads
Axial load is the sum of the unbalanced forces that act on the
impeller in the axial direction (axial thrust) and, in the case of
vertical pumps, the force and the mass force of the pump rotor
assembly. Axial pump loads vary with the type of pump and
impeller. Figure 44 shows the resultant axial thrust for a
horizontal, single-stage, single-suction, closed-impeller pump.
Figure 44. Hydraulic Axial Thrust Produced by a Horizontal, Single-Stage, SingleSuction, Closed-Impeller Pump
76
Pumps
For overhung, single-stage pumps, an additional axial force,

which results from the difference between atmospheric pressure
and suction pressure, is felt on the shaft area. Figure 45
illustrates this additional axial force. This force acts towards the
impeller when the suction pressure is less than atmospheric,
and it acts in the opposite direction when suction pressure is
higher than atmospheric.
Figure 45. Additional Axial Thrust on an Overhung Pump
When the single-suction closed impeller is used in multistage

pumps, the net hydraulic thrust is the sum of the axial thrust
produced by each impeller in the pump.
77
Pumps
The difference in pressure between the suction and the

discharge of the pump acting on the area of the pump impeller
suction provides an axial thrust on the impeller. Double-suction
pumps are often used to minimize the effect of axial thrust from
an impeller. Figure 46 shows the resultant hydraulic force for a
horizontal, single-stage, double suction, closed-impeller pump.

Double-Suction, Closed-Impeller Pump
78
Pumps
In practice, the hydraulic balance on a double-suction pump

may not be achieved for the following reasons:
The suction passages to the two suction eyes may not

provide equal or uniform flows to the two sides.
External piping conditions, such as an elbow located too

close to the pump suction nozzle, may cause unequal flow to
the two suction eyes. Proper piping arrangements to double
suction impellers are of utmost importance. As a rule, three
to five straight pipe diameters must be present downstream
of an elbow to ensure that equal flow enters each side of the
impeller, and the suction pipe should be perpendicular to the
pump axis.
The two sides of the discharge casing waterways may not be

symmetrical, or the impeller may be located off-center.
These conditions will alter the flow characteristics between
the impeller shrouds and the casing, and thereby cause
unequal pressures on the shrouds.
Unequal leaking through the wear rings on either side of the

impeller can result in differential pressure across the impeller
and upset the balance.
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Pumps
Axial thrust in horizontal, single-suction, semi-open, radial flow

impellers is illustrated in Figure 47. The pressure on the open
side of the impeller varies from essentially the discharge
pressure at the periphery (diameter D2) to the suction pressure
at the impeller eye (diameter D1). The pressure distribution at
the back of the impeller shroud varies from discharge pressure
at the periphery to a slightly lower pressure at the impeller hub.
The unbalanced portion of the axial thrust on the impeller is
represented by the crosshatched area in Figure 47.
Figure 47. Axial Thrust in Horizontal, Single-Suction, Semi-Open,

Radial Flow Impellers
Axial loading for vertical pumps must take the weight of the rotor
assembly (shafting, couplings, and impellers) into consideration
when determining the axial load.
Thrust Direction
The sum of the axial loads in one direction is balanced against

the sum of the axial load in the opposite direction, and this
situation results in a net active thrust in one direction. Active
thrust is defined as the normal thrust direction when a pump is
operating. The axial direction opposite the direction of active
thrust is called the direction of inactive thrust. Depending on the
pump design, the direction of active thrust can change with
changes in pump capacity.
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Pumps
The direction of active thrust can cause tension or compression

in the shaft. Shaft tensile stresses can occur when the direction
of active thrust is away from the thrust bearing. Compressive
stresses can occur when the direction of active thrust is towards
the thrust bearing. The direction of axial thrust varies with flow
rate, which results in a compressive or tensile stress on the
pump shaft. The magnitude of thrust varies with the pump
design. Figure 48 shows examples of compressive and tensile
stresses on pump shafts for horizontal and vertical pumps. If a
pump is operated in the discharge recirculation zone, the
stresses on the pump shaft can cycle between compressive and
tensile. Repeated cycling between compressive and tensile
stresses can cause pump thrust bearing damage and shaft
damage from high axial loads and from fatigue cracking
corrosion.
Figure 48. Examples of Directions of Axial Thrust
81
Pumps
Thrust Balancing
Designs
The amount of active axial thrust in single-stage and multiplestage pumps can be minimized through the use of the following
different methods:
Back and front wear rings with impeller balance holes
Pumpout vanes
Double suction impellers
Stacked impeller design
Opposed impeller design
Balance drum
82
Pumps
Back and Front Wear Rings with Balance Holes - The ordinary,
single-suction, closed, radial impeller with the shaft passing
through the impeller eye is subject to axial thrust because a
portion of the front impeller wall is exposed to the suction
pressure while the area in back of the impeller wall is exposed
to the discharge pressure. If the discharge chamber pressure
was uniform over the entire impeller surface, the axial force
acting toward the suction would be equal to the product of the
net pressure generated by the impeller and the unbalanced
annular area. In actual use, the pressure on the two singlesuction closed impeller walls is not uniform. The liquid trapped
between the impeller shrouds and the casing walls is in rotation,
and the pressure at the impeller periphery is higher than at the
impeller hub. Figure 49 illustrates the actual pressure
distribution across an impeller.
Figure 49. Actual Pressure Distribution across an Impeller
83
Pumps
To minimize the axial thrust of a single-suction impeller, the

pump impeller can be equipped with both front and back wear
rings. The front and back wear rings effectively isolate the high
pressure and low pressure areas of the impeller. The thrust
areas are equalized through the use of the same inner diameter
of both the front and back wear rings. Pressure that is
approximately equal to the suction pressure is maintained in a
chamber located on the impeller side of the back wear ring by
the drilling of balance holes through the impeller. Figure 50
shows an example of a single-suction impeller equipped with
front and back wear rings and balance holes.
Figure 50. Front and Back Wear Rings and Balance Holes
Leakage past the back wear ring is recirculated back to the

pump suction through the balance holes. Large (greater than
10 suction), single-stage, single-suction pumps do not
commonly use balance holes because the leakage from the
back wear rings through the balance holes opposes fluid flow
through the suction of the impeller and creates disturbances that
can affect the pump capacity. Large, single-stage, single-suction
pumps commonly use a piped connection from the area behind
the impeller to the pump suction piping.
84
Pumps
Pump-Out Vanes - The primary function of pump-out vanes is to

minimize packing or seal leakage by reducing the fluid pressure
on the seal chamber. Pump-out vanes also prevent foreign
material that can be suspended in the pumped fluid from lodging
in the clearance space between the shroud and the adjacent
wall of the casing. Reducing pressure behind the impeller
shroud with pump-out will also reduce axial thrust. Figure 51
illustrates the effect of pump-out vanes on the pressure
differential across an impeller.
Figure 51. Pressure Differential across an Impeller with Pump-Out Vanes
Double Suction Impellers - As mentioned previously, double-
suction impellers can be used to minimize the axial load from

hydraulic thrust.
85
Pumps
Stacked Impeller Design - The stacked impeller design is used

on multi-stage pumps. The stacked design consists of several
single-suction impellers mounted on one shaft, each having its
suction inlet facing in the same direction and its stages following
one another in ascending order of pressure. Thrust increases
with the increasing number of impellers in the stacked impeller;
however, the stacked impeller design axial thrust is balanced by
a single hydraulic balancing device (a balance drum, which is
discussed later in this section). Figure 52 shows an example of
a multi-stage pump using the stacked impeller design and a
hydraulic balancing device.
Figure 52. Stacked Impeller Design with Hydraulic Balancing Device
86
Pumps
Opposed Impeller Design - The opposed impeller design is used

on multi-stage pumps. The opposed impeller design consists of
single-suction impellers mounted on a single shaft, with a
portion of the impellers facing one direction and the other
impellers facing the opposite direction. With this arrangement,
axial hydraulic thrust is minimized by balancing the thrust of one
group of impellers against the opposite group of impellers.
When an even number of impellers is used, typically one-half of
the impellers face one direction, and the other half of the
impellers face the opposite direction. When an odd number of
impellers is used, the pump shaft diameter and the interstage
bushing diameters are varied to provide the effect of a hydraulic
balancing device that will compensate for the hydraulic thrust on
one of the stages. Figure 53 shows an example of a multistage
pump that uses the opposed impeller design.
Figure 53. Opposed Impeller Design
87
Pumps
Balance Drum - A balance drum, which is also known as a

balance piston, is a hydraulic thrust-balancing device used to
reduce the axial thrust in a pump. There are two types of
devices that are commonly used to balance axial thrust in
centrifugal pumps: a balance drum and a balance disk.
A balance drum is shown in Figure 54. The balancing drum is

either keyed or screwed to the pump shaft and separates the
balancing chamber at the back of the impeller (or if multi-staged,
an end-stage impeller) and the interior of the pump. A balancing
drumhead is fixed to the pump casing, and it allows for a small
radial clearance that separates the drum and the stationary
portion of the balancing device.
Figure 54. Balancing Drum
The area on the seal chamber side of the balance drum is

subjected to the pump suction pressure. The area on the
impeller side of the balance drum is exposed to the highpressure fluid in the pump. The difference in fluid pressure
across the balance drum provides a force on the balance drum
that is opposite to the direction of axial hydraulic thrust from the
impellers. The typical balance design is 90 to 95 percent of total
axial impeller thrust. Any residual thrust that is not balanced by
88
Pumps
the balance drum is absorbed by the thrust bearing on the end

of the shaft. The amount of residual thrust that must absorbed
by the thrust bearing changes as a function of the differential
pressure from the suction pressure and the internal pump
pressure. The use of a balance drum enables the selection of a
smaller thrust bearing, which results in lower horsepower
losses.
Another form of balancing device is called a balancing disk.
Similar to the balancing drum, the balancing disk also uses a
balancing chamber. The balancing disk is secured to the shaft,
and the balancing disk head is fixed to the casing, as shown in
Figure 55. The leakage to the balancing chamber flows through
a small axial clearance between the balancing disk and the
balancing disk head. The liquid, depending on system design,
would then flow to either the pump suction or back to a tank. A
restricting orifice is typically placed in the leakage return line.
The orifice provides backpressure in the balance chamber by
restricting fluid flow out of the balance chamber. The balance
chamber backpressure is required for the proper operation of
the balancing disk.
89
Pumps
Figure 55. Balancing Disk
90
Pumps
The balance disk automatically compensates for changes in

axial impeller thrust by varying the amount of axial clearance
between the balancing disk and the balancing disk head. For
example, if the impeller thrust increases, the disk moves
towards the disk head and reduces the clearance between the
disk and the disk head. The reduction in clearance reduces the
amount of leakage from the impeller side of the disk to the
balance chamber. The reduction of leakage to the balance
chamber reduces the backpressure in the balancing chamber.
This drop in pressure provides a higher differential pressure,
from the discharge pressure side to the balance chamber,
across the balance disk. The higher pressure on the discharge
pressure side of the balance disk provides the force to oppose
the axial hydraulic thrust from the impeller(s), and it allows the
disk to move away from the disk head until a balanced axial
thrust equilibrium is achieved.
91
Pumps
Bearing Types
The functions of bearings in a pump are to support the rotor, to
minimize friction losses, and to position the rotor with respect to
the stationary pump components. Because of the close
clearances between the pump impeller and the casing, the
position of the rotor is extremely important in pump operation.
Two types of bearings are used on pumps: antifriction bearings
and hydrodynamic bearings. This section briefly discusses the
common types of antifriction and hydrodynamic bearings that
are used on pumps in Saudi Aramco applications.
Centrifugal pumps are fitted with bearings that are appropriate
for the application and pump design. Figure 56 lists the types of
bearings that are commonly used for the different pump
applications.
Figure 56. Typical Pump Bearing Applications
92
Pumps
Antifriction
Antifriction bearings, which are so called because they are

designed to overcome friction, are of two types: ball bearings
and roller bearings. In a hydrodynamic bearing, the frictional
resistance to sliding motion is overcome by separating the
surfaces with a fluid film. The antifriction bearing substitutes
rolling motion for sliding motion through the use of rolling
elements between the rotating and stationary surfaces, and this
rolling motion reduces friction to a fraction of the friction that
exists where hydrodynamic bearings are used.
Basically, all antifriction bearings consist of two hardened rings
that are called the inner and the outer rings or races, the
hardened rolling elements that may be either balls or rollers,
and a separator or cage. Bearing size is usually given in terms
of boundary dimensions. Boundary dimensions are the outside
diameter, the bore, and the width. The inner and outer rings
provide continuous tracks or races in which the rollers or balls
roll. The separator or retainer properly spaces the rolling
elements around the track and guides the rolling elements
through the load zone. Other words and terms that are used in
describing antifriction ball bearings are the face, the shoulders,
or the corners. The terms that are used to describe taper-roller
bearings are a little different in that the outer ring is called the
cup, and the inner ring is called the cone. The word cage,
rather than separator or retainer, is standard for taper-roller
bearings.
Classified by function, ball bearings used in pumps may be
divided into two groups: radial and thrust bearings (angularcontact bearings). Angular-contact bearings can support
combined radial and thrust loads.
Radial - Radial bearings are designed primarily to carry a load in
a direction that is perpendicular to the axis of rotation. There are

several different types of radial antifriction bearings, including
single-row ball bearings and double-row ball bearings.
93
Pumps
Single-row ball bearings are the most widely used of all ball
bearings and probably of all antifriction bearings. Single-row ball
bearings can sustain combined radial and thrust loads, or thrust
loads alone if they are angular-contact type bearings, in either
direction, even at extremely high speeds. In accordance with
API Standard 610, all ball bearings must be Conrad-type
bearings. Conrad-type bearings are named after Robert Conrad,
who invented the Conrad bearing assembly method. The
Conrad bearing assembly method does not use ball filling
notches or slots.
A cross-section of the single-row ball bearing is illustrated in
Figure 57. The ball element is positioned between an inner race
and an outer race. Single-row, angular-contact ball bearings can
have equal load-carrying capabilities in either direction or one
direction only, depending on design. Such ball bearings are
recommended for moderate to heavy radial loads, for thrust
loads in either direction, or for combination loads.
Figure 57. Single-Row Ball Bearing
94
Pumps
Another type of ball bearing that is used for high radial load is
the double-row, angular-contact ball bearing shown in Figure 58.
The double-row ball bearing uses the same principle of design
as the single-row bearing. However, the grooves for the two
rows of balls are positioned so the load through the balls tends
to push outward on the outer ring races. The use of two rows of
balls increases the radial load capacity of the bearing and
provides an increase in the amount of thrust capacity.
Figure 58. Double-Row, Angular-Contact Ball Bearing
95
Pumps
Thrust - Angular-contact bearings, as shown in Figure 59, can
support radial loads when combined with thrust loads in one

direction. The inner and outer races are made with an extra high
shoulder on the thrust side. Angular contact bearings are
designed for combination loads in which the thrust component is
greater than the capacity of single-row ball bearings.
Figure 59. Angular-Contact Bearing
96
Pumps
The double row spherical roller bearing, which is shown in

Figure 60, is a self-aligning bearing that utilizes rolling elements
that are shaped like barrels. The outer race has a single
spherical raceway. The inner race has two spherical raceways
that are separated by a center flange. The double row spherical
roller bearing will support a heavy radial load and a heavy thrust
load in both directions. Double row spherical roller bearings are
inherently self-aligning because the assembly of the inner race,
the center flange, and the rollers is free to swivel within the
outer race.
Figure 60. Spherical Barrel-Shaped Roller Bearing
97
Pumps
Hydrodynamic
Some centrifugal pumps are equipped with hydrodynamic

bearings. Hydrodynamic bearings (also known as self-acting
bearings) depend on the relative motion of the journal (the
portion of the shaft that is supported by the bearing) to produce
a fluid film pressure for load support. The term hydrodynamic
refers to the relative motion of the journal in relation to the
bearing that produces the fluid film pressure. A hydrodynamic
bearing is different from a hydrostatic bearing. Hydrostatic
bearings (also known as externally pressurized bearings)
achieve load support by the supply of fluid from an external
high-pressure source and require no relative motion of the
journal.
Hydrodynamic bearings are generally very simple in
construction and operation. These bearings are efficient, and
they can support extremely heavy rotating loads. The ability to
carry the heavy loads is due to an oil wedge that is developed
between the journal and the bearing surface. The surface of the
shaft journal slides over the surface of the bearing. A
converging wedge fluid film is automatically generated in a
lubricated journal bearing by the running clearance between the
journal and the bearing bore, combined with the effect of load
and rotation, which produces a displaced, eccentric disposition
of the journal. The clearance is generally 0.0015 per inch of
shaft diameter; however, the appropriate bearing instruction
book must be consulted for actual bearing clearances. The
thickness of the oil wedge at the maximum load point is usually
15 to 25 microns. Figure 61 shows the formation of the oil
wedge during shaft rotation. When the shaft rotates, the fluid
tangential force and the fluid radial force act against the bearing
load to lift the journal up and push the journal to the side.
98
Pumps
Hydrodynamic bearings offer great rigidity and stability under

extreme load conditions. Journal bearings are much less
sensitive than roller bearings to vibration, poor fits, corrosion,
and contaminants. The fluid film within a hydrodynamic radial
bearing absorbs (viscous dampening) much of the force exerted
by radial vibration of the journal within the clearance between
the shaft and the bearings Babbitt lining (discussed below).
Figure 61. Shaft/Bearing Dynamics
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Pumps
Hydrodynamic flow is controlled by the bearing dimensions, the

geometry, the clearance, the journal's eccentricity, and the shaft
running speed. The heat generation or power consumption in a
bearing film is produced by the work that is done in shearing the
film. The bearing material must be of adequate hardness and
strength to support the load. Conversely the material must soft
enough to embed particulate debris to prevent damage to the
pump shaft. Good contact compatibility is important. If
lubrication becomes marginal, the material must be able to
withstand momentary contact with the shaft. Corrosion
resistance is necessary to prevent the acidic products of
oxidation in the lubricating oil from corroding the bearing
surfaces. The bearing material must satisfy all of these
requirements.
In general, the softer bearing materials (e.g., the whitemetals or
babbitt) are best for high-speed lightly loaded pump
applications, and they will withstand occasional contact without
serious damage. Babbitt or whitemetal thicknesses vary from
0.20 to as little as 0.050 based on bearing application. For
highly loaded applications, a thin coating of a heat-conductive
material (copper or bronze) is placed between the whitemetal
and steel layers. These bearings are typically called tri-metal
bearings.
When classified by function, hydrodynamic bearings may be
divided into two main groups: radial and thrust.
Radial - A typical plain journal bearing is shown in Figure 62.
The bearing is made in two halves that are split at the horizontal
centerline. The bearing is commonly called a split sleeve
bearing, which is made in two halves that are split at the
horizontal centerline. The split halves are bolted and doweled
together to ensure proper alignment and support for both
halves. Other types of sleeve bearings may be constructed from
a solid piece. The bearing liner has a Babbitt bore that acts as
the bearing surface. Babbitt is a tin-lead material that serves as
a soft sacrificial lining and that has a melting temperature of
approximately 300F. The outer diameter of the bearing liner is
either a flat or spherical shape (self-aligning) that mates with a
similar shape in the supporting pedestal. The spherical shape
assists to lock the bearing liner in place and accommodates
minor internal misalignment between a set of radial bearings. Oil
passages are drilled through the pedestal and bearing liner to
provide an oil inlet to the oil grooves of the bearing.
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Pumps
An oil film separates the shaft journal from the bearing babbitt
surface. Oil films may vary from .0006 to about .001 inch (15 to
25 microns) in thickness at the point of minimum thickness. The
oil film thickness generally depends upon the load, the viscosity
of the oil, the shaft speed and, to some extent, the bearing
clearance.
Figure 62. Typical Journal Bearing
Another type of journal bearing that is used in pumps is the

multi-lobe journal bearing, which is shown in Figure 63. The
multi-lobe bearing has a series of slight depressions that run the
length of the bearing parallel to the axis of the shaft. The
depressions provide the bearing with the appearance of a series
of lobes. The number of lobes varies from two to four over the
circumference of the bearing.
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Pumps
The multi-lobe bearing that is shown in Figure 63 has equal

spacing between the depressions. The spacing is off centered
from the bottom of the bearing to prevent the journal from
resting in a depression. The equal spacing produces an equal
lobe pattern around the bearing that breaks up the hydraulic film
and produces better stability during operation. At shaft speeds
above approximately 6,000 rpm, failure to break up the
hydraulic film will cause the fluid to develop a circumferential
velocity. The force associated with this velocity will cause the
journal to vibrate in a circular or elliptical orbit and at a
frequency that is 47 to 53 percent (.47 to .53) shaft rotative
speed. Referred to as oil whirl, this pattern of vibration can
cause damage to the bearing. An aggravation of oil whirl is
referred to as oil whip. Oil whip occurs when the vibration
frequency induced by oil whirl is the same as the natural
vibration frequency of the rotor system; therefore, the vibration
is resonant. The vibration is frequency and the consequently
high displacement amplitude continue regardless of changes in
the rotative speed. Turbine failure will occur within minutes or
hours of inception of oil whip.
Figure 63. Multi-Lobe Journal Bearing
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Pumps
A third type of radial journal bearing that is used on pumps is

called the pressure dam bearing or pressure bearing. Its
construction is essentially the same as the split sleeve radial
journal bearing with the exception that a shrouded step or dam
is cut into the upper half of the bearing. The viscous and inertia
effects combine to build up pressure over the top half of the
bearing that, in effect, places an artificial load on the lower half
of the bearing. The artificial load results in an increase in the
eccentricity ratio, which increases the bearings stability and the
bearing anti-whirl properties. It is important to note that the
pressure dam must be in the upper half of the bearing.
Installation of the pressure dam in the lower half of the bearing
will cause bearing instability. Most pressure dam bearings are
indexed to prevent improper assembly; however, older pressure
dam bearing designs may not be indexed.
A common type of radial hydrodynamic bearing that is used in
higher speed (greater than 4000 rpm) pumps is called the tiltingpad bearing, which is shown in Figure 64. The tilting-pad
bearing is more stable than the standard journal bearing.
Because of their excellent stability, tilting-pad bearings are
usually used where shaft stability is a problem. The increased
stability helps to provide a greater degree of damping of the
turbine rotor, which avoids erratic vibration patterns. Tilting-pad
bearings are used to prevent oil whirl.
The tilting-pad bearing is made up of a series of identical
babbitted pads or shoes. The shaft journal rides on an oil film
(0.0006 to 0.001) and is supported by the pads. The number of
pads that are used in a tilting-pad bearing can vary. The more
common designs use four, five, or six pads. The bearing pads
are made from a high-grade steel forging that is lined with a
high-quality, tin-base Babbitt.
The pads usually have projections that fit under protection lips
that are machined in the bearing casing to prevent radial
movement of the pads. Circumferential movement is prevented
by pins that pass through the bearing housing into holes in the
pads.
To allow the pads to tilt freely without seizing or binding, the
holes in the pads into which the pins fit are larger than the
diameter of the pins. The tilting action of each pad takes place
because the back half of the pad is machined to a radius that is
less than the radius of the housing.
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Pumps
Oil enters the housing through oil inlets that are located
between the pad segments. The oil discharges through drain
orifices that are provided in the housing. The tilting-pad helps to
form the oil wedge between the bearing surfaces and the shaft
journal. Despite the relatively short span of the pads, the load
capacity of tilting-pad bearings is similar to the load capacity of
conventional bearings.
Figure 64. Typical Tilting-Pad Bearing
Thrust - Thrust bearings prevent axial (back and forth)
movement of a pump rotor, which can cause the pump impeller

to make contact with the pump casing. Such contact can cause
extensive damage or stop (seize) the pump. Several types of
hydrodynamic thrust bearings are used in pump applications,
such as plain thrust bearings, tapered land thrust bearings, and
tilt-pad thrust bearings. The load capacity of a plain thrust
bearing is relatively low. Radial grooves are cut into the thrust
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face as a passage for oil to cool and to lubricate the bearing

surface. Tapered land thrust bearings resemble plain thrust
bearings. Figure 65 shows a tapered land thrust bearing. The
surface of the tapered land thrust bearing is divided into a
number of pads. Each pad is separated by an oil feed groove.
Each pad is tapered in a circumferential direction and radial
direction. The taper allows the rotary motion to wipe oil into the
contacting, wedge-shaped area, which builds up a load-carrying
oil wedge. The exact form of the pad surface profile is not
especially important. However, a flat land at the end of the
tapered section is necessary to avoid excessive local contact
stress under start-up conditions. The land should extend across
the entire radial width of the pad, and it should occupy about 20
percent of the pad circumferential length.
Figure 65. Tapered Land Thrust Bearing
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Pumps
The tilting-pad thrust bearing, as shown in Figure 66, is the most

satisfactory thrust bearing for heavy axial thrust, regardless of
whether the shaft speed is high or low, or whether the shaft is
horizontally mounted or vertically mounted. Because the pads
are pivotally supported and are able to assume a small angle
relative to the moving collar surface, the tilting-pad bearing is
able to accommodate a large range of speed, load, and
viscosity conditions. The pivotal movement and the small angle
enable a full hydrodynamic fluid film to be maintained between
the surfaces of the pad and the collar. The tilting-pad thrust
bearing has the inherent advantage of being able to absorb
significant amounts of thrust without excessive horsepower
losses.
Figure 66. Tilting-Pad Thrust Bearing
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Pumps
The self-equalizing thrust bearing shown in Figure 67 is an

alternative design of the tilting-pad thrust bearing. The selfequalizing thrust bearing is one of the most common types of
tilting-pad thrust bearings that are used on rotating machinery.
The self-equalizing thrust bearing consists of a thrust collar,
stationary shoes, leveling plates, and a base ring. The thrust
collar can be either a separate component that is mounted on
the turbine shaft, or it can be machined as an integral part of the
turbine shaft. When the shaft is stationary, the stationary shoes
lie with their surfaces parallel to the thrust collar. As the thrust
collar starts to rotate, an oil film is created between the
stationary shoes and the thrust collar. As the oil film builds up,
each stationary shoe tilts to an angle that generates the proper
distribution of the oil film pressure. The tilt of each shoes
creates an oil wedge under each shoe. The oil wedge film can
carry a heavier load than the flat film of oil for any given size.
Any axial movement that is generated by the pump shaft is
transmitted through the stationary shoes to the leveling plates.
The leveling plates uniformly distribute the thrust load around
the bearing to equalize the axial thrust that is generated by the
shaft. A misaligned load will force the leveling plates at the
heaviest load point to tilt, which pushes the remaining stationary
pads outward to equalize the load over all of the stationary
pads. The leveling plates transmit the axial thrust to the base
ring.
Similar to the load bearing section of a radial hydrodynamic
bearing, thrust bearing shoe surfaces may use the tri-metal
design for high load applications.
Self-equalizing thrust bearings are used as both double acting
thrust bearings and single acting thrust bearings. Double-acting
thrust bearings have stationary shoes and leveling plates on
both sides of the thrust collar. Double-acting thrust bearings are
used in applications in which axial thrust can be exerted in both
directions. Single-acting thrust bearings have stationary shoes
and leveling plates only on one side. Single-acting thrust
bearings are used in applications in which axial thrust can be
exerted in only one direction.
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Pumps
Figure 67. Self-Equalizing Thrust Bearing
Pump Industry
Standard Bearing
Applications
Understanding centrifugal pump dynamics and operating

characteristics is an important part of extending pump life.
During operation, hydraulic conditions in centrifugal pumps
generate major axial thrust loads. The type and size of a pumps
impeller determine the loads magnitude and duration. Steady
radial loads are imposed by the weight of parts and
components. Fluctuating radial loads result from hydraulic and
unbalanced conditions of the rotor assembly.
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Pumps
Most centrifugal pumps are designed to either API Standard 610

or ANSI Standard B73.1. Heavy-duty process pumps are
typically designed to API standards, while light-and mediumduty pumps are typically designed to ANSI standards.
The bearing arrangements for API and ANSI configurations vary
slightly. In API designs, there are bearings at two positions: a
single-row deep-groove ball bearing near the impeller, and an
angular contact ball bearing set in the thrust position at the
coupling end. Figure 68 shows a typical API bearing
configuration.
Figure 68. Typical API Bearing Configuration
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Pumps
The bearing accommodates radial loads and floats in the

housing. The bearing arrangement allows for thermal expansion
of the shaft. The angular contact set is fixed in the housing. The
angular contact set secures the impeller in the proper axial
position, which handles the thrust load and a portion of the
radial load.
ANSI pumps are very similar in bearing configuration to the API
pumps with one notable exception. Instead of an angular
contact bearing set, ANSI pumps use a single or double row
deep-groove ball bearing.
Both API and ANSI pumps use the same bearing configurations
in vertical pumps as horizontal pumps.
In both API and ANSI bearing configurations, the bearings in the
thrust position must handle a complex, dynamic combination of
thrust and radial loads, and the bearings must hold the entire
pump rotor assembly in place under varying conditions. Several
bearing types have been used as thrust bearings. The duplex
angular contact ball bearing design used in API pumps consists
of two bearings mounted back-to-back. Typically, each bearing
uses a 40 contact angle, which means that the balls in each
bearing roll on an axis that forms a 40 angle with the
perpendicular radial position. Bearings with high contact angles,
such as the 40 angles used in the API configuration, are
designed to carry axial loads; they are axially rigid and radially
soft. Bearings with low contact angles are designed for radial
loads; they are axially soft and radially rigid.
Some problems can occur with high contact angle bearings,
such as ball skidding. During operation, thrust loads apply
pressure against one bearing and cause the one bearing to
deflect and the other bearing to unload. Centrifugal forces that
act on the unloaded bearing may cause its balls to run on a
skewed axis and begin to skid. Ball skidding produces a
microscopic wear or lapping process that damages the bearing
raceway. The friction from ball skidding generates heat that
reduces the bearing lubricants operating viscosity.
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Pumps
One method used to minimize the effect of ball skidding in API

bearing configuration is to use a set of preloaded, 40 angle,
angular contact bearings. When the active bearing in the set is
under load, the residual preload in the other bearing will prevent
unloading. The amount of preload for the bearing set can be
difficult to determine because the temperature differential
between the inner and outer bearings and the impeller thrust
load cannot be determined with any degree of certainty.
Improper preload on a bearing can cause the bearing to run hot
and shorten bearing life.
An alternate method of reducing the ball skidding problem is to
use a matched pair of angular contact bearings that have
different contact angles. A common method uses a 40 angle
and a 15 angle angular contact bearing set. The 40 bearing
handles the axial thrust, while the 15 bearing handles any
reversing thrust during startup (mainly from caused by the
driver) and handles radial load during normal operation.
ANSI pumps are also susceptible to the same problem of ball
skidding; however, double row deep groove ball bearings are
not presently manufactured with different contact angles.
API Standard 610 provides guidance on bearing selection.
Antifriction bearings should have a L-10 rating life of at least
25,000 hours with continuous operation at rated conditions, and
at least 16,000 hours at maximum radial and axial loads and
rated speed. The L-10 rating for antifriction bearings is defined
as the number of hours at rated bearing load that 90% of a
group of identical bearings will complete (25,000 hours of
continuous operation) or exceed before evidence of failure.
Failure evidence is generally defined as a 100% increase in
measured vibration.
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Pumps
L-10 life for all friction bearings can be calculated through the
use of the following equation:
16700 C
L10 =

N F
Where:
L10
= L-10 rating in hours
= Pump speed
= The total force required to fail the bearing

after 1,000,000 revolutions
= The total of all actual forces acting on the

bearing
= 3 for ball bearings and 10/3 for roller

bearings
Small changes in force (F) acting on an antifriction bearing can

significantly reduce the L-10 life of a bearing.
API Standard 610 also provides a limit on antifriction dN number
(also called the dmN or Ndm number). The dN number is a
measure of the amount of frictional heat generated by a bearing.
The dN number is calculated by using the following equation:
dN = Bearing bore (in millmeters ) bearing speed (rpm)
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Pumps
API Standard 610 limits the dN rating to less than 500,000. The
bearing dN number can also be used to determine the type of
bearing used and the type of lubrication required for the bearing.
Table 1 shows a table that lists bearing dN number ranges,
bearing types, and lubrication types.
dN Range
Bearing Type
Lubrication Type
Below 100,000
Antifriction
Grease, sealed
100,000 to 300,000
Antifriction
Regreasable
Below 300,000
Antifriction
Oil lubricated, nonpressurized
Above 300,000
Sleeve, multi-lobe, or tilt pad
Oil lubricated, pressurized
Table 1. dN Rating/Bearing Type/Lubrication Type Table
API Standard 610 requires the use of hydrodynamic radial and

thrust bearings when the product of pump rated power, kW (hp)
and rated speed, (rpm), is 4.0 million (5.4 million) or greater.
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Lubrication Requirements
Bearing lubrication requirements vary with the types of bearings
used and the type of pump. There are two methods of bearing
lubrication for centrifugal pumps: grease lubrication and oil
lubrication. API Standard 610 specifies that all bearings and
bearing housings be arranged for hydrocarbon oil lubrication.
Saudi Aramco Standard 31-SAMSS-004 requires that single
casing volute lineshaft and volute cantilever pump thrust
bearings must be designed for grease lubrication.
Grease Lubricated
Bearings can be lubricated with grease by a variety of methods.

Most greased bearings used on pumps are packed with grease
prior to assembly. Some bearing housings are equipped with a
grease fitting that will allow periodic application of grease to the
bearing to make up for grease that has leaked out of the
housing. Bearing housings should never be packed more than
half-full because too much grease can cause bearing
overheating and can produce pressure that will cause leakage
and damage to the grease seals.
Other forms of grease lubrication methods include grease cups.
Grease cups can be manual or automatic. A grease cup can be
threaded to the bearing housing, or it can be centrally located
with lines running to various lubrication points. The grease cup
contains a small quantity of grease. On a manual grease cup, a
handle is periodically turned to admit a small amount of grease
to the bearing. Automatic grease cups typically use a spring cap
that maintains a slight positive pressure on the grease. For
hard-to-reach lubrication points, some spring-loaded grease
cups have lines leading from the cup to the point of application.
A shortcoming of this method is the tendency of the grease to
separate into oil and solid phases as a result of the constant
pressure exerted by the spring on the small volume of grease in
the system.
If several pumps require grease lubrication in close proximity, a
centralized grease lubrication system can be used. A
centralized lubrication system uses a single reservoir, a pump,
lines to the lubrication points, and metering devices to meter
grease to each bearing.
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Pumps
Oil Lubricated
The majority of the pumps used in Saudi Aramco installations

use oil lubrication. Pumps use a variety of different methods for
oil lubrication of bearings. The most common method uses an
unpressurized oil system with a constant-level oiler. A constantlevel oiler operates on the basis of a quantity of reserve oil
stored in a bottle above the operating level of the oil in the
bearing housing. The oil in the bottle is prevented from coming
out since the opening of the bottle is below the operating oil
level, and as long as air cannot get into the bottle, oil cannot
come out. However, when the operating level drops, the
opening to the bottle is uncovered, and air is allowed into the
bottle. Reserve oil is thereby released until the operating level
rises to cover the opening again, maintaining a constant oil level
in the bearing housing. Figure 69 shows a constant-level oiler.
Figure 69. Constant-Level Oiler
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Pumps
Oil slingers or rings are commonly used to splash or drip oil to

the bearings. The oil level in an unpressurized bearing housing
should be maintained at the center of the lowermost ball of a
stationary bearing. Overfilling the bearing housing with oil will
result in oil leakage through the bearing seals and possible
bearing overheating.
Pressurized lubrication systems are also used on pumps. Figure
70 shows a typical forced feed lubrication system used for Saudi
Aramco applications. Saudi Aramco Standard
31-SAMSS-004 requires that for between bearings pumps in
critical, unspared service, an external pressure lubrication
systems must be in accordance with 32-SAMSS-013 and
Standard Drawing AB-036858 (shown in Figure 70). For pumps
that are spared, pressurized lubrication systems must be in
accordance with API 610 with the following exceptions:
The main pump must be electric motor driven.
A separate shell and tube heat exchanger must be provided.
The reservoir must be austenitic stainless steel.
The bearing lubrication system shown in Figure 70 consists of

two lube oil pumps, a primary pump and a standby pump, that
take suction from the reservoir through a strainer. Lube oil is
supplied to the system through a temperature control valve
(TCV). The temperature control valve maintains lube oil
temperature by changing lube oil flow to the oil cooler (throttles
bypass flow). The oil cooler can be either water-or air-cooled.
The lube oil then passes through a duplex filter unit. If the oil
cooler is water cooled, a pressure regulating valve maintains
lube oil supply pressure higher than the water pressure to
prevent water from leaking into the oil system from the cooler. A
second pressure control valve maintains lube oil pressure to the
bearings. When necessary, an overhead tank may be installed
in the system to temporarily supply lube oil to the pump
bearings in the event of system pressure loss until the pump
coasts to a stop.
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Pumps
Figure 70. Typical Forced Feed Lubrication System
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Pumps
PUMP COUPLINGS
A coupling is used whenever there is a need to connect the
shafts of a prime mover to a piece of driven machinery. The
function of a coupling is to axially transmit shaft-to-shaft power
from one component of a machinery train to another component
of the machinery train. Depending on the coupling design, a
coupling may also accommodate misalignment between shafts
and transmit axial thrust loads from one machine to another.
In accordance with 31-SAMSS-004, lubricated couplings are not
acceptable. Lubricated couplings, such as the gear or spring
grid coupling, require periodic lubrication to prevent wear of
coupling parts. Nonlubricated couplings do not require grease
or oil lubricant.
Flexible couplings must be capable of accepting parallel
misalignment of not less than 50 mils (1270 micrometers)
between shaft ends, and they must be capable of absorbing
twice the maximum axial growth plus twice the axial magnetic
centering force of the electric motor.
Rigid Adjustable Spacer Type

In accordance with 31-SAMSS-004, rigid adjustable-type
couplings are required for vertical lineshaft pumps not equipped
with thrust bearings. Spacer type couplings must be furnished
for all horizontal, flexibly coupled, vertical in-line and vertical
suspended pumps. Couplings for high-speed integral gear
pumps may be of the nonspacer type. Figure 71 shows an
example of a rigid adjustable-type coupling.
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Pumps
Figure 71. Rigid Adjustable Coupling
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Pumps
Flexible Disk Pack

The flexible metal disc coupling, which is shown in Figure 72,
uses two hubs that are keyed to the shafts with a series of thin
steel discs that are connected between the hubs. The hubs may
be keyed to the shafts or hydraulically pressed onto the shafts.
The flexing element is the series of thin steel discs. The series
of thin steel discs is called a disc-pack. Disc-pack couplings can
be configured as either single or double disc pack. A double
disc-pack coupling uses two packs of thin steel discs that are
attached to the hubs through a center connector ring. Each discpack is alternately bolted to a coupling hub and the center
connector ring. High strength connecting bolts are inserted
through specially designed spacer inserts that are securely held
in place with lock nuts. Removal or installation of the disc-packs
can be performed without removing the coupling hubs or
disturbing the machinery. Disc-pack couplings do not require
lubrication.
If the initial alignment of the shafts is not accurate, the assembly
of the disc-packs to the coupling hubs is difficult because the
closely fitted boltholes offer little clearance for bolt placement.
Excessive flexing that is caused by misalignment will eventually
cause the metal discs to fatigue and break.
Disc-pack couplings have the following characteristics:
They provide high torsional rigidity.
They can accommodate some axial shaft movement (end

float).
They can accommodate minor shaft misalignment.
They can transmit power without any backlash or

mechanical looseness between the coupling halves.
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Pumps
Figure 72. Double Disc-Pack Coupling
Diaphragm
In accordance with 31-SAMSS-004, flexible disc-pack or
diaphragm-type couplings must be supplied for all horizontal
pumps and flexibly coupled vertical in-line pumps except those
driven by reciprocating engines or synchronous electric motors,
and vertical suspended pumps having thrust bearings.
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Pumps
The diaphragm-type coupling, which is shown in Figure 73,

consists of two assemblies that are bolted together with a
spacer. Each assembly consists of a rigid hub, a diaphragm
pack, and a splined adapter. The rigid hubs are either keyed,
tapered, or splined to the shafts. The outside diameter (OD) of
the diaphragm pack is bolted between the hub and a diaphragm
pack guard. The inside diameter (ID) of the diaphragm pack is
splined to accept the splines of the splined adapter. The spline
transmits the torque from the driving unit through the coupling to
the driven unit. The splined adapter is held in place with a clamp
ring. The clamp ring is bolted to the splined adapter with bolts
that pass through the diaphragm pack. Both of the splined
adapters are bolted to a spacer to complete the coupling
assembly.
The flexing element is the diaphragm pack. The diaphragm pack
consists of several thin convoluted diaphragms. The convolution
and its unrolling action result in the diaphragm's large axial
capacity with low stresses. Disc and contour diaphragms
accommodate for axial motion by pure deformation of material.
Removal or installation of the adapter and diaphragm packs can
be performed without removing the coupling hubs or disturbing
the machinery.
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Pumps
The diaphragm pack coupling compensates for misalignment.

The diaphragm pack makes the coupling axially soft so that the
coupling does not impose excessive axial loads on the bearings
or the shafts of the connected equipment. The diaphragm
coupling is maintenance free and it requires no lubrication.
Shims may be used between the diaphragm pack and the rigid
hub to adjust the effective coupling length.
Diaphragm couplings have the following characteristics:
High and low ambient temperature capability.
High-speed capability.
High-torque capability.
High-misalignment capability.
Corrosion-resistant flex elements.
Figure 73. Diaphragm Coupling
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Pumps
Elastomeric
In accordance with 31-SAMSS-004, elastomeric couplings or
couplings that have a comparable torsional stiffness are
required for pumps driven by reciprocating engines and may be
considered for pumps driven by synchronous electric motors.
Elastomeric couplings consist of two hubs and a flexible
elastomeric element. The hubs are fitted onto the shaft, and the
elastomeric element is attached to the hubs. Figure 74 shows
two of the many different styles of elastomeric couplings that are
available: a splined rubber-type coupling, which is shown in
Figure 74(A), and a rubber tire-type coupling, which is shown in
Figure 74(B). Each style uses a different method for the
attachment of the element to the hubs.
The metal hubs of the splined rubber-type coupling are either
cast or are machined with a cavity that contains internal and
external splines. The rubber insert also has internal and external
splines. These splines engage with the hub splines. The rubber
insert is a one-piece construction on small diameter couplings.
On larger coupling sizes, the insert is a two-piece construction
with the insert split horizontally. A steel lock ring fits into a
groove, which is located on the outside diameter of the insert, to
hold the insert halves together.
The rubber tire-type coupling uses two metal hubs that have
grooves machined into the hubs. A flexible rubber tire element
fits into the grooves and is held in place with threaded fasteners
and flanges. Some rubber tire elements are molded directly to
the flanges. The flanges are threaded to receive bolts. The
flexible rubber element is molded into one piece, and it is then
split at one point to facilitate installation.
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Pumps
The rubber tire coupling can be assembled and disassembled

without the removal of the hubs from the equipment. The side
flange bolts are removed to allow the rubber tire element to be
pulled out of the flange and to allow a new rubber element to be
installed.
The elastomeric couplings have the following characteristics:
They provide high torsional flexibility.
They can tolerate shock loads and reversing situations.
They act as a vibration dampener.
They can accommodate axial shaft movements (end float).
They can accommodate angular shaft misalignment.
They offer excellent resistance to electrical conductivity.
They can be used in corrosive atmospheres (provided that

there is careful material selection).
Elastomeric couplings are temperature-limited, they generally

have a high overhung weight, and they are difficult to balance.
As the elastomers age, the assumed stiffness and damping
values of the elastomer can change and reduce the flexibility of
the coupling. Such reduction in the flexibility of the coupling will
allow the train components to become overstressed.
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Pumps
Figure 74. Elastomeric Couplings
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Pumps
GLOSSARY
balanced seal
A mechanical seal arrangement in which the effect of

the hydraulic pressure in the seal chamber, on the seal
face closing forces, has been modified through seal
design to have a seal balance ration of less than 1.
barrier fluid
A fluid that is introduced between dual mechanical

seals to completely isolate the pump process liquid
from the environment. Pressure of the barrier fluid is
always higher than the process pressure being sealed.
bellows seal
A type of mechanical seal that uses a flexible bellows to

allow a static secondary seal and to provide spring-type
loading on the primary ring.
buffer fluid
A fluid used as a lubricant or buffer between dual

mechanical seals. The fluid is always at a pressure
lower than the pump process pressure.
cartridge seal
A completely self-contained mechanical seal unit that

contains the seal, gland, sleeve, and mating ring. A
cartridge seal is pre-assembled and preset before
installation.
dual mechanical seal
A seal arrangement that uses more than one seal in the

same seal chamber in any orientation which can utilize
either a pressurized barrier fluid or nonpressurized
buffer fluid.
flashing hydrocarbon
service
Any service that requires vapor suppression by cooling

or pressurization to prevent flashing. This category
includes all hydrocarbon services where the fluid has a
vapor pressure greater than 14.5 psia (1 bar) at
pumping temperature.
flexible coupling
A coupling that permits minor amounts of flexibility by

allowing the coupling components to slide or move
relative to each other.
flush
A small amount of fluid that is introduced into the seal

chamber on the process fluid side in close proximity to
the sealing faces and usually used for cooling and
lubricating the seal faces.
internal circulating device
A device located in the seal chamber to circulate seal

chamber fluid through a cooler or barrier/buffer fluid
reservoir. Also referred to as a pumping ring.
mating ring
A disk- or ring-shaped member that is mounted either

on a shaft sleeve or in a housing and that provides the
127
Pumps
primary seal when in proximity to the face of an axially

adjustable face seal assembly.
neutral fluid
A fluid that does not react with the process fluid. Water
and steam are typically used as neutral fluids.
nonflashing hydrocarbon
service
A category that includes all hydrocarbon services that

are predominately all hydrogen and carbon atoms;
however, other non-hydrocarbon constituents may be
entrained in the stream. A product in this category does
not require vapor suppression to prevent transformation
from a liquid phase to a vapor phase. The vapor
pressure for non-flashing hydrocarbon service is less
than 14.5 psia (1 bar).
nonhydrocarbon service
A category that includes all services that cannot be

defined as containing all hydrogen and carbon
molecules; however, some hydrocarbons may be
entrained in the fluids.
non-pusher type seal
A mechanical seal in which the secondary static seal is

fixed to the shaft.
packing
A seal that prevents leakage around the plunger or rod

of a reciprocating pump.
pusher-type seal
A mechanical seal in which the secondary seal is

mechanically pushed along the shaft or sleeve
(dynamic secondary seal) to compensate for face wear.
quench
A neutral fluid (usually water or steam) that is

introduced on the atmospheric side of a mechanical
seal to retard the formation of solids that may interfere
with seal movement.
rigid coupling
A coupling that is designed to draw the two shafts

together tightly so that no relative motion can occur
between the shafts.
seal balance ratio
Sometimes expressed as a percentage, the ratio of

seal face area that is exposed to closing force by
hydraulic pressure in the seal chamber, to the total
sealing face area.
seal chamber
A component that is either integral with or separate

from the pump case (housing) and that forms, between
the shaft and casing, the region into which the shaft
seal or packing is installed.
The density of a liquid divided by the density of water at
60F.
specific gravity
128

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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards